ChE 101.01 Physical and Thermal Properties

Engineering Encyclopedia
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards
PHYSICAL AND THERMAL PROPERTIES
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Engineering Encyclopedia Plant Engineering
Physical and Thermal Properties
CONTENT PAGE
INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................ 3
UNITS AND DEFINITIONS ............................................................................................ 4

Dimensional Analysis .......................................................................................... 4
Example Problem 1................................................................................... 5
Example Problem 2................................................................................... 5
Example Problem 3................................................................................... 5
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES ............................................................................................. 6
Liquid Density ...................................................................................................... 6
Boiling Points....................................................................................................... 7
Characterization Factor (Maxwell K, UOP K)..................................................... 10
Critical Properties .............................................................................................. 12
Ideal Gas Law/Compressibility Factor ............................................................... 15
Example Problem 4................................................................................. 18
Vapor Density .................................................................................................... 20
Example Problem 4A .............................................................................. 20
Molecular Weight............................................................................................... 24
Surface Tension ................................................................................................ 26
THERMAL PROPERTIES ............................................................................................ 27
Sensible Heat .................................................................................................... 27
Latent Heat ........................................................................................................ 27
Enthalpy ............................................................................................................ 28
Example Problem 5................................................................................ 29
Enthalpy Blending.............................................................................................. 29
Specific Heat .....................................................................................................30
Example Problem 6................................................................................. 32
Example Problem 7................................................................................. 33
Thermal Conductivity......................................................................................... 33
Entropy .............................................................................................................. 33
Mollier Diagrams................................................................................................ 34
Example Problem 8................................................................................. 36
KEY FORMULAS ......................................................................................................... 37
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards i

WORK AID 1: CONVERSION FACTORS AND CONSTANTS.................................... 38
WORK AID 2: VISCOSITY GRAPH PAPER ............................................................... 41
WORK AID 3: ENTHALPY OF PROPANE................................................................. 43
WORK AID 4: STEAM TABLE .................................................................................... 44
WORK AID 5: THERMAL CONDUCTIVITIES OF EXCHANGER MATERIALS .......... 45
GLOSSARY ................................................................................................................. 46
REFERENCES............................................................................................................. 48
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 8. Characterization Factor, K............................................................................ 11

Figure 9. Critical Properties......................................................................................... 12
Figure 11. Pseudocritical Pressure (PPC)................................................................... 13
Figure 12. Pseudocritical Temperature (TPC)............................................................. 14
Figure 13. Pseudocritical Pressure (PPC) of Petroleum Fractions .............................. 14
Figure 14. P-V-T Relations of Pure Hydrocarbons - Saturated
Vapors and Liquids ...................................................................................... 16
Figure 16. Gas Density................................................................................................ 20
Figure 17. Thermal Expansion of Liquids .................................................................... 21
Figure 18. Viscosity - Temperature Chart.................................................................... 23
Figure 20. Molecular Weight Versus Boiling Point and Gravity Petroleum Fractions... 25
Figure 22. Enthalpy of Propane................................................................................... 28
Figure 23. Liquid Enthalpy Blending............................................................................ 30
Figure 24. Use of Mollier Diagram For Steam Turbine Calculations............................ 35
Figure 25. Formulas/Constants ................................................................................... 37
Figure 31. Enthalpy of Propane................................................................................... 43
Figure 32. Saturated Steam: Temperature Table....................................................... 44
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards ii

INTRODUCTION
A plant engineer will often be asked to perform calculations of a

"shortcut" nature to verify that equipment is operating properly,
that a vendor's proposed equipment is adequate, or to estimate
the size of new equipment. This module will show you how to
convert the various systems of units into a consistent set of
figures for these calculations. Also included are methods and
sources of physical and thermal properties necessary for these
calculations.
A number of topics in the text are not covered in detail, because

they are not frequently used and you should already possess
sufficient knowledge of the subject. Should you wish to pursue
these topics further, there are many sources such as textbooks
and advanced Saudi Aramco courses that can be consulted.
Because of the short time available for this course, we will
concentrate on the topics that you will most frequently use and
briefly cover others that are necessary for background
information only.
Each participant has been given a copy of the "Data Book on

Hydrocarbons," by J. B. Maxwell, as part of the course material.
Throughout this module, reference is made to Maxwell with the
appropriate page numbers given. Curves supplied in the module
text are used frequently for illustrative purposes, and the
corresponding curve in Maxwell should be used. The book also
contains valuable instructions in each chapter, describing the use
of the curves. You is encouraged to read this material. Other,
newer, methods for calculating properties are presented in texts
such as "Properties of Gases and Liquids" by Reid, Prausnitz
and Sherwood. You should be aware of these.
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 3

UNITS AND DEFINITIONS
There are three unit systems currently in use. Customary units

(used by Saudi Aramco), metric units, and SI units. SI refers to
the International System of Units. Figure 1 shows examples of
the three system units for pressure, rate, and viscosity.
Conversion factors are available to move among the three
systems. Those most frequently used are given in Work Aid 1.
A comprehensive tabulation exists in API Publication 2564. (See
the reference section.)
Note that throughout this course, ChE 101, the value assigned to
the "M" and "k" engineering units is mega (106) and kilo (103).
(Note M is frequently used for 103 in refining).
Examples
Rate
Pressure Viscosity
(Mass)
International System of Units (SI) Pascal (Pa) kg/s Pa • S
Metric System kg/cm2 kg/hr cP
Customary psi lb/hr cP
Note: The International System of Units (SI) is the same as the Metric System.
However, the "preferred" SI unit is not always identical to the metric unit used by
vendors and refineries, as the above examples illustrate.
Figure 1. Systems of Units
Dimensional Analysis
Dimensional analysis is a technique that can make unit
conversions easier. By including the units with the arithmetic
numbers in the calculation, the proper values for the numerator
and denominator are clearly seen.
The following Example Problems 1 and 2 illustrate the

dimensional analysis techniques. Example Problem 1 also
discusses the difference between "normal" and "standard"
volume conditions. Example Problem 2 discusses the important
molecular weight - gas density relationship.

Example Problem 1
Convert 10,000 Barrels per day (B/D) to gallons per minute
(gpm) by using Work Aid 1.
Answer:
B 42 gal day hour
10,000 × × × = 291.67 gpm
D B 24 hours 60 min
or
B 0.0291 gpm
10,000 × = 291 gpm
D B/D
Example Problem 2
Convert 500 gpm of water to lbs/hr by using Work Aid 1.
Answer:
From Work Aid 1, the density of water is 8.33 lbs/gal.
gal 8.33 lbs 60 min

500 × × = 249,900 lbs hr
min gal hour
Example Problem 3
Convert 200 ft of water at 60°F to pounds/square inch (psi) by
using Work Aid 1.
Answer:
From Work Aid 1 water density is 62.4 lbs/ft3 at 60°F.
62.4 lbs ft 2
200 ft × × = 86.7 psi
ft 3 144 in 2

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Figure 2 lists several sources of information and basic data

available to you. For quick field work, simple systems, or
estimating purposes, Maxwell is a good source of basic
hydrocarbon data. For more complex mixtures and calculations,
various computer programs are available that can be used to
calculate properties as well as perform the entire calculation
desired. PRO II is an example of such a program.
Note that the Maxwell Data Book is for hydrocarbons.

Limitations on temperature and pressure ranges, etc. are
explained at the beginning of each section and should be
observed when using this book as a source of data.
1. Saudi Aramco Engineering Standards.

2. Saudi Aramco Design Practices.
3. Maxwell - Data Book On Hydrocarbons (Basic Data).
4. TEMA Standards (Heat Exchangers).
5. Crane Technical Paper No. 410 (Fluid Flow).
6. API RP 520 - Parts I & II (Safety).
7. API RP 521 (Safety).
8. Perry - Chemical Engineer's Handbook (General).
9. Previous Designs.
10. Gas Processors Suppliers Association Data Book.
11. API 44 Properties of Hydrocarbons.
12. Properties of Gases and Liquids.
Figure 2. Data Sources
Liquid Density
Liquid density normally measured as API gravity for petroleum.
API gravity is reported at 60°F. Conversion to specific gravity
(Sp. Gr.) at 60°F is defined as:
141.5
Sp. Gr.60°F =
131.5 + API
141.5
API = – 131.5
Sp .Gr.60

Mixtures of hydrocarbon liquids are considered ideal, and the

specific gravity may be calculated by blending the specific
gravities (not API gravities) of the individual components by their
volume fraction.
Boiling Points
The normal boiling point is a characterizing constant for a pure
component. For example, water boils at 212°F at atmospheric
pressure. Normal boiling points are measured at atmospheric
pressure as is the ASTM distillation. An ASTM distillation is a
laboratory boiling point determination using a simple batch
distillation apparatus. Temperatures are recorded at the initial
boiling point and at each 10% recovered. Plotting temperature
against volume results in an ASTM distillation curve. An ASTM
distillation for a pure component would be a flat line at the
normal boiling point. Almost all petroleum products are mixtures
of many components. During a batch distillation the lower
boiling components boil off first. The temperature gradually
increases as higher boiling components are evaporated. This
results in a typical distillation curve shown in Figure 3.
Typical ASTM Distillation Curve
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Volume, %
Figure 3. Typical ASTM Distillation Curve

Many physical properties of hydrocarbon mixtures can be

estimated from their boiling points. Some properties correlate
better with average boiling points calculated on a weight basis,
others with boiling points calculated on a mole basis, and others
on a volume or mean average boiling point basis. The averaged
boiling points are not physically significant and are used only
because each is found to correlate better with certain physical
properties. Figure 4 tabulates the different boiling point bases
and physical properties that are correlated on the basis of these
"boiling points."
ABP Type Correlated Physical Property
1. Molal ABP (MoABP) TPC, Liquid Thermal Expansion

2. Weight ABP (WABP) TC
3. Volume ABP (VABP) Liquid cP, Viscosity
4. Mean ABP (MeABP) MW, Watson K, , PPC, HCOMB
• 1 - 3 calculated by linear blends of boiling points of fractions with amount of

each fraction.
• MeABP correlates with mole wt. (definition of MeABP)
Figure 4. Boiling Points
Figures 5 and 6 show how to calculate mole ABP, WABP,

VABP, and mean ABP from mixture composition data. The
volume average boiling point is readily obtainable from
distillation curve data and the procedure outlined in Figure 6.
For narrow boiling fractions, all the average boiling points
approach each other and the volume ABP can be used for any
of the others. Note that the 50% point of an ASTM distillation
can be used for the volume average boiling point, unless the
curve deviates appreciably from a straight line.

Comp. Mole Fr. MW bp Mole ABP lb/mole WABP
(Mole Fr. x (Mole Fr. x (Wt. Fr. x bp)

bp) MW)
C3 0.10 44.1 -43.8 -4.38 4.41 - 3.41

↑
( )
 4.41 (−43.8)
 56.70 
IC4 0.40 58.1 10.9 4.36 23.24 4.47
NC4 0.5 58.1 31.1 15.5 29.05 15.93

0 5
1.00 15.53 56.70 16.99
Mole ABP Avg. MW WABP
Figure 5. Mole and Weight Average Boiling Points

lb/gal
Comp Vol Fr. bp, °F VABP at 60°F MW Mole/gal Mole Fr.
.
VF x (Vol Fr. x lb/gal/MW)
bp)
NC6 0.17 155.7 26.5 5.53 86.2 0.0109 0.189 ←[.0109/.0578]
NC7 0.73 209.2 152.7 5.73 100.1 0.0417 0.721
NC8 0.10 258.2 25.8 5.89 114.2 0.0052 0.090
1.00 205.0 0.0578 1.000
Avg. Density = VF x lb/gal = [(0.17 x 5.53) + (0.73 x 5.73) + (0.10 x 5.89)] = 5.71
sp. gr. = 5.71/8.33 = 0.685
141.5
°API = − 131.5 = 75.0
sp.gr
lb / gal
MW = = 5.71 = 98.8
mole / gal 0.0578
MeABP = 185°F (Maxwell, Pg. 21)
Figure 6. Volume and Mean Average BP
Characterization Factor
(Maxwell K, UOP K)
The characterization factor is another property of a mixture. A
low characterization factor indicates a low concentration of
paraffins (more aromatic) while a high characterization factor
indicates a high concentration of paraffins.
For a mixture of unknown composition, the ASTM distillation

curve can be used to calculate the volume average boiling point.
Using the curves in Maxwell, Pg. 14 and 15, the mean average
boiling point can be found. This value can be used with the API
gravity of the whole mixture to determine the characterization
factor, using the curve on Pg. 16 in Maxwell. Figure 7 shows the
relationship between characterization factor, API gravity, and
mean average boiling point.
Once obtained, the characterization factor can be assumed to be

constant for all the cuts that are to be made on the original
mixture. The curve can then be used to determine the gravity of
each cut. Figure 8 tabulates important information about
characterization factors.

Source: Data Book on Hydrocarbons - Application to Process Engineering by J.B. Maxwell,

page 16, © 1950 by Robert E. Krieger Publishing Company, Inc.
Figure 7. Watson Characterization Factor
• An index of chemical character:
3 MeABP,°R
K=
sp.gr.
• Applies to entire boiling range of the crude.
• Use to get specific gravity of petroleum fractions.
• Use to get sp. ht. of petroleum fraction vapors. Maxwell, Pg. 91.
Figure 8. Characterization Factor, K

Critical Properties
The point on a mixture's phase envelope where liquid/vapor
densities and compositions are identical is called the critical
point. Knowledge of this point is important in distillation
calculations to prevent reboiler operation close to critical, where
separation becomes impossible. The reduced temperature and
reduced pressure are defined as the mixture's actual
temperature and pressure divided by its critical temperature and
pressure respectively. A number of physical properties can be
correlated by reduced temperature and pressure (T/Tc and P/Pc).
For pure substances the true critical is used. However, for
mixtures a pseudocritical value is used because a true critical
point does not physically exist. Figure 9 summarizes the
important points to remember about critical properties. Figure 10
shows the relationship between molal average boiling point and
pseudocritical temperature for light hydrocarbons. Figure 11
shows the pseudocritical pressure as a function of mixture
average mole weight.
• Critical Properties are used to determine:

- Maximum operating conditions for separation and distillation
- Compressibility of gases. (nonideal gas)
- Fugacity correlations. (nonideal vapor pressure)
• True-critical - used for pure compounds.
• Pseudocritical - used for mixtures.
Figure 9. Critical Properties

400
o
100 AP I
350
Base Curve
°API
o
300 240 API
250
0 25 50 75 100
Avg. Boiling Point °F
Reprinted from Industrial & Engineering Chemistry. Published 1937 by the American Chemical Society.
(Maxwell p. 70)
Figure 10. Pseudocritical Temperature

(TPC) of Light Hydrocarbon Mixtures

Figure 11. Pseudocritical Pressure (PPC)

Figures 12 and 13 show pseudocritical temperature and pressure

for petroleum fractions.

Figure 12. Pseudocritical Temperature (TPC)
°API
Pseudo
Critical
Press.
PPC 0°
100 °
MeABP, °F
Source: Data Book on Hydrocarbons - Application to Process Engineering by J.B. Maxwell, p.
73, © 1950 by Robert E. Krieger Publishing Company, Inc.,
Figure 13. Pseudocritical Pressure (PPC) of Petroleum Fractions

Ideal Gas Law/Compressibility Factor

The relationship between pressure, volume, and temperature of
an ideal gas is expressed as:
PV = ZNRT
where: Z = Compressibility factor

P, V, N, R and T are defined below:
N P V T R
Moles Pressure Volume Temperature Gas
Constant
lb/mole psia ft3 °R 10.73

lb/mole atm ft3 °R 0.7302
Ideal gas low behavior is defined by a compressibility (Z) of one

and is relatively accurate (within 5%) at low pressure (<180
psig) and moderate (200-500°F) to high temperatures(>500°F).
Figure 14 shows compressibility factors for saturated vapors of

pure hydrocarbons. It is determined by calculating the reduced
pressure and then reading the compressibility factor directly.
Superheated vapors will have factors higher than this curve,
therefore, use of the curve is usually conservative.

0.1
S at This Chart Does Not Apply to Mixtures
0.9 u rat
ed V
a p or
0.8
Compressibility Factor
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
Zc = 0.265
0.2
Reduced Pressure = P/Pc
0.1
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Figure 14. P-V-T Relations of Pure Hydrocarbons -

Saturated Vapors and Liquids
For hydrocarbon mixtures, Figure 15, which incorporates

reduced temperature, should be used. Note that the
pseudocritical pressure must be used for mixtures. Since there
is some effect of molecular weight on compressibility, a series of
curves is available (Maxwell, Pg. 148 - 153) covering mole
weights from 16 to greater than 40. TEMA has compressibility
data on pages 134-136.

1.0
0.9
0.8
Compressibility Factor
T
R =
T/T
1.0 C
0.7 0
.9
75
.9
50
.9
0.6 25
.90
.87
0
.85
5
.82
0
.800
0.5
5
.750
.700
.650
.600
0.4
Reduced Pressure P/ Pc
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Figure 15. P-V-T Relations of Hydrocarbon Vapors -

Molecular Weight 16; TR< 1.00
If other nonhydrocarbon gases are present in the mixture (H2,

H2O, O2, CO2, H2S, etc.), an effective pressure should be used
to calculate the reduced pressure for the hydrocarbon
compressibility factor. The effective pressure is equal to P T Y i
, where PT is the total system pressure and Yi is the mole
fraction component i. The compressibility factors of the other
gases are obtained similarly, using their mole fractions and
reduced pressures. Their compressibilities will usually be 1 at
the typically low reduced pressures. In the absence of other
data, the hydrocarbon charts can be used for these gases. The
overall mixture compressibility is then calculated by Z = YHC
ZHC + YaZa + YBZB + . . .
Example 4 illustrates the use of pseudocritical temperature and

pressure and effective pressure to calculate gas mixture
properties.

Example Problem 4
Given a gas of the following composition (Shedgum):
Moles Mole Fr.
N2 0.466 0.0048 To save calculation time, the

CO2 8.426 0.0869 following
H2S 5.345 0.0552 are given:
MW Total = 27.81
C1 45.829 
C2 21.176  MW Hydrocarbon = 25.75
C3 13.19 
1.144  0.8531 Molal ABP
iC4
0.435  Hydrocarbon = -154°F
iC5
0.58 
C6 0.169
iC6 0.138
C7
96.898 moles
Calculate the volume at 110°F and 500 psia.
Answer:
Since this is a mixture, we need to find the pseudocritical

pressure and temperature.
Inerts:
Critical Constants
Tc, °F Pc, atm (Maxwell, p. 9)
N2 -232.8 33.5
CO2 88.0 73.0
H2S 212.7 88.9
Hydrocarbon:
MW = 25.75
Pseudocritical Pressure = 48 atm Maxwell, p. 71
Pseudocritical Temperature = 52°F Maxwell, p. 70

500 psia
System Pressure, PT = = 34 atm
14.7
System Temperature, T = 110 + 460 = 570°R
Effective pressures are equal to PT Yi since non-hydrocarbon

gases are present. These effective pressures will be used for
the system pressure in calculating the reduced pressure for
each component.
Reduced Reduced
Yi Pressure Temp.
Mole Fr. PT Yi , atm Pc,atm P/Pc Tc°F Tc°R T/Tc
N2 0.0048 34 0.0048 = 2.35 33.5 0.070 -232.8 227.2 2.51
CO2 0.0869 10.02 73.0 0.137 88.0 548.0 1.04
H2S 0.0552 7.99 88.9 0.090 212.7 672.7 0.85
HC 0.8531 31.40 48.0 0.654 52.0 512.0 1.11
Compressibility Factor:
MW Yi P/Pc T/Tc Z Maxwell Page
N2 28.0 0.0048 0.070 2.51 1.0 150

CO2 44.0 0.0869 0.137 1.04 0.96 152
H2S 34.1 0.0552 0.090 0.85 0.94 148
HC 25.75 0.8531 0.654 1.11 0.820 150
Overall Compressibility Factor:
Z = 0.0048 (1) + 0.0869 (0.96) + 0.0552 (0.94) + 0.8531

(0.820) = 0.8396
Calculate Volume:
PV = ZNRT R = 0.7302(from Work Aid 1)
V = ZNRT = 0.8396 x 96.898 moles x 0.7302 x 570°R = 995.9ft 3

P 34 atm
For most gases at low pressure and moderate to high

temperature, the compressibility (Z) can be assumed to equal
1.0. This is true for furnace combustion and flue gas
calculations.

Vapor Density
Using the previous methods for obtaining the compressibility
factor, gas densities can be calculated by the formula shown in
Figure 16.
PV = ZNRT P = Pressure, psia

V = Volume, ft3
N = P MW = Molecular weight, lb/mole
V ZRT T = Temperature, °R
R = Constant, 10.73
Molecular Weight, MW = lb/mol Z = Compressibility factor,
dimensionless
N = moles
ρ = Density, lb/ft3
N mole x MW lb/mole = lb / ft 3 density
V. ft 3
P x MW = ρ lb / ft 3
ZRT
Figure 16. Gas Density
For two gases (vapors) at the same temperature pressure, and

compressibility then
 MW1 
ρ 1 = ρ2
 MW2 
Example Problem 4A
Given a gas with a molecular weight of 110 lbs/mole, what is the
gas density at 60 psig and 300°F? Assume ideal gas behavior
(compressibility factor of one).
Answer:
P(MW) (60 + 14.7)(110 )
ρ= = = 1.008 lb/ft 3
ZRT 1(10.73)(300 + 460)

Gas specific gravity is the ratio of the gas density to the density
of air at standard conditions of 14.7 psig and 60°F. The specific
gravity of a gas at standard conditions will be the ratio of the
molecular weight of the gas to the molecular weight of air. The
molecular weight of air is 29 lb/mole.
Thermal Expansion
If the gravity of a mixture is available at 60°F and its molal

boiling point is known, the density at any other temperature can
be found by using the curves in Maxwell, Pg. 143-147. Figure
17 is an example of these curves.
Source: Data Book on Hydrocarbons - Application to Process Engineering by J.B.

Maxwell, page 143, © 1950 by Robert E. Krieger Publishing Company, Inc.
Figure 17. Thermal Expansion of Liquids

There is a small effect of pressure on liquid expansion, and each

pressure level is covered by a different curve. If the mixture
density is known at 60°F and at one other temperature, the
curves can be used without calculating the MoABP. TEMA page
132 plots specific gravity versus temperature at atmospheric
pressure.
Densities of pure hydrocarbon are given in Maxwell, Pg. 140-142

as well as other references such as the Handbook of Chemistry
and Physics (see Reference 6) and the Chemical Engineer's
Handbook (see Reference 4).
The conversion of °API to specific gravity is given in Maxwell, Pg.

138-139. Specific gravity must be at 60 °F for conversion to API.
Specific gravity can be converted to lb/ft3 by multiplying by 62.4.
Sp. gr. x 62.4 = lb/ft3 at the temperature at which the gravity was
measured.
Viscosity
Laboratory viscosity data is usually reported as Saybolt Thermo,

Saybolt Universal, or Saybolt Furol seconds. Conversion of
these values to centistokes and centipoises for engineering
calculations can be done using the curves in Maxwell, Pg. 158-
160. Centistokes (cSt) can be converted into centipoises (cP)
by the relationship:
cSt = cP
sp.gr.
The viscosities of pure paraffin and aromatic liquids are given in

Maxwell, Pg. 161 and 162. TEMA has conversion and viscosity
data on pages 153-160.
If the viscosity of a hydrocarbon liquid is known at two

temperatures, the viscosity at any other temperature can be
found by connecting the two points with a straight line on the
viscosity - temperature charts. (See Maxwell, Pg. 166 and 167
and Figure 19.)

The line shown on Figure 18 is a typical viscosity - temperature

relationship for Saudi Aramco crude. The relationship for other
crude oils could be higher or lower than this curve. Actual crude
assay data should be used for engineering calculations.
Figure 18. Viscosity - Temperature Chart
Blank sheets of viscosity graph paper are included in your

manual as Work Aid 2. Note that there are high-range and low-
range graphs and that the viscosity is expressed in centistokes.
The two vertical dashed lines at 130 and 210°F mark the
regions where laboratory data are usually taken.
The viscosity of a blend of liquid hydrocarbons can be predicted

with the blending index curve on Pg. 173 of Maxwell. Add the
blending index by volume fraction and use the chart again for
the blended viscosity. All of the component viscosities must be
at the same temperature. Figure 19 for an example of liquid
viscosity blending.

Visc. at Vol. Fr. Vol. Fr.

Comp. Vol Fr. 130°F, c VBI x VBI API Sp. Gr. x Sp Gr
St
A 0.5 15.0 36.4 18.2 40 .825 .4125

B 0.3 31.5 31.5 9.5 36 .8448 .2534
C 0.2 131.0 24.7 4.9 27 .8927 .1785
∑ Vol Fr x VBI = 32.6 ∑ Vol Fr x Sp Gr = 0.8445
Convert the blended average VBI of 32.6 to a viscosity by going backwards on the
VBI index curve on Maxwell p. 173. The average viscosity is 26.7 cSt.
The average blended specific gravity of 0.8445 is converted to API using the
conversion in Work Aid 1. The average API gravity is 36.0°API.
Figure 19. Viscosity of Liquid Mixtures
Data for the viscosities of various gases at 1 atm pressure are

covered in Maxwell, Pg. 174 - 176. Corrections for higher
pressures can be made using the pseudocritical pressure and
temperature with the curve in Pg. 177 of Maxwell.
The viscosity of a gas mixture at 1 atm can be calculated from

the component viscosities by the following:
N1 µ 1 M1 + N 2 µ 2 M 2 +KN i µ i Μi
Viscosity =
N1 M1 + N 2 M 2 + KN i Μ i
where: N= Mole fraction of component i

M= Molecular weight of component i
µ= Viscosity of component i
Molecular Weight
Figure 20 illustrates the relationship between the molecular
weight and mean average boiling point of hydrocarbon petroleum
fractions. Paraffins tend to have lower molecular weights than the
hydrocarbon correlation predicts, and Figure 21 illustrates their
relationship.

Source: Data Book on Hydrocarbons - Application to Process Engineering by

J.B. Maxwell, page 21, © 1950 by Robert E. Krieger Publishing Company, Inc.
Figure 20. Molecular Weight Versus Boiling

Point and Gravity Petroleum Fractions
1-A verage of Isomers Containing

A Single Methyl or Ethyl Branch
2-A verage of All Other Isomers
Normal Boiling Point – °F
Source: Data Book on Hydrocarbons - Application to Process Engineering by

J.B. Maxwell, page 20, © 1950 by Robert E. Krieger Publishing Company, Inc.
Figure 21. Molecular Weight Versus Boiling Point -

Normal Paraffins and Isoparaffins

Surface Tension
Certain calculations, such as distillation tray calculations, require
the surface tension of a compound. A good source of surface
tensions for hydrocarbons is API 44 (see Reference 2). Computer
programs, such as PROCESS and PRO II, can also calculate
surface tension values.
To obtain surface tensions at temperatures different from a

known point (within a moderate temperature range), the
following can be used:
1.2
τ 2  TC − T2 
=  for nonpolar liquids
τ1  TC − T1 
where: τ = is the surface tension at a temperature.

Tc = is the critical temperature.
T = is the temperature at subscripts 1 and 2.
A discussion of surface tension estimation methods can be

found in Chemical Engineer's Handbook (see Reference 4), Pg.
3-240.

THERMAL PROPERTIES
Sensible Heat
Heat absorbed or released by matter undergoing a change in
temperature is called sensible heat. Heat absorbed or released
during a change in phase is called latent heat. Sensible heat
values can be calculated by using specific heats or enthalpy
charts, which will be covered later.
Latent Heat
The heat (latent heat) required to vaporize (or released on
condensation of) various hydrocarbons is given in Maxwell, Pg.
94 - 97. As the system temperature increases, latent heat
decreases. At the critical point, latent heat is zero, because
vapor and liquid properties are identical. A typical use for latent
heat is calculating the quantity of steam to be condensed to
provide a given amount of process heat. Steam tables would be
used for the latent heat values. Sizing a safety valve to protect
a liquid-containing drum from fire requires a knowledge of the
liquid latent heat. This allows calculation of the vapor release
rate for a given fire heat input. TEMA has latent heats on page
146.
Q = m∆H
where: Q = Heat duty, Btu/hr.

m = lbs/hr.
∆H = Enthalpy change, Btu/lb.
HL = Enthalpy of liquid
HV = Enthalpy of vapor
HV – HL = Latent Heat at a temperature (∆H)

Enthalpy
TEMA has a generalized petroleum enthalphy chart on page
145. For most calculations, enthalpy charts are used to find the
amount of heat required by the desired process operation. A
sample chart is shown in Figure 22.
Figure 22. Enthalpy of Propane
These charts give both sensible heat and latent heat, and they
correct for system pressure. The heat duty is obtained by the
product of m and the enthalpy difference between starting and
ending conditions. Example Problem 5 illustrates the use of
these charts.

Example Problem 5
How much heat is required to vaporize 7,000 lb of propane at

0°F?
Answer:
From Maxwell Pg. 100 or Work Aid 3.
Maxwell Work Aid 3:
At 0°F Liquid enthalpy HL = 107 Btu/lb 224 Btu/lb

Vapor enthalpy HV = 276 Btu/lb 394
Latent Heat ∆H = 169 170
∆H = 276 - 107 = 169 Btu/lb (latent heat)

Heat Required, Q = 169 Btu/lb x 7,000 lb = 1.183 x 106 Btu
Enthalpy Blending
Enthalpy charts can be used for mixtures, as follows:
• In the liquid phase, add the individual component

enthalpies (Btu/lb) on a weight fraction basis.
• In the vapor phase, at low pressures, add the individual

component enthalpies (Btu/lb) on a weight fraction basis.
• The change in mixture enthalpy of the vapor with pressure

is the same as a single compound having the same
molecular weight.

Figure 23 illustrates the method used to blend component

enthalpies. Note that use of the propane curve results in nearly
the same result. Closer agreement would be achieved by using
the ethane curve as well as the propane, with the results
interpolated to a MW of 42.65. Even closer agreement would be
possible by separating paraffins from olefins and double
interpolating between the curves closest to MW of 42.65.
lbs = Wt. Hliq at 100°

Comp. Moles MW moles x MW Fract. Btu/lb Hliq x Wt. Fract.
C2H6 1.0 30.1 30.1 .0698 239 16.68

C3H8 5.0 44.1 220.5 .5119 171 87.53
C4H10 1.0 58.1 58.1 .1349 159 21.45
C2H4 0.6 28.1 16.86 .0391 223 8.72
C3H6 2.5 42.1 105.25 .2443 169 41.29
Total 10.1 430.81 1.0000 175.67
MW = 430.81/10.1 = 42.65
Alternate Estimate
Use propane since propane MW if 44.1 is close to mixture MW of 42.65.
Enthalpy of liquid propane at 100°F = 171 Btu/lb
175.7 − 171
Error = = 2.7%
175.7
Figure 23. Liquid Enthalpy Blending
Note that all the charts used in mixture work should be on the
same basis e.g., H = 0 at 0°R or H = 0 at -200°F, etc.
Specific Heat
Specific heat is the slope of the enthalpy curve with
temperature. Since enthalpy is not a straight line with
temperature, specific heat will be a function of temperature.

The specific heat of miscellaneous gases and hydrocarbon

vapors (at low pressure) can be obtained from Maxwell, Pg. 88 -
91. The specific heat of a mixture can be calculated from the
weight fractions of the components multiplied by their specific
heats. The curve on Pg. 88 of Maxwell (miscellaneous gases)
is of particular interest for flue gas calculations. Note the large
difference in specific heat of water compared to the other gases.
Also note the formula for calculating the specific heat of
hydrogen. Specific heats for hydrocarbon liquids can be
obtained from Maxwell, Pg. 93. References 4, 5, and 6 are also
sources of specific heat data. TEMA has specific heat data on
pages 139-144.
Typical specific heats for commonly encountered hydrocarbon

liquids and vapors range from 0.4 to 0.7 Btu/lb°F. The specific
heat of water is taken as 1.0 for all normal cooling water
temperatures.
Effects of pressure on vapor specific heat can be obtained by

the curve on Pg. 92 of Maxwell. The enthalpy curves can also
be used to back calculate specific heat by dividing the difference
in enthalpy at two temperature points by the temperature
difference of the interval. This method automatically
compensates for pressure.
Specific heat is used to calculate temperature rise with a known

heat input, heat required for a given temperature rise, and mass
rate for a given Q and ∆T provided there is no phase change.
This is expressed as:
Q = mCp∆T
where: Q = Heat Duty, Btu/hr.

m = Mass Rate, lb/hr.
∆T = Temperature change °F.
Cp = Specific Heat, Btu/lb°F.
This formula is extremely useful for calculating the temperature

rise across a heat exchanger (when there is not change of
phase), especially on the cooling water side or air side of
coolers. It can be used for flue gas waste heat boilers and also
to determine the blended temperature of two or more streams.
Example Problems 5 and 6 illustrate the use of this formula.

Example Problem 6
A 10,000 lb/hr liquid hydrocarbon stream is to be cooled from
400°F to 200°F. The volume average boiling point (VABP) is
250°F and the API = 70.
How much heat must be removed?
Find the specific heat (Cp)from Maxwell p. 93. Cp+B is read from
the lower figure for a given temperature and oAPI. B is read
from the upper figure for a given VABP.
Answer:
Cp+B B Cp
Cp at 400°F = 0.795 - 0.07 = 0.725 Maxwell, p. 93
Cp at 200°F = 0.678 - 0.07 = 0.608
0.725 + 0.608
Avg C p = = 0.667
2
Q = mCp∆T = 10,000 x 0.667 x (400 - 200) = 1.33 x 106 Btu/hr

Example Problem 7
How much cooling water would be needed for the cooler in the
previous example?
The cooling water temperature is 85°F inlet and 120°F outlet.
Answer:
The specific heat of water is 1 at cooling water temperatures.
Q
= 1.33 x 10
6
m= = 38,000 lb/hr
C p ∆T (1) x (120 - 85)
Thermal Conductivity
Thermal conductivity is a measure of the ease of heat
conduction of a substance. Thermal conductivities of
hydrocarbon liquids and gases, miscellaneous gases, and water
are given in Maxwell, Pg. 213 - 216. These will be used to
calculate Prandtl numbers in later heat transfer correlations.
TEMA has thermal conductivity data on pages 147-152.
The units for thermal conductivity are Btu/hr ft2 °F/ft. Note that
some data are given in °F/in. rather than °F/ft, and the
appropriate correction should be made to keep equation units
consistent. Work Aid 5 gives typical thermal conductivities for
heat exchanger materials.
Entropy
The second law of thermodynamics implies that heat cannot be
converted completely into work. Every device that converts
heat to work must reject a portion of the heat taken in to a lower
temperature sink. Entropy is related to the quality of the heat. It
is possible to get more work from a small amount of high-
pressure steam than from a larger amount of hot water
containing the same amount of total heat. The entropy per
pound of hot water is higher than that of the steam. In a
reversible (ideal) process, the entropy remains constant during
adiabatic expansion or compression. In an actual process
Entropy always increases. The deviation from constant entropy
is a measure of the process efficiency.

Mollier Diagrams
Thermodynamic diagrams show the relationships between
temperature, pressure, volume, enthalpy, and entropy for a
substance. The entropy - enthalpy diagram is called a Mollier
diagram. Mollier diagrams are useful in steam turbine
calculations, as the following example illustrates.
The theoretical energy available (∆hs) for conversion to shaft

work by a steam turbine is the difference in enthalpy of the
starting and ending conditions (HS - HET in Figure 24) constant
entropy. The actual energy available (∆ha) is the actual
difference in enthalpy of the starting and ending condition (HS -
HE in Figure 24).
2545  lbm 
TSR =
∆h s  HP - hr 
∆h a
ηi = = 1350 - 1030 = 320 = 0.73
∆hs 1350 - 920 430
Net horsepower
ηe = ηi = η1(mechanical efficiency)
Gross horsepower
  
ASR =  TSR   lbm 
 η e   HP - hr 
where: ASR = Actual steam rate, 1b/hp-hr

TSR = Theoretical steam rate, lb/hp-hr
ηi = Internal efficiency
ηe = External or overall efficiency
∆hs = Theoretical energy available (constant
entropy) Btu/lb
∆ha = Actual energy available, Btu/lb
The relationship between ηi and ηe is mechanical efficiency

which approaches 100% because bearing losses are usually
small.

Figure 24. Use of Mollier Diagram For Steam Turbine Calculations
For the efficiency, use the manufacturer's values if available.

For rough calculations, the efficiencies are:
Single-Stage Turbine 30 - 45%
Multistage Turbine 50 - 65%
The ending enthalpy, HE, is then:
 2545 
H E = HS − 
ASR x Mechanical efficiency 

Example Problem 8
A turbine with an internal efficiency of 75% expands steam from
600 psia and 700°F to an exhaust pressure of 2 psia.
Determine the exhaust moisture content. See Figure 24.
From Figure 24
HS = 1350 Btu/lb for 600 psia and 72°F
At constant entropy (straight line down) to 2 psia.
HET = 423 Btu/lb
∆hS = HS-HET = 1350 -923 = 427 Btu/lb
TSR = 2545 = 2545 = 5.96 lb/hp - hr

∆h S 427
For an overall turbine efficiency at 75%.
TSR 5.96
ASR = = = 7.95 lb/hp - hr
ηe 0.75
ASR will actually be slightly higher because of small mechanical

losses.
H E = H S − 2545 = 1350 − 2545 = 1350 − 320 = 1030 Btu /lb

ASR 7.95
Alternately
∆ha = ∆hs x ηi = 427 x 0.75 = 320 Btu/lb
HE = Hs - ∆ha = 1350 - 320 = 1030 Btu/lb
From Figure 24 for HE of 1030 B at 2 psia, the moisture is 8.4%.

KEY FORMULAS
The following is a brief summary of the more important/useful

aspects of this module. Note that most of these items are easily
programmed for personal computer usage.
• Calculations that lend themselves to personal computer

spreadsheet programming:
- Material covered in Figures 5 and 6.
- Mole fraction from composition, effective pressure,

overall compressibility factor, and enthalpy blending.
PV = ZNRT R = 10.73 T = °R
P = psia N = lb-moles
V = ft3
P x MW
Gas Density, lb/ft 3 = MW = mole weight, lb/mole
ZRT
Q = mCp∆T Q = Btu/hr
m = lb/hr
Cp = Btu/lb°F
∆T = °F
Liquid sp. gr. x 62.4 = density, lb/ft3 at sp. gr. temperature
Vis cosity : cSt = cP

sp.gr.
Volume of 1 mole gas at standard cond. = 379 SCF (60°F, 14.7 psia)
Figure 25. Formulas/Constants

WORK AID 1: CONVERSION FACTORS AND CONSTANTS

Conversions: Maxwell pp. 249 - 251
Molar Gas Volume = 379 SCF/lb-mole at 60°F and 14.7 psia
Gas Constant, R 1.986 Btu/lb-mole °R PV=ZNRT
P=absolute pressure
10.73 psi-ft3/lb-mole °R
V=volume
1545 lb/ft2 - ft3/lb-mole °R
Z=compressibility
.7302 cu ft - atm/lb mole °R
T=absolute temperature
Standard Gravity 32.174 ft/s/s
980.66 cm/s/s
Standard Atmosphere 1,013,250 dynes/cm2
14.696 psi
101,325 pascals
Standard Conditions (STP)
(SCF, Sm3) 14.7 psia and 60°F, 1.03 kg/cm2 and 15.6 °C
Normal Conditions (NTP)
(Nm3, NCF) 14.7 psia and 32°F, 1.03 kg/cm2 and 0°C
Temperature °F = 32 + 1.8°C
°R = °F + 460
Pressure psig = psia - 14.7, psia = psig + 14.7
Density of Air and Water
Air density at STP = 0.07598 lb/ft3
Water density at 60°F
= 62.4 lb/ft3 = 8.33 lb/gal = 350 lb/B
density of gas
Specific Gravity Gases SpGr =
density of air at STP
MWgas
SpGrSTP =
29 (MWair )
density of fluid
Liquids SpGr =
density of water at 60o F
141.5
SpGr60 =
131.5 + API
141.5
°API = − 131.5
SpGr60
cP
Viscosity cSt =
SpGr

Multiply By To Get Multiply By To Get

Pressure kg/cm2 0.07031 PSIA PSIA 14.223 kg/cm2
kPa 0.14503 PSIA PSIA 6.895 kPa
BAR 14.5 PSIA PSIA 0.06847 BAR
ATM 14.7 PSIA PSIA 0.06803 ATM
Mass kg 2.205 lbs lbs 0.4535 kg

Metric tonne 2205 lbs lbs 4.545 x 10-4 Metric tonne
grams 1.43 x 10-4 lbs lbs 7000 grams
grams 2.205 x 10-3 lbs lbs 453.6 grams
Density kg/m3 0.06243 lb/ft3 lb/ft3 16.018 kg/m3
Length mm 3.2808 x 10-3 ft ft 304.8 mm

m 3.2808 ft ft 0.3048 m
Area mm2 1.55 x 10-3 in2 in2 645.2 mm2

m2 10.76 ft2 ft2 0.09294 m2
ft2 144 in2 in2 0.006944 ft2
Volume m3 264.17 gal gal 3.785 x 10-3 m3

m3 35.32 ft3 ft3 0.028313 m3
m3 6.289 B B 0.159 m3
gals 0.02381 B B 42 gals
ft3 0.1781 B B 5.615 ft3
liters 0.2642 gal gal 3.785 liters
Rate kg-mole/s 7920 lb-mole/hr lb-mole/hr 1.263 x 10-4 kg-mole/s

kg/s 7920 lb/hr lb/hr 1.263 x 10-4 kg/s
B/D 0.0291 gpm gpm 34.286 B/D
Heat kcal 0.252 Btu Btu 3.968 kcal
Ht Transfer W/m2 °C 0.176 Btu/hr ft2 °F Btu/hr ft2 °F 5.68 W/m2 °C
Heat Duty W 3.413 Btu/hr Btu/hr 0.293 W
Conductivity W/m °C 0.5779 Btu/hr ft °F Btu/hr ft °F 1.73 W/m °C
∆T LMTD°C 1.8 LMTD°F LMTD°F 0.5555 LMTD°C
Power Btu/hr 3.93 x 10-4 HP HP 2544 Btu/hr

watts 1.341 x 10-3 HP HP 745.7 watts
Foul Factor °C m2/W 5.68 °F ft2hr/Btu °F ft2hr/Btu 0.176 °C m2/hr
Viscosity lb/hr-ft 0.4132 Cp Cp 2.42 lb/hr-ft
Corrosion Allowance 1/16 in. = 1.5 mm (Nominal)

1/8 in. = 3 mm
3/16 in. = 4.5 mm
1/4 in. = 6 mm

Nozzle Sizes Inches Nominal mm

1/2 15
3/4 20
1 25
1.5 40
2 50
2.5 65
3 80
Nozzle Sizes Inches Nominal mm

4 100
6 150
8 200
10 250
12 300
14 350
16 400
20 500
24 600
30 750
Water Properties
Density @ 60°F = 62.4 lbs/ft3 = 8.33 lbs/gal = 350 lbs/B

Specific Heat = 1 Btu/lb of (Normal cooling water temperature)
Viscosity = 1 CP (Normal cooling water temperature)
Specific Gravity
Liquid Gas
141.5 MWGAS
SpGr 60° = SpGrSTP =
131.5 + API MWAIR
141.5
API = = 131.5
SpGr 60°F

WORK AID 2: VISCOSITY GRAPH PAPER
Source: ASTM Standard Viscosity-Temperature Charts D341-39. With permission

from the American Society of Testing and Materials.

Source: ASTM Standard Viscosity-Temperature Charts D341-39. With permission from the
American Society of Testing and Materials.

WORK AID 3: ENTHALPY OF PROPANE
Figure 28. Enthalpy of Propane

WORK AID 4: STEAM TABLE
Specific Volume Enthalpy Enthropy

Temp Abs Press Sat. Sat. Sat. Sat. Sat. Sat. Temp
Fahr lb/in.2 Liquid Evap Vapor Liquid Evap Vapor Liquid Evap Vapor Fahr
t p Vf Vfg Vg hf hfg hg Sf Sfg Sg t
180.0 7.5110 0.016510 50.21 50.22 148.00 990.2 1138.2 0.2631 1.5480 1.8111 180.0
182.0 7.850 0.016522 48.172 18.189 150.01 989.0 1139.0 0.2662 1.5413 1.8075 182.0
184.0 8.203 0.016534 46.232 46.249 152.01 987.8 1139.8 0.2694 1.5346 1.8040 184.0
186.0 8.568 0.016547 44.383 44.400 154.02 986.5 1140.5 0.2725 1.5279 1.8004 186.0
188.0 8.947 0.016559 42.621 42.638 156.03 985.3 1141.3 0.2756 1.5213 1.7969 188.0
190.0 9.340 0.016572 40.941 40.957 158.04 984.1 1142.1 0.2787 1.5148 1.7934 190.0
192.0 9.747 0.016585 39.337 39.354 160.05 982.8 1142.9 0.2818 1.5082 1.7900 192.0
194.0 10.168 0.016598 37.808 37.824 162.05 981.6 1143.7 0.2848 1.5017 1.7865 194.0
196.0 10.605 0.016611 36.348 36.364 164.06 980.4 1144.4 0.2879 1.4952 1.7831 196.0
198.0 11.058 0.016624 34.954 34.970 166.08 979.1 1145.2 0.2910 1.4888 1.7798 198.0
200.0 11.526 0.016637 33.622 33.639 168.09 977.9 1146.0 0.2940 1.4824 1.7764 200.0
204.0 12.512 0.016664 31.135 31.151 172.11 975.4 1147.5 0.3001 1.4697 1.7698 204.0
208.0 13.568 0.016691 28.862 28.878 176.14 972.8 1149.0 0.3061 1.4571 1.7632 208.0
212.0 14.696 0.016719 26.782 26.799 180.17 970.3 1150.5 0.3121 1.4447 1.7568 212.0
216.0 15.901 0.016747 24.878 24.894 184.20 967.8 1152.0 0.3181 1.4323 1.7505 216.0
220.0 17.186 0.016775 23.131 23.148 188.23 965.2 1153.4 0.3241 1.4201 1.7442 220.0
224.0 18.556 0.016805 21.529 21.545 192.27 962.6 1154.9 0.3300 1.4081 1.7380 224.0
228.0 20.015 0.016834 20.056 20.073 196.31 960.0 1156.3 0.3359 1.3961 1.7320 228.0
232.0 21.567 0.016864 18.701 18.718 200.35 957.4 1157.8 0.3417 1.3842 1.7260 232.0
236.0 23.216 0.016895 17.454 17.471 204.40 954.8 1159.2 0.3476 1.3725 1.7201 236.0
240.0 24.968 0.016926 16.304 16.321 208.45 952.1 1160.6 0.3533 1.3609 1.7142 240.0
244.0 26.826 0.016958 15.243 15.260 212.50 949.5 1162.0 0.3591 1.3494 1.7085 244.0
248.0 28.796 0.016990 14.264 14.281 216.56 946.8 1163.4 0.3649 1.3379 1.7028 248.0
252.0 30.883 0.017022 13.358 13.375 220.62 944.1 1164.7 0.3706 1.3266 1.6972 252.0
256.0 33.091 0.017055 12.520 12.538 224.69 941.4 1166.1 0.3763 1.3154 1.6917 256.0
260.0 35.427 0.017089 11.745 11.762 228.76 938.6 1167.4 0.3819 1.3043 1.6862 260.0
264.0 37.894 0.017123 11.025 11.042 232.83 935.9 1168.7 0.3876 1.2933 1.6808 264.0
268.0 40.500 0.017157 10.358 10.375 236.91 933.1 1170.0 0.3932 1.2823 1.6755 268.0
272.0 43.249 0.017193 9.738 9.755 240.99 930.3 1171.3 0.3987 1.2715 1.6702 272.0
276.0 46.147 0.017228 9.162 9.180 245.08 927.5 1172.5 0.4043 1.2607 1.6650 276.0
280.0 49.200 0.017264 8.627 8.644 249.17 924.6 1173.8 0.4098 1.2501 1.6599 280.0
284.0 52.414 0.01730 8.1280 8.1453 253.3 921.7 1175.0 0.4154 1.2395 1.6548 284.0
288.0 55.795 0.01734 7.6634 7.6807 257.4 918.8 1176.2 0.4208 1.2290 1.6498 288.0
292.0 59.350 0.01738 7.2301 7.2475 261.5 915.9 1177.4 0.4263 1.2186 1.6449 292.0
296.0 63.084 0.01741 6.8259 6.8433 265.6 913.0 1178.6 0.4317 1.2082 1.6400 296.0
300.0 67.005 0.01745 6.4483 6.4658 269.7 910.0 1179.7 0.4372 1.1979 1.6351 300.0
304.0 71.119 0.01749 6.0955 6.1130 273.8 907.0 1180.9 0.4426 1.1877 1.6303 304.0
308.0 75.433 0.01753 5.7655 5.7830 278.0 904.0 1182.0 0.4479 1.1776 1.6256 308.0
312.0 79.953 0.01757 5.4566 5.4742 282.1 901.0 1183.1 0.4533 1.1676 1.6209 312.0
316.0 84.688 0.01761 5.1673 5.1849 286.3 897.9 1184.1 0.4586 1.1576 1.6162 316.0
320.0 89.643 0.01766 4.8961 4.9138 290.4 894.8 1185.2 0.4640 1.1477 1.6116 320.0
324.0 94.826 0.01770 4.6418 4.6595 294.6 891.6 1186.2 0.4692 1.1378 1.6071 324.0
328.0 100.245 0.01774 4.4030 4.4208 298.7 888.5 1187.2 0.4745 1.1280 1.6025 328.0
332.0 105.907 0.01779 4.1788 4.1966 302.9 885.3 1188.2 0.4798 1.1183 1.5981 332.0
336.0 111.820 0.01783 3.9681 3.9859 307.1 882.1 1189.1 0.4850 1.1086 1.5936 336.0
340.0 117.992 0.01787 3.7699 3.7878 311.3 878.8 1190.1 0.4902 1.0990 1.5892 340.0
344.0 124.430 0.01792 3.5834 3.6013 315.5 875.5 1191.0 0.4954 1.0894 1.5849 344.0
348.0 131.142 0.01797 3.4078 3.4258 319.7 872.2 1191.1 0.5006 1.0799 1.5806 348.0
352.0 138.138 0.01801 3.2423 3.2603 323.9 868.9 1192.7 0.5058 1.0705 1.5763 352.0
356.0 145.424 0.01806 3.0863 3.1044 328.1 865.5 1193.6 0.5110 1.0611 1.5721 356.0
360.0 153.010 0.01811 2.9392 2.9573 332.3 862.1 1194.4 0.5161 1.0517 1.5678 360.0
364.0 160.903 0.01816 2.8002 2.8184 336.5 858.6 1195.2 0.5212 1.0424 1.5637 364.0
368.0 169.113 0.01821 2.6691 2.6873 340.8 855.1 1195.9 0.5263 1.0332 1.5595 368.0
372.0 177.648 0.01826 2.5451 2.5633 345.0 851.6 1196.7 0.5314 1.0240 1.5554 372.0
376.0 186.517 0.01831 2.4279 2.4462 349.3 848.1 1197.4 0.5365 1.0148 1.5513 376.0
380.0 195.729 0.01836 2.3170 2.3353 353.6 844.5 1198.0 0.5416 1.0057 1.5473 380.0
384.0 205.294 0.01842 2.2120 2.2304 357.9 840.8 1198.7 0.5466 0.9966 1.5432 384.0
388.0 215.220 0.01847 2.1126 2.1311 362.2 837.2 1199.3 0.5516 0.9876 1.5392 388.0
392.0 225.516 0.01853 2.0184 2.0369 366.5 833.4 1199.9 0.5567 0.9786 1.5352 392.0
396.0 236.193 0.01858 1.9291 1.9477 370.8 829.7 1200.4 0.5617 0.9696 1.5313 396.0
Source: ASME Steam Tables, 1967 edition. With permission from the American Society of
Mechanical Engineers.
Figure 29. Saturated Steam: Temperature Table

WORK AID 5: THERMAL CONDUCTIVITIES OF EXCHANGER

MATERIALS
Thermal Conductivity,
k
Material Composition Btu/hr ft2 °F/ft
Admiralty (71 Cu - 28 Zn - 1 Sn) 64

Type 316
Stainless Steel (17 Cr - 12 Ni - 2 Mo) 9
Type 304
Stainless Steel (18 Cr - 8 Ni) 9
Brass (70 Cu - 30 Sn) 57
Red Brass (85 Cu - 15 Zn) 92
Aluminum Brass (76 Cu - 22 Sn - 2Al) 58
Cupro-Nickel (90 Cu - 10 Ni) 41
Cupro-Nickel (70 Cu - 30 Ni) 17
Monel (67 Ni - 30 Cu - 1.4 Fe) 15
Inconel 11
Aluminum 117
Carbon Steel 26
Carbon-Moly (0.5 Mo) 25
Copper 223
Lead 20
Nickel 36
Titanium 11
Chrome-Moly Steel (1 Cr - 0.5 Mo) 24
(2-1/4 Cr - 0.5 Mo) 22
(5 Cr - 0.5 Mo) 20
(12 Cr - 1 Mo) 16
These values are good for all tube metal temperatures normally encountered in
exchanger design.

GLOSSARY
centipoise, cP A unit of viscosity that equals 0.01 g/cm-s. Also called

absolute viscosity.
centistoke, cSt The absolute viscosity of a fluid divided by its density at the
temperature in question.
characterization factor An index of the chemical character of pure hydrocarbons

and petroleum fractions.
critical pressure The pressure at the critical temperature.
critical temperature The temperature at which a substance's density and the

composition of the vapor phase are identical to that of the
liquid phase.
dimensional analysis A technique that enables correct conversion calculations by

ensuring dimensional consistency.
MABP Mean average boiling point
mean average The boiling point that best correlates the molecular weight
boiling point of the mixture. Determined by the molecular weight and
API gravity of the mix.
molal average The average boiling point of a mixture obtained by mole

boiling point fraction.
nominal The approximate size, specified by name.
normal conditions One atmosphere and 32°F.
pseudocritical A critical temperature and pressure of mixtures obtained by

temp. and press. using the molal average bp.
reduced pressure Actual pressure divided by critical pressure.
reduced temperature Actual temperature divided by the critical temperature.
Saybolt thermo An industrial viscosity measurement method for refined oils.
Saybolt universal An industrial viscosity measurement method for lubricating

and gas oils.

SCFM Standard cubic feet per minute.
standard conditions One atmosphere pressure and 60°F.
VABP Volume average boiling point
volume average The average boiling point of a mixture obtained by volume

weight average The average boiling point of a mixture obtained by weight


REFERENCES
1. API Publication 2564, Manual of Petroleum Measurement

Standards, Chapter 15 (Conversion factors; SI, metric, and
conventional).
2. API 44, Selected Values of Physical and Thermodynamic

Properties of Hydrocarbon and Related Compounds
(Surface tension values).
3. Data Book on Hydrocarbons, J. B. Maxwell (Hydrocarbon

physical properties).
4. Chemical Engineer's Handbook, 6th Edition, R. H. Perry

and D. Green (Physical properties, general information,
calc equations).
5. Standards of the Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers

Association (TEMA) (Properties, heat exchanger
information).
6. CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 64th Edition,

Robert C. Weast, Editor (General data).
7. Properties of Gases and Liquids, Reid, Prausnitz and

Sherwood.

ChE 101.01 Physical and Thermal Properties

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Engineering Encyclopedia

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

PHYSICAL AND THERMAL PROPERTIES

Chapter : Chemical For additional information on this subject, contact

Physical and Thermal Properties

UNITS AND DEFINITIONS ............................................................................................ 4

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards i

Physical and Thermal Properties

WORK AID 1: CONVERSION FACTORS AND CONSTANTS.................................... 38

WORK AID 2: VISCOSITY GRAPH PAPER ............................................................... 41

WORK AID 3: ENTHALPY OF PROPANE................................................................. 43

WORK AID 4: STEAM TABLE .................................................................................... 44

WORK AID 5: THERMAL CONDUCTIVITIES OF EXCHANGER MATERIALS .......... 45

Figure 8. Characterization Factor, K............................................................................ 11

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards ii

Physical and Thermal Properties

A plant engineer will often be asked to perform calculations of a

A number of topics in the text are not covered in detail, because

Each participant has been given a copy of the "Data Book on

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 3

Physical and Thermal Properties

UNITS AND DEFINITIONS

There are three unit systems currently in use. Customary units

(Note M is frequently used for 103 in refining).

Figure 1. Systems of Units

The following Example Problems 1 and 2 illustrate the

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 4

Physical and Thermal Properties

From Work Aid 1, the density of water is 8.33 lbs/gal.

gal 8.33 lbs 60 min

From Work Aid 1 water density is 62.4 lbs/ft3 at 60°F.

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 5

Physical and Thermal Properties

Figure 2 lists several sources of information and basic data

Note that the Maxwell Data Book is for hydrocarbons.

1. Saudi Aramco Engineering Standards.

Figure 2. Data Sources

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 6

Physical and Thermal Properties

Mixtures of hydrocarbon liquids are considered ideal, and the

Typical ASTM Distillation Curve

Figure 3. Typical ASTM Distillation Curve

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 7

Physical and Thermal Properties

Many physical properties of hydrocarbon mixtures can be

ABP Type Correlated Physical Property

1. Molal ABP (MoABP) TPC, Liquid Thermal Expansion

• 1 - 3 calculated by linear blends of boiling points of fractions with amount of

• MeABP correlates with mole wt. (definition of MeABP)

Figure 4. Boiling Points

Figures 5 and 6 show how to calculate mole ABP, WABP,

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 8

Physical and Thermal Properties

Comp. Mole Fr. MW bp Mole ABP lb/mole WABP

(Mole Fr. x (Mole Fr. x (Wt. Fr. x bp)

C3 0.10 44.1 -43.8 -4.38 4.41 - 3.41

IC4 0.40 58.1 10.9 4.36 23.24 4.47

NC4 0.5 58.1 31.1 15.5 29.05 15.93

1.00 15.53 56.70 16.99

Mole ABP Avg. MW WABP

Figure 5. Mole and Weight Average Boiling Points

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 9

Physical and Thermal Properties