Principles of Flight Parasite drag.

Chapter 3.

PARASITE DRAG or
ZERO LIFT DRAG
The objective of this chapter is to give you knowledge of the
aerodynamic causes of drag.
According to the JAA requirements you shall be able to describe:

¤ The laminar and turbulent boundary layer and the influence

of surface smoothness on drag.
¤ How zero lift drag varies with speed.
¤ How to reduce zero lift drag.

List of Contents
Page Paragraph
3-2 3.1 Review of flow around a body.
3-10 3.2 Form drag.
3-14 3.3 Skin friction drag.
3-16 3.4 Interference drag.
3-17 3.5 Parasite drag as the sum of drag forces.

This lesson describes the force of resistance experienced by a body

moving through the air. This force is called drag.

© TFHS and NAR 3 - 1

 © TFHS and NAR

3.1
REVIEW OF FLOW AROUND A BODY.
This paragraph introduces drag, streamline and turbulent flow, lami-
nar and turbulent boundary layer, transition point and separation
point.
Introduction to drag.
Drag is the aeronautical term for the resistance experienced by all
bodies moving through the air. Drag is one of the components of the
total aerodynamic force. It is the component that is parallel to the
relative motion and counteracts the motion of the body forward into
the free stream direction, i.e. drag is always parallel to the free stream
and is opposite to the flight path.

Lift Total
Aerodynamic
Force
Free stream

Flight path
Drag

Fig. 3.1

Drag is the component of the total aerodynamic force which

resists the motion of the body forward into the wind direction.
Drag is always parallel to the relative wind.

The force that we use to counteract drag in level flight is the

powerplant-produced thrust. (Note: We will deal with the non-
powered flight in chapter 18.)
It is therefore easy to imagine the advantages of low drag. To obtain
the same performance with less drag, smaller engines are required.
In that way fuel consumption will be lower, a greater payload can be
carried and the operating costs will be lower.

Lift Total
Aerodynamic
Force
Free stream

Flight path
Thrust Drag

Fig. 3.2

The total drag is the sum of the various drag forces acting on the
aeroplane. In this lesson we will study a part of total drag called
parasite drag, or more correctly: zero lift drag, leaving the other part
known as lift induced drag for the next chapter 4, and wave drag for
chapter 19.

Streamline and turbulent flows.

In order to have a good understanding of the mechanisms of drag
creation we need to review some basic concepts concerning the flow
around a body.

Streamline flow is a flow where the successive elements of air follow

the same steady path. A streamline indicates the direction of flow at
all points along it: there will be no air crossing the streamline. In a
streamline flow, all successive elements passing through a specific
point will do that with the same velocity and direction.

3 - 2
Principles of Flight Parasite drag.

Point 1
Velocity 1
Point 2
Velocity
2

Fig. 3.3

Turbulent flow is a flow where the elements of air do not follow a steady
path. In turbulent flow, the fluid elements passing through a fixed
point will change both the magnitude and the direction of their
velocity V in the course of time.

Velocity and direction

varies over time

Fig. 3.4

Let us consider the surface of a body in contact with an airflow at a

certain airspeed V. As we approach the surface of the body, the local
speed decreases; the closer we come to the surface of the body, the
lower the speed will be. When we reach the surface of the body, the
local speed is zero.

Boundary layer

Fig. 3.5

The region between the surface of the body, where the local speed is
zero, and the first point, where the local speed is equal to the speed
of the airflow, is called the boundary layer.

The boundary layer is the region where the speed of the air
decreases more and more until it is zero on the body surface.

The change in speed is due to the fact that the influence of the fluid
viscosity starts to make itself felt at a certain distance from the
surface. Normally the boundary layer is a very thin layer. In the
section shown, for example, its actual thickness is only about 2 to 10
millimeters. However, on the aft body of e.g. a long fuselage, it may be
~100 mm. Due to the viscosity effect, there is friction between the body
surface and the air.

© TFHS and NAR 3 - 3

 © TFHS and NAR

Friction

Fig. 3.6

There is friction between the body and

the air because of the air viscosity.

Laminar boundary layer.

Transition point.
Turbulent boundary layer.
If the surface of the body is very smooth, the flow in the boundary layer
will initially be very orderly and parallel. Consequently, above this
smooth surface we have the so-called "laminar boundary layer".

V
Laminar
boundary
layer

Fig. 3.7

The first part of the boundary layer above

a smooth surface is the LAMINAR layer.

The laminar boundary layer is, however, very unstable and small
disturbances such as rivets or even scratches on the surface will
trigger a tumbling motion resulting in a transition to a turbulent
boundary layer.

V V
Turbulent
Laminar boundary
boundary layer
layer

Transition area
Fig. 3.8

Slight disturbances may cause a

TURBULENT BOUNDARY LAYER.

Notice that the turbulent boundary layer will be thicker than the
laminar one. A rough surface is not the only factor that may cause a
turbulent boundary layer. An increase in pressure that causes
dramatic changes in the layer's speed may also lead to a turbulent
boundary layer. In fact, the laminar boundary layer suddenly becomes
turbulent, at least beyond the maximum thickness of the profile, due
to the increase in pressure. The position on the surface (where this
transition occurs) is called the transition point, which is followed by
a transition area.

3 - 4
;;
Principles of Flight

Fig. 3.9
Lam
inar
Transition region

Transition
points
Turbulent

Transition region Note! The thickness of the boundary layer

in this figure is greatly exaggerated.

The boundary layer changes from laminar to a thicker

turbulent layer at the TRANSITION POINT.

As already mentioned, the turbulent boundary layer is thicker than

the laminar one and creates more friction.

The turbulent boundary layer is thicker than

the laminar one and creates more friction.

In the turbulent boundary layer, the speed, and thus the energy,
close to the surface is higher than that of the laminar flow. The
reason for this is turbulent mixing. Due to turbulent mixing, the low-
speed air particles close to the surface are brought out into the high-
speed flow where they increase their speed due to the collision with
particles at higher speed and vice versa.

In the turbulent boundary layer, the speed and the energy

close to the surface is higher than that of the laminar flow.
Parasite drag.

Height Height

Boun- Boun-
dary dary
layer layer
Velocity Velocity

Laminar Turbulent

Transition point
Fig. 3.10

However, there is an advantage of the high drag turbulent boundary

layer over the laminar boundary layer. The higher energy in the
turbulent boundary layer makes it more restistant to flow separa-
tion, i.e. flow separation occurs at a higher angle of attack than
that of the laminar boundary layer.

The turbulent boundary layer is more resistant to

flow separation than the laminar one.

On most aircraft wings, the transition point is located near the leading
edge, but at some glider aircraft with so-called laminar wing sections

© TFHS and NAR 3 - 5

;;
; surface and the most important parameter: Reynolds number.

Fig. 3.11
Transition point
© TFHS and NAR

and with extreme smooth surfaces, the transition point may be located at
~50% of the chord.

The location of the transition point is not constant. It will change with
a change in pressure distribution, with the degree of friction from the

The laminar boundary layer is normally quite short, while

the turbulent boundary layer covers most of the chord.

Reynolds number.
We have already mentioned that due to the compressibility effects
(called Mach effects) the flow and hence the pressure distribution is
changed at high speeds. This will cause a critical high-speed value,
However, there is also a critical low speed due to the viscosity of the
air.

At very low speeds the energy from the mass of air flowing over a
surface is too low compared to the friction of the surface and this will
effect the boundary layer. The factors that determine the flow char-
acteristics around a wing are the velocity V (cm/s), the wing chord c
(cm) and the kinematic viscosity of air (at sea level at 15oC it is 1/0,14
or ~7). The product of these is called Reynolds number (Re or R) after
the discoverer of this relationship. It is a non-dimensional parameter
of great importance. The number tells the ratio between the force of
the mass flow and force of the friction. So, the formula by which
we get the Re number, is at sea level Re = V ∞ c ∞ 7.

As can be seen from the formula, the chord is also of importance.

For example, the airflow around a very small model aircraft wing
(made to exact scale of a real aircraft wing) will not be the same, in
comparison with the real aircraft wing. It will have other lift and drag
coefficients, especially below a certain Re number.

Consequently, a model aircraft which has a wing chord of 20 cm and

which flies at 5 m/s will have the same Re number as another wing
with a chord of 10 cm at 10 m/s (Re = 500 cm/s ∞ 20 cm ∞ 7 =
1000 ∞ 10 ∞ 7 = 70.000).

When performing the wind tunnel test on an exact model of a "real"

aircraft the Re number of the test must be as high as possible to come
close to the Re number of the "real" a/c in corresponding conditions.
One way to increase the Re number in wind tunnel tests is to change
the flow viscosity by using a gas other than air and/or to increase the
pressure.

A given wing section has a certain critical Re-number, Recrit. Below

that critical Re, the lift coefficient will drop significantly and the drag
coefficient will increase.

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;;
Principles of Flight Parasite drag.
CD

Re
Fig. 3.12 Re crit

This is an important factor when designing aircraft. A very small lifting

surface, e.g. a canard, will have a significantly different boundary
layer and lift and drag compared to the main plane, especially at low
speeds. At high speeds and with the correct shape of the canard

;;
section, the canard will have less reduced performance.

The force of the mass flow and the force of the friction
have great impact on the boundary layer.
The behaviour of the boundary layer is very
much depending on the Reynolds number.

Separation point.
When the pressure difference along an airfoil is too great, the flow
velocity will be so low that the flow in the turbulent boundary layer will
start to separate from the airfoil at a point called the separation
point. Let us take a look at an airfoil in relative motion. We can see
that from point A to point B, the air accelerates due to the decreasing
static pressure. Crossing section B, the air starts to decelerate due to
the increasing static pressure and continues decelerating until point
C is reached.
B
A
C

A B
g
Increasin Decre
velocity
- as
velocit ing C
++ y
+

Motion
of the a
Fig. 3.13 ir

As we move from section B to C, pressure increases and speed

decreases. When the pressure difference is such that the speed in the
boundary layer is so low that it can no longer flow against the
increasing pressure, we reach the so-called flow separation. The point
where the separation will start, is called the "separation point".

B
A
Separation point
C

A Reverse flow
Increasing B
++ velocity - Dec
r
velo easing C
city
++
Moti
on o
f the
air
Fig. 3.14

When the speed is so low that it can no

longer flow against the increasing pressure,
we reach the FLOW SEPARATION point.

© TFHS and NAR 3 - 7

 © TFHS and NAR

In the region preceding the separation point, the layer of air at zero speed
that is closest to the body will rapidly increase in thickness, and due to the
increase in pressure from B to C, this surface layer may start to flow
against the main flow, causing flow separation.

At the separation point, the layer of air at zero speed that

is closest to the body starts to flow against the main flow.

The flow separation causes a turbulent wake behind the body moving
through the air as we can see in the picture below. The earlier the flow
separation, the greater the turbulent wake.
p p

Wide
wake

Separation points

Narrow
wake

Fig. 3.15

The earlier the flow separation,

the greater the turbulent wake.

The shape of the flow separation depends on the shape of the airfoil
and the conditions in the boundary layer. Thick profiles have early
separation and large wakes, while thin profiles have separation points
very close to the trailing edge and thus small wakes.

Separation point

Thin wake

Fig. 3.16

Thin profiles have separation points

close to the trailing edge and small wakes.

For conventional aircraft which have wing-profiles with turbulent

boundary layers, the flow separation point is usually very close to the
trailing edge at low angles of attack but moves forward as the angle
of attack increases.
Separation point

Fig. 3.17

When a certain angle of attack is reached, the flow separation point

on the upper surface of the profile has moved so much further forward
that the wing stalls.

3 - 8
Principles of Flight Parasite drag.

However, the actual Re number also has an effect on the flow separation,
hence also the drag. This is illustrated by the example of a circular cylinder.

;;
The upper figure in the next illustration shows the case of a flow at low Re
number. The boundary layer is laminar, and early separation takes place,
giving a large dead air region and a high drag coefficient. At a higher Re
number, transition takes place at a point upstream of the separation
point. As a result, the turbulent boundary layer remains attached to the
surface until a point much further round is reached. The size of the dead
air region is much reduced, as shown in the lower figure, and so is the drag
coefficient. Consequently, at a higher speed the Re number is higher
resulting in the transition point moving forward reducing the dead air
region and hence also the drag coefficient.

Laminar boundary layer

Low
Re =
wide
wake

Transition Separation points

points
High
Re =
narrow
wake
Fig. 3.18 Laminar, turbulent boundary layer

The transition point moves forward with increasing speed.

Notice the difference between the transition point and the sepa-
ration point. Transition point Separation point

r
Lamina Turbu
lent

Separa
ted

Fig. 3.19

CAN YOU ANSWER THESE?

In what direction does drag act?
What is the "boundary layer"?
What is the first part of the boundary layer called?
What are the differences in thickness, fluid speed and energy
between the laminar and the turbulent boundary layer?
What kind of boundary layer covers the main part
of the airfoil chord below the stall A.o.A?
What is meant by Reynolds number?
Why does the airflow become turbulent?
Why is the airflow separated?
What will happen to the separation point if the A.o.A is increased?
How does the separation influence the turbulent wake?
What is the point called where the boundary
layer changes from laminar to turbulent?
What effect has the actual Re number on
the position of transition point and drag?

© TFHS and NAR 3 - 9

 © TFHS and NAR

3.2
FORM DRAG.
This paragraph deals with form drag dependent upon airflow separa-
tion, and how to reduce form drag.

Form drag depends upon airflow separation.

Parasite drag or zero lift drag, consists of three components:
- Form drag,
- Skin friction drag and
- Interference drag.

In adition to the types of drag mentioned, there is another type at

high speeds near the speed of sound which is called wavedrag.
However, we will not deal with that until chapter 19.

We will now analyse each of these components, starting with form

drag. In order to understand how form drag is generated, let us first
consider an ideal situation. Let us imagine a cylinder moving in a fluid
without viscosity. In this ideal situation there will be no separation
and the fluid will follow the shape of the cylinder.

Fig. 3.20

In a fluid without viscosity there will be no flow separation.

Remember that a fluid without viscosity is only an ideal situation: the

velocity of the airflow varies from the free stream velocity at the front
of the cylinder to the maximum value on its upper and lower surfaces.
After that, the velocity of the airflow decreases until reaching the free
stream velocity again at the back of the cylinder.

Let us now consider what happens in the case of a real fluid. A cylinder
moving in a real fluid, in other words a fluid with a certain degree of
viscosity, behaves very differently. The fluid will follow the shape of the
cylinder only until separation occurs, then it breaks away.

In practice, the flow varies from the free stream velocity at the front
of the cylinder to the maximum value around the upper and lower
surfaces of it. Then the flow breaks away and, as a consequence, the
velocity of this flow does not reach that of the free stream behind the
cylinder.

Fig. 3.21

In a real fluid, flow separation occurs. As a consequence,

the velocity of this flow does not reach that of the
free stream behind the cylinder.

3 - 10
Principles of Flight Parasite drag.

As we already know, the variation in velocity around the body causes a

variation in the pressure. If we would measured the static pressure around
the body moving in an ideal fluid without viscosity and consider the static
pressure only relative to the local velocity around the cylinder, the result
would be the pressure distribution shown down below. The static pressure
at the front and at the back of the cylinder has the same value because the
local velocity also has the same low value at the front and at the back.

-
+ +

-
Fig. 3.22

In an ideal fluid, the pressure in the area in front of

the body is equal to the pressure behind the body.

The pressure distribution is equivalent to the resultant force. If we

consider the resultant force in the relative wind direction, in other
words the drag, we find that it is null because the forward and aft
pressures are equivalent to two equal and opposite forces.
The cylinder moving in an ideal fluid will therefore have no drag.

Let us now consider a situation where the same cylinder is moving

through a real fluid. We can see that the pressure distribution on the
aft part of the cylinder is different from the pressure distribution on
the front, because, as we have seen, the velocity of this flow does not
reach the same velocity as the free stream behind the body.

-
+ -

-
Fig. 3.23

In a real fluid there is a certain difference in pressure

between the front part of the body and the aft.

This means that the force acting on the aft part of the cylinder is no
longer balanced by the force acting on the front part. As a consequence,
there is a resultant force in the direction of the relative wind. This force
is a type of drag and is called FORM DRAG.

-
+ Form- drag

-
Fig. 3.24

The drag resulting from the difference in pressure

between the front and the aft part of the
body is called the FORM DRAG.

© TFHS and NAR 3 - 11

 © TFHS and NAR

If we only have one half of the cylinder, the separation point moves forwards
and the turbulent wake becomes greater. In this case the form drag
increases due to the increased difference in pressure between the front and
aft parts of the body.

-
+ - drag
Form

-
Fig. 3.25

If the separation point moves forwards,

the form drag increases.

The shape of the body determines the amount of form drag. The shape
of the forward surface of the body determines the velocity and, as a
consequence, the pressure distribution on the front part of the body.
The shape of the body also determines the position of the separation
point, the dimensions of the turbulent wake and, as a consequence,
the pressure distribution on the aft surface of the body.

If we consider a blunt body, such as a flat plate perpendicular to the

relative wind, we can see a sudden and great variation in fluid velocity
in front of the plate and a large turbulent wake behind it.
Thus there is a great difference in pressure between the front and
back surfaces of the plate. As a result the flat plate experiences high
form drag.

-
+ - drag
Form

-
Fig. 3.26

A flat plate perpendicular to the relative wind creates

a high variation in fluid velocity and a large wake
and thus produces great form drag.

Let us now consider a body with the same front area but with a pointed
fore-body. There will be a smoother speed transition from the front of
the body to the thickest part, but it creates a turbulent wake of almost
the same dimension.

Because of the pointed fore-body, there is a smaller difference in

pressure between the fore and aft surfaces. As a result, this body
experiences less form drag than a flat plate.

-
+ - drag
Form

-
Fig. 3.27

3 - 12
Principles of Flight Parasite drag.

A body with a pointed fore-body has a smoother

transition in fluid velocity than a flat plate and
consequently it produces less form drag.

If we now consider a body with the same front area and fore-body but
with a fairing at the aft part, we can see that we have a smooth
transition of fluid velocity from the front to the back of the body and
therefore also a smaller wake. This is the shape of an airfoil. The airfoil
experiences the smallest difference in pressure between the fore and
aft surfaces and, as a consequence, it produces the lowest value of
form drag.

-
+ Form -drag

-
Fig. 3.28

The airfoil causes a smooth transition of fluid velocity, the

smallest wake and consequently the lowest form drag.

If we consider two different airfoils with different thickness/chord

ratio, we can see that the thicker airfoil has an early point of
separation and a large wake, thus experiencing a certain degree of
form drag. When the thickness of the airfoil is reduced, the separation
point moves backwards and the form drag is reduced.

- Separation point

+ Form -drag

-
Separation point
-
+ F Drag
-
Fig. 3.29

The further back the separation point, the

smaller the turbulent wake and form drag.

You have seen that a given airfoil at a low angle of attack experiences
a given form drag due to the shape of its front and aft parts. You have
also seen that with an increase in the angle of attack, the separation
point moves forwards. As a consequence, the thickness of the
turbulent wake increases and so does the difference in pressure
between the front and aft parts of the airfoil. The form drag therefore
increases.
-
+ F Drag
-
-
Thicker wake
+ Form drag
Fig. 3.30 -
© TFHS and NAR 3 - 13
 © TFHS and NAR

When the A.o.A. increases, form drag increases.

Reducing form drag.

When an aircraft is designed, its shape must be such as to reduce the form
drag as much as possible. You never see an aircraft with a blunt fore body
or a blunt aft body, like some motorcars. Likewise, if we cannot avoid the
presence of some protrusions on the aircraft body, e.g. antennas, landing
gear etc., the only way to reduce the form drag is to streamline the
protrusions, thus obtaining a smaller difference in pressure between the
front and the aft. Circular protrusions create high drag, so landing gear
fairings and spinner fairings are examples of what can be done with shape
in order to reduce the form drag of an aircraft.

Fig. 3.31
Fairings reduce drag

CAN YOU ANSWER THESE?

Why does flow separation occur?

What will the speed of the fluid be behind the body in comparison
with in front of the body when flow separation occurs?

What causes form drag?

How does the position of the separation

point influence the form drag?

What kind of body creates the lowest form drag?

Why does an "airfoil" create the lowest drag for

a given front area?

In what way does the thickness/chord

ratio influence form drag?

3.3
SKIN FRICTION DRAG.
This paragraph deals with skin friction drag due to friction and how to
reduce it.

Skin friction drag due to friction.

Let us now analyse another component of parasite drag, i.e. skin
friction drag. When the air moves around a body, the layers of air close
to the surface of the body gradually decelerate because of the air
viscosity. The viscosity creates friction between the body and the air
and this friction acts within the boundary layer. The friction between
the body and the air disturbs the flow of the air near the surface, i.e.
the body draws the air in the same direction as the body. This is called
SKIN FRICTION DRAG.

Using a very thin flat plate parallel to the relative motion we can
assume that there is no flow separation due to the form of the body.
The resistance experienced by the body in this situation is the skin

3 - 14
Principles of Flight Parasite drag.

friction drag only. Skin friction drag depends upon surface roughness. The
rougher the surface, the greater the skin friction drag.

Friction Smooth surface

Friction Rough surface

Fig. 3.32

A rough surface causes higher skin friction drag because the boundary
layer becomes almost immediately turbulent. As you know, the
turbulent boundary layer creates more friction and is thicker than the
laminar one.

Skin friction drag also depends upon the size of the body surface.
However, a larger surface gives a higher Reynolds number. Generally,
the higher the Reynolds number the greater the tendency to resist
separation, giving a corresponding lower skin friction coefficient Cf. In
addition, increased speed gives a higher Re-number, decreasing the
CD.
A larger surface area, and/or a higher speed,
increases the Re-number, giving a lower CD.

Consequently, skin friction drag = skin friction coefficient Cf · dynamic

pressure q · wetted area (total curved area).

Reducing skin friction drag.

If we want to reduce skin friction drag, for a given surface, we must
use smooth surfaces. The smoother the surface, the lower the skin
friction drag. However, a reduction in the wetted area and the speed
of the surface will generally also reduce the total friction drag (in spite
of the change in Cf and CD with Re-number).

Friction drag

Fig. 3.33

CAN YOU ANSWER THESE?

What kind of drag is created because of the contact

between the airflow and a body surface?

What is the cause of friction drag?

Why does a rough surface create more drag than a smooth one?

How does the surface area influence friction drag?

How does the airspeed influence friction drag?

© TFHS and NAR 3 - 15

 © TFHS and NAR

3.4
INTERFERENCE DRAG.
This paragraph deals with interference drag and how to reduce it.

Interference of vortices.
We have now reached the last component of parasite drag namely,
interference drag. When we put together two bodies with different
shapes, for example a fuselage and a wing, the difference in local
airflow speed between the two surfaces causes differences in pressure,
which create vortices. These vortices create drag, which is called
interference drag.

Higher velocity over the wing than

over the fusulage gives pressure
differences causing vortices.
Fuselage
Wing
Vortices

Fig. 3.34

Reducing interference drag.

The most common way of reducing interference drag is to put a fairing,
also called fillet, at the junction of the two surfaces. This fillet changes
the airflow in the junction, and reduces the vortices.

Fuselage
Wing

The fillet smooths out the differences

in velocity, giving less vortices.

Fig. 3.35

Difference in local airflow speed

between surfaces causes vortices.

CAN YOU ANSWER THESE?

How is interference drag caused?

How can interference drag be reduced?

3 - 16
Principles of Flight Parasite drag.

3.5
PARASITE DRAG AS THE SUM OF DRAGS.
This paragraph sums up the components of parasite drag and explains
its formula.
Sum of drags.
We have now analysed all the components of parasite drag: form drag, skin
friction drag and interference drag. Parasite drag, or zero lift drag, is the
sum of all of these.

PARASITE DRAG
-

Form + - Pressure differences

-

Friction Rough surface

Vortices Interference

Fig. 3.36

Parasite drag formula.

Parasite drag is abbreviated D0 , 0 for "zero lift", and is affected by the
same factors that affect lift, but instead of lift it expresses the capacity
of the body to create drag due to form, friction and interference. The
next factor is the dynamic pressure, and finally the reference area of
the body. Thus, parasite drag (zero lift drag) is expressed by the
formula:

D0 = CD0 (coeff.) · q (dynamic pressure) · S (reference area).

The coefficient of parasite drag CD0 expresses the capacity of the body
to create form drag, skin friction drag and interference drag. It is
therefore the sum of these drag coefficients. This coefficient is almost
independent of velocity and completely independent of the creation of
lift (CD = D/q∞S). However, to be precise, due to effects of Re-number,
it decreases somewhat if speed increases, and increases somewhat if
altitude is increased.

As you can see, parasite drag is proportional to dynamic pressure V2.

If dynamic pressure increases, parasite drag also increases. As you
can see from the formula, parasite drag is directly proportional to the
velocity squared. The parasite drag value is of course ZERO if the
speed is zero, because if a body does not move it does not experience
any parasite drag.

Parasite drag is also proportional to the reference area S, the

projecting area of a body seen in the direction of flow. If we increase
the reference area of the aircraft, parasite drag will also increase.

Parasite drag versus airspeed.

If we draw a curve representing the variation in parasite drag as a
function of airspeed, we see that, at zero airspeed, parasite drag is
zero. By increasing the airspeed to a given value V, we obtain a given
parasite drag D0.

© TFHS and NAR 3 - 17

 © TFHS and NAR

Since D0 is determined by the square of speed, D0 will be four times

greater if we double the speed.

Do remember:
When doubling the speed, D0 will be four times greater.

Parasite drag
Zero lift drag
Do

4 Do

Do

V
Fig. 3.37 V 2V Airspeed

CAN YOU ANSWER THESE?

What other word do we have for zero lift drag?

From what is CD0 resultant?

How does dynamic pressure influence zero lift drag?

How does airspeed influence zero lift drag?

How does reference area influence zero lift drag?

How is the zero lift drag formula expressed?

3 - 18