LWT - Food Science and Technology 104 (2019) 202–209

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LWT - Food Science and Technology

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Effects of freezing, convective and microwave-vacuum drying on the content T

of bioactive compounds and color of cranberries
Magdalena Zielinskaa,∗, Danuta Zielinskab
a
Department of Systems Engineering, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Olsztyn, Poland
b
Department of Chemistry, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Olsztyn, Poland

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Effects of convective and cryogenic freezing, convective and microwave-vacuum drying on the drying curves, the
Vaccinium macrocarpon L. content of bioactive compounds and the color of cranberries were evaluated. Convective and microwave-vacuum
Drying drying of cranberries lasted from 310 to 11700 and from 8.0 to 91.0 min, respectively. The contents of total
Phenolic phytochemicals phenolics (TP), total flavonoids (TF), total monomeric anthocyanins (TMA) and the values of ferric reducing
Antioxidant capacity
antioxidant power (FRAP) of dried cranberries were from 14.73 to 27.03 mg GAE/g DM, from 2.54 to 3.75 mg
Optical properties
CAE/g DM, from 0.26 to 3.41 mg Cy-3G/g DM, and from 23.11 to 48.36 mg TE/g DM, respectively. Raw
cranberries dried by microwave-vacuum at 300 W were characterized by the highest contents of TP, TF. TMA
and FRAP values. The lightness (L*), redness (a*), and yellowness (b*) of dried cranberries were from 25.9 to
32.2, from 13.6 to 32.6, and from 2.8 to 12.8, respectively. Convectively frozen berries dried by microwave-
vacuum drying at 300 W were characterized by the highest lightness and redness, while that dried at 100 W were
characterized by the highest yellowness. Microwave-vacuum drying at low microwave powers seems to be good
alternative to the convective drying of cranberries, in terms of phytochemicals and color.

1. Introduction
Cranberries (Vaccinium macrocarpon L.) are rich in polyphenols such
as anthocyanins, proanthocyanidins, flavonoids, phenolic acids and
tannins (Blumberg et al., 2016; Grace, Massey, Mbeunkui, Yousef, &
Lila, 2012). Due to their high moisture content, cranberries cannot be
stored for long periods. Convective drying (C) is a processing method
that makes cranberries available to consumers throughout the year
(Dorofejeva, Rakcejeva, Galoburd, Dukalska, & Kviesis, 2011). How-
ever, cranberries have a thick skin which hinders heat and mass transfer
and prolongs drying (Zielinska, Ropelewska, & Zapotoczny, 2018a).
Long exposure to high temperatures and oxygen may lead to significant
degradation of bioactive compounds and their antioxidant activity
(Zielinska & Michalska, 2016). Modified drying methods, such as flui-
dized bed drying (FBD), pulso-fluidized bed drying (PFBD) and vibro-
fluidized bed drying (VFBD), have been applied to speed up heat and
mass transfer processes during cranberry drying (Grabowski, Marcotte,
Poirier, & Kudra, 2002). Freeze drying (FD) and vacuum drying (VD)
have also been used as alternatives to the convective drying of cran-
berries (Beaudry, Raghavan, Ratti, & Rennie, 2004; Grabowski et al.,
2002). The results of microwave-vacuum drying experiments per-
formed on cranberries have also been widely reported in the literature
(Dorofejeva et al., 2011; Leusink, Kitts, Yaghmaee, & Durance, 2010;
Yongsawatdigul and Gunasekaran, 1996; Beaudry et al., 2004; Sunjka,
Rennie, Beaudry, & Raghavan, 2004; Shamaei, Emam-Djomeh, & Moini,
2012; Zielinska, Ropelewska, & Markowski, 2017).
To date, cranberry processing techniques before drying have relied
on mechanical, chemical and thermal treatments or their combinations
(Grabowski et al., 2007; Rennie & Mercer, 2013; Sunjka & Raghavan,
2004). Convective freezing may cause severe damage to the internal
structure of berries. Convective freezing can be regarded as superior to
dehydration because it increases drying efficiency. However, the com-
bination of convective freezing and drying may adversely affect the
quality of the final product (Zielinska, Sadowski, & Błaszczak, 2015).
The damage to tissue structure can be minimized by cryogenic freezing.
However, rapid freezing can significantly compromise the quality of the
processed material (Kim & Hung, 1994; Zielinska, Ropelewska, &
Zapotoczny, 2018a).
There is a general scarcity of published data on the effects of
freezing and convective drying on the physical, morphological and
thermal properties of cranberries (Zielinska et al., 2018a). The effect of
convective and microwave-vacuum drying on the drying curves, the
content of bioactive compounds and the color of berries has also been
rarely studied (Zielinska & Michalska, 2016). The effect of freezing, air

∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: m.zielinska@uwm.edu.pl (M. Zielinska).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2019.01.041
Received 30 August 2018; Received in revised form 8 January 2019; Accepted 23 January 2019
Available online 24 January 2019
0023-6438/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
M. Zielinska, D. Zielinska LWT - Food Science and Technology 104 (2019) 202–209

Table 1
Effects of freezing and convective drying on the color parameters and indices of cranberries.
Treatment Drying Method t [min] MC [kgWater/kgDry Mass] L* [-] a* [-] b* [-] ΔE * [-] ΔC * [-] ΔH * [-]

– – 7.49 ± 0.02a
31.1 ± 0.3eg
22.5 ± 0.6b
8.4 ± 0.4b
– – –
C60 11700 ± 5a 0.05 ± 0.01de 33.5 ± 0.4b 21.8 ± 0.4bc 10.4 ± 0.6a 3.2 ± 0.4defg 0.1 ± 1.0a 4.0 ± 1.2bc
C70 2520 ± 5d 0.04 ± 0.01e 34.3 ± 0.7ab 21.0 ± 0.5cd 6.9 ± 0.5def 3.8 ± 0.5cdef −0.3 ± 1.0a 5.0 ± 1.3bc
C80 850 ± 5g 0.04 ± 0.01e 32.3 ± 0.5c 22.4 ± 0.9bc 6.0 ± 0.4fg 2.6 ± 0.9fg −0.2 ± 1.2a 2.9 ± 1.6c
C90 540 ± 5j 0.05 ± 0.01de 34.8 ± 0.7a 19.5 ± 0.7de 6.0 ± 0.5fg 5.3 ± 0.7b −0.5 ± 1.1a 6.5 ± 1.5b
F C60 9480 ± 5b 0.05 ± 0.01de 32.0 ± 0.4cd 20.0 ± 0.7d 7.6 ± 0.6bcd 2.8 ± 0.7efg −0.3 ± 1.2a 3.0 ± 1.4c
C70 2400 ± 5f 0.06 ± 0.01d 34.2 ± 0.7ab 19.5 ± 0.9de 8.1 ± 0.5bc 3.1 ± 0.6defg −0.1 ± 1.1a 4.4 ± 1.4bc
C80 750 ± 5i 0.06 ± 0.01d 30.0 ± 0.6fh 22.6 ± 0.6b 5.6 ± 0.6g 4.3 ± 0.9bcd −0.5 ± 1.3a 4.4 ± 1.7bc
C90 310 ± 5k 0.06 ± 0.01d 29.7 ± 0.6h 13.6 ± 1.0f 4.0 ± 0.6h 10.1 ± 1.0a −1.4 ± 1.4a 10.2 ± 1.8a
N C60 7800 ± 5c 0.11 ± 0.01b 30.2 ± 0.5fgh 20.9 ± 0.7cd 8.5 ± 0.6b 1.9 ± 0.7f −0.1 ± 1.2a 2.1 ± 1.4c
C70 2415 ± 5e 0.11 ± 0.01b 31.6 ± 0.6cd 20.1 ± 0.5d 7.1 ± 0.6cde 2.8 ± 0.5efg −0.3 ± 1.1a 2.9 ± 1.3c
C80 795 ± 5h 0.04 ± 0.01b 34.3 ± 0.7ab 25.0 ± 0.6a 7.5 ± 0.5bcd 4.1 ± 0.6bcde 0.1 ± 1.1a 5.2 ± 1.4bc
C90 550 ± 5j 0.08 ± 0.01c 31.1 ± 0.4efg 18.2 ± 0.6e 6.1 ± 0.5efg 4.9 ± 0.6bc −0.6 ± 1.1a 4.9 ± 1.3bc

Table presents the values (mean ± standard error) averaged over 15 measurements.
Same letters in the same column indicate that the mean values are not significantly different at a confidence level of 95% (p < 0.05).
Symbols:: t – drying time, min; L* - lightness; a* - redness, b* - yellowness; ΔE* - total color difference; ΔC* - total saturation difference; ΔH* - total hue difference; F –
convectional freezing; N – cryogenic freezing; C60, C70, C80, C90 –convective drying at the temperature of 60, 70, 80 and 90 °C.

temperature and microwave power on the drying curves, the content of
bioactive compounds and the color of cranberries has not yet been
explored in the literature. Process variables can be adjusted to preserve
the high quality of dried berry fruits. Therefore, the aim of this study
was to explore the effects of convective and cryogenic freezing, air
temperature and microwave power on the drying curves, the content of
bioactive compounds and the color of cranberries.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Materials
Cranberries (Vaccinium macrocarpon L.) were obtained from a local
farm (Lublin region, Poland). Fresh fruits were divided into three
groups and packed in sealed plastic containers several hours after
harvest. The amount per package was 200 g. Untreated berries with an
estimated initial moisture content of 7.49 ± 0.02 kgwater/kgdry mass
were refrigerated (2 ± 2 °C) at 90% relative humidity for up to 2
weeks. Fruits subjected to convective freezing (F) at a temperature of
−18 ± 1 °C were stored in a freezer (4932 Index 20A/001, Liebherr,
Austria) for 24 h. Approximately 3 h before drying, frozen cranberries
were thawed on a tray at room temperature to reach equilibrium
temperature (21 ± 1 °C). The initial moisture content of convectively
frozen fruits was 7.08 ± 0.02 kgwater/kgdry mass. Each cranberry sample
of mass 200 g was also placed in a styrofoam container with liquid
nitrogen (the boiling point of liquid nitrogen is −195.9 °C) for around
1 min (the freezing process was considered completed when the eva-
poration of liquid nitrogen was no longer observed). After cryogenic
freezing (N), whole cranberries were removed from the container and
left for 3 h until they reached ambient temperature. The initial moisture
content of cryogenically frozen fruits was 7.34 ± 0.02 kgwater/kgdry
mass.
2.2. Drying procedure
changes and the equilibrium moisture content was obtained.
Microwave-vacuum drying (M) was conducted at 100, 150, 200,
300, 450 and 500 W. The drying chamber (Promis Tech, Wroclaw,
Poland) was equipped with a pyrometer to monitor the changes in
surface temperature. Chamber rotational speed was 6 rpm, and absolute
pressure was 5 ± 1 kPa. The drying time of every successive portion of
cranberries was increased to evaluate changes in sample mass. The
drying process was stopped when fruit temperature increased rapidly
(the moisture content drops sharply when the material temperature
starts to grow up rapidly). Each portion was dried to a final moisture
content of less than 0.25 ± 0.02 kgwater/kgdry mass.
The mass of the samples used in each drying experiment was
0.150 ± 0.003 kg. The experiments were conducted in duplicate.
The moisture content of berries was evaluated by the air-oven
drying method (in the FED53 127 Binder heating chamber, Binder,
USA) according to AOAC standards (AOAC, 1975). Oven temperature
was set at 105 °C, and heating time was 24 h. Moisture content was
measured in triplicate.
2.3. Extraction of phenolic compounds
Raw cranberries were cut into half, frozen overnight at −25 °C and
dried in the FreeZone 2.5 freeze dryer (FD) (Labconco, USA). During
FD, pressure was reduced to 16 Pa. The temperature in the drying
chamber was −55 °C, and shelf temperature was 26 °C. Cranberries
were kept in the drying chamber for 24 h. Phenolic compounds were
extracted from a pulverized dried sample (approx. 0.05 g) by sonication
(VC 750, Sonics & Materials, USA) with 1 mL of acidified 80% methanol
(0.1% HCl: v/v) for 30 s. Subsequently, the mixture was vortexed for
30 s, repeatedly sonicated and vortexed, and centrifuged for 10 min
(13200 g). These steps were repeated five times to process the residues
with the addition of 1 mL of the solvent. The supernatants were col-
lected at – 20 °C and were used for analysis within 24 h. The extraction
was performed in triplicate.

Cranberries were subjected to convective drying (C) at a tempera-
ture of 60, 70, 80, 90 °C. The fruits were dried in a forced convection
oven (FED53 127 Binder, USA) with an air flow rate of around 1 m/s. A
single layer of fruits was spread on a mesh screen tray suspended from a
digital balance (RADWAG, Radom, Poland). Changes in the mass of
dried samples were monitored and recorded at 5-min intervals. The
temperature of fruits dried by hot air was measured with a J-type
thermocouple (Czaki Thermo, Raszyn-Rybie, Poland) to the nearest
1 °C. The tip of the thermocouple was placed in the center of the fruit.
Convective drying of cranberries was stopped when there were no mass
2.4. Total phenolic (TP) content
Total phenolic (TP) content was determined according to the Folin-
Ciocalteu (FC) assay described by Shahidi and Naczk (1995) with cer-
tain modifications. 90 μL of the appropriately diluted cranberry extracts
(2 mg/mL), 90 μL of the F-C reagent (diluted 1:1 with water, v/v),
180 μL of the saturated solution of Na2CO3, and 1440 μL of H2O were
combined and left to react for 25 min at room temperature. Absorbance
was measured at 725 nm. Gallic acid was used as the standard, and the
results were calculated from the calibration curve (0.05–0.65 mmol/L)

203
M. Zielinska, D. Zielinska
Fig. 1. Representative drying curves plotted with the use of experimental data
relating the changes in moisture content (MC) and material temperature (Tm) to
drying time (t): a) convective drying (90 °C) of cranberries without initial
treatment (C90); b) microwave-vacuum drying (100 W) of convectively frozen
cranberries (FM100); c) microwave-vacuum drying (150 W) of non-treated
cranberries (M150).
and expressed in terms of the gallic acid equivalent (GAE) in mg/gdry
mass.
2.5. Total flavonoid (TF) content
Total flavonoid (TF) content was determined based on the method
described by Jia, Tang, and Wu (1998) with certain modifications.
1230 μL of the extract (5 mg/mL) was combined with 62 μL of 5%
NaNO2 solution (m/v). After incubation at room temperature for 6 min,
123 μL of 10% AlCl3 · 6H2O was added. The mixture was incubated
under identical conditions for 6 min, then 410 μL of 1 mol/L NaOH was
added, and the mixture was centrifuged for 5 min at 2800 g. The
204
LWT - Food Science and Technology 104 (2019) 202–209
absorbance was measured against the reagent blank at 510 nm. Ca-
techin was used as the standard, and the results were calculated from
the calibration curve (0.016–0.5 mmol/L) and expressed in terms of the
catechin equivalent (CAE) in mg/gdry mass.
2.6. Total monomeric anthocyanin (TMA) content
Total monomeric anthocyanin (TMA) content was determined based
on the method described by Lee, Durst, and Wrolstad (2005). For this
analysis, 0.8 mL of the extract (10 mg/L) was combined with 3.2 mL of
the buffer at pH 1 (0.025 mol/L KCl acidified with HCl) or pH 4.5
(0.4 mol/L sodium acetate acidified with glacial acetic acid). The so-
lutions were allowed to stand for 20 min, and absorbance was measured
against the appropriate buffer blank at both 520 and 700 nm. Cyanidin-
3-glucoside (Cy-3G) (MW 449.2 g/mol) was used as the standard with a
molar absorptivity coefficient of 26.900 L/mol cm. The results were
expressed in mg of Cy-3G/gdry mass according to the equation described
by Lee et al. (2005).
2.7. Ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP)
The ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) assay was carried out
according to the method of Benzie and Strain (1996) with certain
modifications. The FRAP reagent contained sodium acetate buffer
(300 mmol/L, pH 3.6), 10 mmol/L TPTZ (2,4,6-tripyridylo-S-triazine)
solution (40 mmol/L HCl as solvent) and 20 mmol/L FeCl3·6 H2O with a
volume ratio of 10:1:1. The FRAP reagent was freshly prepared on the
day of measurements. An aliquot of 75 μL of the extract (2 mg/mL) was
combined with 225 μL of water and 2250 μL of the FRAP reagent (pre-
incubated for 5 min at 25 °C). The absorbance was measured at 593 nm
after 30 min incubation at 25 °C. The standard curve was prepared
using the Trolox solution (0.05–0.6 mmol/L), and the results were ex-
pressed in terms of the Trolox equivalent (TE) in mg/gdry mass.
All measurements were performed in triplicate using the Eppendorf
Centrifuge 5424 (Eppendorf, Germany), a thermomixer (Comfort,
Eppendorf) and a UV-1800 spectrophotometer with a thermoelectric
temperature controller (Shimadzu).
2.8. Color parameters and indices
The color of cranberries was measured using the MiniScan XE Plus
spectrophotometer (Hunter Associates Laboratory Inc., USA) under
standard illuminant D65, 10° observer and 8° diaphragm, and was ex-
pressed in CIEL*a*b* space, where L*, a*, and b* denote lightness,
redness, and yellowness, respectively. The color of cranberries was
measured directly on the surface. Each fruit sample of approximately
0.020 ± 0.001 kg was placed in a container with a fixed shape and
size. The total changes in color (ΔE*), saturation (ΔC*) and hue (ΔH*)
during processing were evaluated using the formulas from the literature
(Zielinska & Markowski, 2012). The results were averaged over 35
measurements.
2.9. Microscopic observations
Cranberries were viewed under an environmental scanning electron
microscope (ESEM, Quanta 200, FEI Company, the Netherlands) to
obtain visual evidence of the changes in their surface structure.
Cranberries were cut along the perpendicular axis with a fresh razor
blade and observed under the ESEM (microscopic magnification: x 100,
pressure: 130 Pa) without prior preparation.
2.10. Statistical analyses
In data with normal distribution, the significance of differences
between groups was determined by one-way ANOVA with Duncan's
multiple range test. In data with non-normal distribution, the
M. Zielinska, D. Zielinska LWT - Food Science and Technology 104 (2019) 202–209

Table 2
Effects of freezing and microwave-vacuum drying on the color parameters and indices of cranberries.
Treatment Drying Method t [min] MC [kgWater/kgDry Mass] L* [-] a* [-] b* [-] ΔE * [-] ΔC * [-] ΔH * [-]

– – – 7.49 ± 0.02a
31.1 ± 0.2bc
22.5 ± 0.6e
8.4 ± 0.4f
– – –
M100 91.0 ± 2.0a 0.23 ± 0.02bcd 25.9 ± 0.8j 20.5 ± 1.6f 9.9 ± 0.7cd 5.8 ± 1.6bcde −0.1 ± 1.9a 7.8 ± 2.6abc
M150 47.0 ± 1.0b 0.13 ± 0.01e 28.9 ± 0.6h 25.1 ± 1.2d 5.8 ± 0.7i 6.9 ± 1.4abcde −0.8 ± 1.7a 7.9 ± 2.3abc
M200 24.0 ± 1.0f 0.20 ± 0.02cd 27.3 ± 0.5i 17.1 ± 1.0gh 6.8 ± 0.5h 6.8 ± 1.0abcde −0.7 ± 1.3a 7.8 ± 1.7abc
M300 12.0 ± 1.0h 0.22 ± 0.02c 29.2 ± 0.3fgh 22.5 ± 0.7e 5.0 ± 0.4i 5.1 ± 1.4defg −0.5 ± 1.4a 6.1 ± 2.3bcd
M450 8.0 ± 1.0ij 0.13 ± 0.02e 28.9 ± 0.5fh 18.7 ± 1.0g 2.8 ± 0.5j 7.3 ± 1.1abcd −0.9 ± 1.1a 8.4 ± 1.9ab
M500 9.0 ± 1.0ij 0.22 ± 0.02c 25.9 ± 0.4j 15.9 ± 0.9h 7.1 ± 0.4gh 8.5 ± 0.9a −0.8 ± 1.2a 10.0 ± 1.6a
F M100 90.0 ± 2.0a 0.21 ± 0.02cd 28.6 ± 0.6h 28.6 ± 1.0bc 12.8 ± 0.7a 7.9 ± 1.0ab 0.9 ± 1.4a 8.4 ± 1.8ab
M150 36.0 ± 2.0d 0.10 ± 0.02f 29.4 ± 0.4efgh 26.9 ± 1.1c 8.5 ± 0.5f 6.1 ± 1.3bcde 0.4 ± 1.6a 6.6 ± 2.1abcd
M200 31.3 ± 0.3e 0.20 ± 0.02cd 31.0 ± 0.4bc 29.0 ± 0.7b 10.6 ± 0.4bc 6.8 ± 0.7abcde 0.7 ± 1.1a 6.9 ± 1.3abcd
M300 15.5 ± 0.5g 0.22 ± 0.01c 32.2 ± 0.6a 32.6 ± 0.8a 11.0 ± 0.6b 5.5 ± 0.7def 0.5 ± 1.4a 5.5 ± 2.2bcde
M450 8.5 ± 0.5ij 0.13 ± 0.01e 31.4 ± 0.6ab 29.1 ± 1.1b 9.8 ± 0.6cd 7.8 ± 1.4abc 0.7 ± 1.4a 7.9 ± 1.8abc
M500 10.0 ± 1.0i 0.19 ± 0.01d 29.9 ± 0.6dfg 23.2 ± 1.5e 9.5 ± 0.7de 1.8 ± 1.4hi 0.2 ± 1.7a 2.2 ± 2.3ef
N M100 90.0 ± 2.0a 0.24 ± 0.02bc 27.0 ± 0.7i 22.2 ± 1.0ef 10.6 ± 0.6bc 4.7 ± 1.0efg 0.2 ± 1.4a 6.2 ± 1.8abcd
M150 42.0 ± 2.0c 0.13 ± 0.01e 30.2 ± 0.4cde 27.7 ± 0.9bc 8.0 ± 0.5fg 5.6 ± 1.0cdef −0.6 ± 1.5a 6.5 ± 1.7abcd
M200 25.0 ± 0.5f 0.25 ± 0.01b 28.9 ± 0.6h 22.4 ± 1.2e 9.6 ± 0.6cde 2.5 ± 1.1hi 0.1 ± 1.4a 3.4 ± 1.9def
M300 14.5 ± 0.5g 0.22 ± 0.01c 30.5 ± 0.4bcd 27.0 ± 0.8c 6.9 ± 0.4h 3.1 ± 1.1ghi −0.2 ± 1.7a 3.7 ± 2.0def
M450 8.5 ± 0.3j 0.09 ± 0.01f 29.3 ± 0.6efgh 22.8 ± 1.3e 5.5 ± 0.7i 3.5 ± 1.2fgh −0.1 ± 1.1a 4.3 ± 2.2cdef
M500 9.0 ± 0.5ij 0.22 ± 0.01c 29.9 ± 0.4defg 22.4 ± 1.2ef 8.7 ± 0.5ef 1.3 ± 1.2i 0.1 ± 1.5a 1.8 ± 1.1f

Table presents the values (mean ± standard error) averaged over 15 measurements.
Same letters in the same column indicate that the mean values are not significantly different at a confidence level of 95% (p < 0.05).
Symbols: t – drying time, min; L* - lightness; a* - redness, b* - yellowness; ΔE* - total color difference; ΔC* - total saturation difference; ΔH* - total hue difference; F –
convectional freezing; N – cryogenic freezing; M100, M150, M200, M300, M450, M500 –microwave-vacuum drying at microwave power of 100, 150, 200, 300, 450
and 500 W.

Fig. 2. Effects of freezing as well as convective (C) and microwave-vacuum (M) drying on the content of total phenolics (TP), total flavonoids (TF) and total
monomeric anthocyanins (TMA) of cranberries.
Figure presents the values (mean ± standard error) averaged over 9 measurements. Same letters in the same column indicate that the mean values are not
significantly different at a confidence level of 95% (p < 0.05). F – convectional freezing; N – cryogenic freezing; C60, C70, C80, C90 –convective drying at the
temperature of 60, 70, 80 and 90 °C; M100, M150, M200, M300, M450, M500 –microwave-vacuum drying at microwave power of 100, 150, 200, 300, 450 and
500 W.

differences between groups were determined with the use of the
Kruskal-Wallis non-parametric test. Differences were determined at a
significance level of p ≤ 0.05. The Pearson correlation coefficient (r)
was calculated to determine linear correlations between two sets of
variables. The results were analyzed statistically using Statistica 12.5
(StatSoft Inc., Tulsa, USA) software.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Drying curves and drying times
The time of convective drying ranged from 310 ± 5 to
11700 ± 5 min (Table 1). Drying time was longest in untreated cran-
berries dried by hot air with a temperature of 60 °C. A high moisture
gradient between the inner and outer part of fruits could not be
maintained at such a low temperature, which resulted in significantly

205
M. Zielinska, D. Zielinska LWT - Food Science and Technology 104 (2019) 202–209

of fruit during convective drying are shown in Fig. 1a. Convective

drying produced fruits with an equilibrium moisture content of
0.04 ± 0.01 to 0.11 ± 0.01 kgwater/kgdry mass (Table 1).
Moisture was removed from whole cranberries several dozen times
faster during microwave-vacuum drying than during convective drying
(Table 2). During drying at 100 W, vapor pressure inside fruits was very
low, which prevented rapid moisture loss (Fig. 1b). The time of mi-
crowave-vacuum drying was shortened with an increase in microwave
power. A five-fold increase in microwave power from 100 to 500 W
decreased drying time by up to 90%. Microwave-vacuum drying at
microwave power of 150–500 W led to rapid evaporation of moisture
from capillaries and increased the pressure in near-surface capillaries.
In fruits dried at 150, 200, 300, 450 and 500 W, high capillary pressure
increased tensile stress and promoted microcracking which resulted in
sudden loss of cellular juice from fruits. The above led to a sudden drop
in moisture content, an increase in surface temperature and a decrease
in the pressure gradient (Fig. 1c). The shortest drying time of 8–10 min
was noted in fruits dried at 450 and 500 W. Unlike microwaving,
freezing had a minor effect on microwave-vacuum drying time. The
equilibrium moisture content of fruits was not achieved under micro-
wave-vacuum drying. The final moisture content of cranberries ranged
from 0.09 ± 0.01 to 0.25 ± 0.01 kgwater/kgdry mass (Table 2).

3.2. Total phenolic content (TP), total flavonoid content (TF), total
monomeric anthocyanin (TMA) content and ferric reducing antioxidant
power (FRAP)

Convective drying induced a significant decrease in the TP content

of cranberries, and this parameter was influenced by drying tempera-
ture (Fig. 2a). The TP content of cranberries subjected to convective
drying at a temperature of 90 °C was up to 30% higher than in fruits
dried at a temperature of 60 °C. Freezing of fruits before drying pro-
moted greater retention of phenolic compounds in convectively dried
Fig. 3. Effects of freezing as well as convective (C) and microwave-vacuum (M) fruits. In contrast, microwave-vacuum drying of cranberries sig-
drying on the ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) of cranberries. nificantly increased TP values relative to the control sample. This ob-
Figure presents the values (mean ± standard error) averaged over 9 mea-
servation suggests that microwave-vacuum drying preserves poly-
surements. Same letters in the same column indicate that the mean values are
phenols more effectively than convective drying. The TP content of
not significantly different at a confidence level of 95% (p < 0.05). F – con-
vectional freezing; N – cryogenic freezing; C60, C70, C80, C90 –convective dried cranberries was clearly influenced by microwave power, and the
drying at the temperature of 60, 70, 80 and 90 °C; M100, M150, M200, M300, content of phenolic compounds increased with a rise in microwave
M450, M500 –microwave-vacuum drying at microwave power of 100, 150, power from 100 to 300 W (Fig. 2b). Fruits dried at microwave power
200, 300, 450 and 500 W. higher than 300 W were characterized by lower TP values. The highest
TP content was noted in non-treated fruits processed by microwave-
vacuum drying at 300 W (Fig. 2b). However, initial freezing of cran-
longer drying times than at higher air temperatures. An increase in
berries induced minor changes in the TP content of microwave-vacuum
drying temperature from 60 °C to 70 °C, 80 °C and 90 °C decreased
dried fruits. The increase in the TP content of cranberries subjected to
convective drying time by up to 98%. In most cases, initial convective
low microwave power could be attributed to the release of phenolic
and cryogenic freezing before drying significantly decreased the time of
compounds which are bound to cellular structures. These observations
convective drying of whole cranberries. Surface cracking was not ob-
conform to our previous findings (Zielinska, Zielinska, & Markowski,
served during convective drying of berries subjected to initial con-
2018b). In contrast, high temperature and prolonged exposure to
vective freezing. Convective freezing and hot-air drying at 60 °C in-
oxygen during convective drying can decrease the TP content of cran-
duced minimal changes in the surface structure of dried samples.
berries.
Convective freezing was most effective when drying was conducted at a
Unlike TP content, the total flavonoid (TF) content of cranberries
temperature of 90 °C. Due to considerable differences in pressure be-
dehydrated by hot-air convective drying was relatively similar, ex-
tween the drying medium and internal fruit structure and between the
cluding the samples dried at a temperature of 90 °C (C90). The TF
surface and the interior of fruit, drying time was shortest in con-
content of fruit dried by hot-air convective drying ranged from
vectively frozen cranberries dried by hot air with a temperature of 90 °C
2.58 ± 0.12 to 3.05 ± 0.15 mg CAE/gdry mass, and it was lower than in
(FC90). Convective drying of cryogenically frozen berries at a tem-
non-treated cranberries (4.07 ± 0.09 CAE/gdry mass) (Fig. 2c). The
perature of 60 °C did not disrupt the continuity of fruit surfaces.
noted decreased in TF content could be explained by irreversible oxi-
Cryogenic freezing was most effective when convective drying was
dative processes during drying and thermal degradation of flavonoids
conducted at a temperature of 60 °C, and it was least effective when
under very long exposure to heat. Initial convective and cryogenic
convective drying was conducted at a temperature of 90 °C. In the latter
freezing induced minimal changes in the TF content of HACD cran-
case, high differences in pressure between the drying medium and in-
berries. A clear dependency between microwave power and flavonoid
ternal fruit structure and between the surface and the interior of fruit
loss was observed in cranberries subjected to microwave-vacuum
could not be maintained due to cracking that occurred on the surface of
drying. The TF content of dried fruits ranged from 4.0% (FM500) to
cryogenically frozen fruits during drying and the subsequent structural
92% (M300) of that determined in the non-treated sample (Fig. 2d). An
collapse. Exemplary changes in the moisture content and temperature
increase in microwave power above 300 W led to a substantial decrease

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M. Zielinska, D. Zielinska LWT - Food Science and Technology 104 (2019) 202–209

Fig. 4. Surface microstructure of cranberries: a) non-treated cranberries subjected to convective drying at 70 °C (C70); b) convectively frozen cranberries subjected to
convective drying at 70 °C (FC70); c) cryogenically frozen cranberries subjected to convective drying at 70 °C (NC70); d) non-treated cranberries subjected to
microwave-vacuum drying at 300 W (M300); e) convectively frozen cranberries subjected to microwave-vacuum drying at 300 W (FM300); f) cryogenically frozen
cranberries subjected to microwave-vacuum drying at 300 W (NM300).

in TF content. The significant decrease in the flavonoid content of
cranberries dried at higher microwave power (above 300 W) could be
attributed to a higher number of surface fissures and cracks in fruit
processed at higher microwave power (Zielinska & Michalska, 2016).
Initial freezing before drying did not induce significant changes in the
TF content of cranberries subjected to microwave-vacuum drying.
Cranberries subjected to convective and cryogenic freezing, hot-air
drying and microwave drying differed significantly in the content of
anthocyanins. The TMA values were much lower in convectively dried
cranberries than in non-treated fruits and microwave-vacuum dried
fruits (Fig. 2e and f). Fruits dried at a temperature of 60 °C were
characterized by the lowest content of anthocyanins, whereas TMA
values were somewhat higher in cranberries dried at 80 °C. Both con-
vective and cryogenic freezing before hot-air drying induced minimal
changes in TMA values. The TMA values of microwave-vacuum dried
cranberries were lower than in non-treated fruits, but significantly
higher than in convectively dried samples. The highest TMA content
was noted in convectively frozen fruits subjected to microwave-vacuum
drying at 150 W, whereas the lowest TMA content was observed in
fruits dried at 500 W (84% and 40% of the TMA content of the non-
treated sample, respectively) (Fig. 2f). These results suggest a direct
relationship between the length and intensity of heat treatment and
microwave power vs. anthocyanin loss.
Microwave-vacuum dried cranberries were characterized by sig-
nificantly higher antioxidant capacity than convectively dried fruits
(Fig. 3). In convectively dried samples, the highest FRAP values were
noted in cranberries dried at 90 °C (Fig. 3a). In convectively dried
cranberries, both convective and cryogenic freezing had a minor effect
on FRAP values, and reducing activity was higher at temperatures
above 60 °C. In contrast, the FRAP values of microwave-vacuum dried
cranberries were even higher than in freeze-dried fruits (Fig. 3b). The
above implies that microwave-vacuum drying was as effective as FD in
preserving polyphenols in cranberries. Microwave-vacuum drying at
higher microwave power (450 and 500 W) decreased the content of

207
M. Zielinska, D. Zielinska
compounds with ferric (III) reducing ability, whereas significantly
higher FRAP values were noted in cranberries dried at lower microwave
power (100–300 W). The cranberries dried at 300 W were characterized
by the highest FRAP values. The TP, TMA and TF content and the FRAP
values of cranberries changed in the same manner during both con-
vective and microwave-vacuum drying. The FRAP values of berries
subjected to microwave-vacuum drying were strongly correlated with
TP content, and the values of the correlation coefficient (r) ranged from
0.726 to 0.982. A strong positive correlation was also observed between
TF and TMA values in berries subjected to microwave-vacuum drying,
and the corresponding values of the correlation coefficient r ranged
from 0.726 to 0.954.
3.3. Color and overall appearance
In most cases, convectively dried berries were lighter, less red and
less yellow than non-dried fruits (Table 1). The fruits subjected to
convective drying at 90 °C differed significantly from the remaining
samples and were characterized by the lowest redness. Cranberries
subjected to freezing and convective drying at 80 °C were characterized
by the highest redness (the values of parameter a* were significantly
higher relative to the remaining samples). The redness of convectively
dried fruits was positively correlated with their TMA content. An in-
crease in drying temperature significantly decreased the yellowness of
cranberries. The overall changes in the color of cranberries were in-
tensified with a rise in air temperature. The greatest overall changes in
color (10.1 ± 1.0) and hue (10.2 ± 1.8) were observed in con-
vectively frozen fruits subjected to hot-air drying at 90 °C (Table 1).
Convective drying did not induce significant changes in color satura-
tion.
In most cases, microwave-vacuum dried berries were darker, redder
and yellower than non-dried fruits. Convectively frozen berries sub-
jected to microwave-vacuum drying at 300 W were characterized by the
highest lightness (32.2 ± 0.6) and redness values (32.6 ± 0.8),
whereas convectively frozen berries subjected to microwave-vacuum
drying at 100 W were characterized by the highest yellowness values
(12.8 ± 0.7) (Table 2). The greatest overall changes in color
(8.5 ± 0.9) and hue (10.0 ± 1.6) were observed in non-treated fruits
subjected to microwave vacuum drying at 500 W (Table 2). Microwave-
vacuum drying did not cause significant changes in color saturation.
Convective and cryogenic freezing did not significantly influence
the surface structure of convectively dried fruits (Fig. 4a,b,c). However,
these treatments induced significant changes in the surface structure of
microwave-vacuum dried berries (Fig. 4e and f). Structural changes
influenced the color of fruits and significantly increased the redness and
yellowness of dried berries. Freezing induced distinct changes in the
properties of fruit cells which became flaccid after thawing. The texture
of frozen and dried fruits was considerably altered by the ice crystals
formed during freezing. These processes promoted greater loss of nat-
ural juice from frozen cranberries (Fig. 4e and f) than from untreated
fruits (Fig. 4d) during drying. The presence of juice on the surface of
frozen and microwave-vacuum dried cranberries (Fig. 4e and f) in-
creased their redness, yellowness and glossiness in comparison with
cranberries that were dried without initial treatment (Fig. 4d). The
observed changes were more pronounced in convectively (Fig. 4e) than
cryogenically frozen (Fig. 4f) cranberries.
4. Conclusions
Both freezing and drying conditions significantly affected the drying
curves and times as well as the physicochemical properties of dried
cranberries. Microwave-vacuum drying of berries at relatively low mi-
crowave power of 100–300 W produced fruits with the highest content
of bioactive compounds and the highest levels of antioxidant activity.
Also, microwave-vacuum drying at relatively low microwave power
produced berries with the highest redness and yellowness. Both
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LWT - Food Science and Technology 104 (2019) 202–209
convective and cryogenic freezing were superior to: (i) convective
drying, in terms of shorter drying time, (ii) convective drying at higher
air temperatures of 80 and 90 °C, in terms of the higher content of
bioactive compounds and higher antioxidant activity in dried cran-
berries, (iii) microwave-vacuum drying, in terms of higher redness and
yellowness values in dried cranberries.
Acknowledgements
This study was supported by the National Science Center, Poland
(grant No. 2015/17/B/NZ9/03601, title: The effect of unconventional
pretreatment methods on the kinetic of hybrid dehydration and physical and
chemical properties of cranberries Vaccinum macrocarpon) and the
University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn (grant No. 16.610.001-
300).
The authors would like to thank for the technical support of
Waldemar Brandt from the University of Warmia and Mazury in
Olsztyn.
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