Fuel Vol. 76, No. 8, pp.
691-696, 1997
ELSEVIER
PII: S0016-2361(96)00215-3
W o r l d w i d e production of coal
ash and utilization in concrete
and other products
O. E. Manz
Manz Associates, RRI, Box 20, Alvarado, MN 56710, USA
(Received 8 November 1995; revised 27 September 1996)
This paper summarizes coal ash production and utilization in the world and presents a country-by-country
survey of the use of coal ash in concrete. © 1997 Elsevier Science Ltd.
(keywords: coal ash; concrete; global surveys)
Worldwide the major use of coal ash is in concrete, which
exceeds any other single application. Since the worldwide
survey of the production and utilization of coal ash by
the author in 1977, there have been marked increases in
the use of coal ash in concrete. In the USA the increase in
use has been paralleled by a tremendous increase in the
number of power plants burning low-sulfur subbitu-
minous and lignite coals. Worldwide, there have been
annual increases in the use of coal ash in concrete,
including first-time production and use in several
countries. The impetus for the expanded use of coal
ash in concrete has been provided by at least 15
international conferences.
The state of the art is well established with respect to
coal ash as a cement raw material, for use in blended
cement and as a partial replacement for cement. Better
understanding exists of the advantages and disadvan-
tages of the use of coal ash in concrete. Better-quality
coal ashes are being produced, and there is widespread
concern for the characterization, classification and
specification of coal ash for use in concrete.
H I G H L I G H T S O F W O R L D COAL ASH
PRODUCTION AND UTILIZATION
The bulk of the information presented in this paper was
obtained through a questionnaire sent to selected
individuals in 29 countries. Three previous reports by
Manz 1 3 dealt with the worldwide production and
utilization of lignite and brown coal ash, and three 4~
with all types of coal ash.
According to Table 1, in 1992 China had the largest
production of coal ash, with Russia and the USA second
and third respectively. As given in Table 1, ,,~459 million
tonnes of coal ash were produced in 1992, with ~153
million tonnes, or 33.3%, utilized.
The total amount used in concrete was ~39 million
tonnes, consisting of 7.3 million tonnes as cement raw
material, 4.4 million tonnes in blended cement and 28.2
© 1997 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved
Printed in Great Britain
0016-2361/97/$17.00 + 0.00
million tonnes for cement replacement. China was first
and the USA the second largest user of coal ash in
concrete.
COAL ASH P R O D U C T I O N A N D U T I L I Z A T I O N
BY C O U N T R Y
Most of the data are for 1992, but some are for a specific
year within the period 1989-1994.
Argentina
There is only one coal-fired power plant in Argentina.
(PC1)*
Australia
Coal-fired power stations of significant size are located
in five of the eight states. These five states produced
~7.106 million tonnes of bituminous coal ash and
336000 tonnes of brown coal ash. Of the 875000
tonnes of bituminous coal ash used, -,~691 000 tonnes
were used as cement replacement or in blended cement.
None of the brown coal ash is used, but the potential
exists to produce marketable chemicals and high-purity
magnesium metal, as well as tertiary cement blends.
(PC2, 3)
Austria
Austria has brown coal and imports bituminous coal.
The ashes from the two coals are similar and were used as
cement raw material. (PC4)
Belgium
Belgium has only bituminous coal and used 500 000
tonnes of coal ash, or 64% of the coal ash produced, as
cement raw material, in blended cement or as cement
replacement. (PC5)
* PC1, etc., refer to the list o f personal communications following
References at the end o f the paper.
Fuel 1997 Volume 76 Number 8 691
 Worldwide production of coal ash and utilization in concrete and other products." O.E. Manz

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Fuel 1997 Volume 76 Number 8 693

Worldwide production of coal ash and utilization in concrete and other products: O.E. Manz
Bulgaria
The fly ash produced in Bulgaria was almost totally
from lignite. (PC6)
Canada
The total production of coal ash in Canada in 1992
was 8.464 million tonnes. Coal ash was produced in
Alberta, Saskatchewan, Ontario and the maritime
provinces. Over 226 000 tonnes were shipped in from
the USA. The use of coal ash for cement replacement is
widespread in Canada. (PC7-10)
Chile
There was no utilization of coal ash in Chile. (PC11)
China
In 1992, China led the world in coal ash production
and coal ash volume utilization as well as volume
utilization in concrete. From 1989 to 1992, the produc-
tion of fly ash increased from 55 to 81 million tonnes.
(ref. 7 and PC 12)
Colombia
About 111 000 tonnes of coal ash were used in blended
cement and 72000 tonnes as cement raw material.
(PC13)
Czech Republic
The Czech Republic produced 1.3 million tonnes of
bituminous coal ash and 8.1 million tonnes of brown coal
ash. (PC 14)
Denmark
Denmark imported bituminous coal and produced
1.176 million tonnes of coal ash. About 423 000 tonnes of
coal ash was used in cement and concrete. Over 40 000
tonnes was exported to Norway. (PC15)
Finland
Polish coal was used in Finland's power plants. Ash
utilization is down, due to less construction. (PC16)
France
The French thermal power companies are nationalized
under two bodies: Charbonnages de France and Elec-
tricit6 de France. Because of a partial replacement of
thermal power by nuclear, the production of coal ash has
declined. With over 862 000 tonnes used in cement and
concrete in 1993, France still had a large usage. (PC17)
Germany
In Germany, over 7.4 million tonnes of bituminous
coal ash and 12.6 million tonnes of lignite or brown coal
ash were produced in 1992. However, because of
contamination of the brown coal with clay during
open-pit mining, most of the brown coal ash is unusable
and is returned to the pit bottoms. Over 3.8 million
tonnes of bituminous coal ash were used in blended
cement, as cement raw material and in concrete, grout
and, specifically, non-aerated blocks. (PC18)
Greece
Greece has only lignite coal and produced 7 million
tonnes of coal fly ash in 1992. The use of 800 000 tonnes
as cement raw material is the fourth largest in the world.
(PC19)
694 Fuel 1997 Volume 76 Number 8
Hong Kong
There are two power companies in Hong Kong, with
production begun in 1982. In 1992, production was
>900000 tonnes. Over 270000 tonnes were used in
cement and concrete. (PC20)
Hungary
In 1989, Hungary produced mainly lignite coal ash,
with -,d45000 tonnes used in blended cement and
239 000 in aerated blocks. (PC21)
India
Over 100 million tonnes of mainly bituminous coal
was consumed in 1992 to produce ~40 million tonnes of
coal ash. By 1995, another 15 million tonnes were
expected to be produced. About 2% of the production,
or 800 000 tonnes, was used in blended cement, bricks
and structural fill. India has 1000 million tonnes of fly
ash in ash ponds 8.
Indonesia
Indonesia has three coal-fired power plants, with the
Suralaya plant producing 262 000 tonnes of coal ash in
1992. Fly ash is being used for concrete production and
for landfill. (PC22)
Ireland
The Irish cement industry used over 80 000 tonnes of
coal ash. (PC23)
Israel
In 1992 Israel used 347 000 tonnes of coal ash (66% of
production) as cement raw material and in blended
cement. A second power station began operation in 1991.
(PC24)
Italy
Italy has only lignite, but bituminous coal was being
imported from the USA, South Africa, and Poland. In
1992, only 242000 tonnes was used as cement raw
material and cement replacement, compared with 1.025
million tonnes in 1989, due to legislation restricting ash
use in concrete. (PC25)
Japan
Approximately 25% of the 4.131 million tonnes of
coal ash produced in Japan was used to replace clay as
cement raw material. Another 342 000 tonnes was used in
blended cement and concrete. (PC26)
Korea
Compared with 1989, the use of coal ash has increased
drastically, from 100 000 tonnes to 5.217 million tonnes.
Over 1.644 million tonnes was used as cement raw
material, in blended cement and as cement replacement.
(PC27)
Malaysia
Malaysia has one coal-fired power plant. In 1992,
45 000 tonnes was used in blended cement. (PC28)
Mexico
About 24 000 tonnes of coal ash from the only power
plant in Mexico was used in blended cement and
concrete. (PC29)
 Worldwide production of coal ash and utilization in concrete and other products: O.E. Manz
Netherlands
No coal is presently mined in the Netherlands, but
both coal and coal ash are imported, the latter because
production of coal ash was not enough to satisfy the
market. Over 575000 tonnes (67% of the domestic
production of 862000 tonnes) was used in blended
cement and concrete. (PC30)
Norway
There are no coal-fired plants in Norway, but 40 000
tonnes of coal ash was imported from Denmark for use
in blended cement. (PC 15)
Poland
Poland produced 6.16 million tonnes of lignite coal
ash and 7.8 million tonnes of bituminous ash, but mostly
the latter was utilized. Over 521 000 tonnes was used as
cement and raw material, as well as ,-~500000 tonnes in
aerated blocks. (PC31)
Portugal
In 1992, Portugal used 335 000 tonnes of coal ash in
blended cement and as cement replacement (89.5% of
production). (PC32)
Romania
In 1989, production was reported for only lignite coal
ash, consisting of 7 million tonnes of fly ash and 20
million tonnes of bottom ash. About 20 000 tonnes was
used in cement and concrete, as well as 120 000 tonnes in
aerated blocks. (PC33)
Russia
In 1992, Russia had the second largest production and
utilization of coal ash. About 6.5 million tonnes of lignite
ash and 56 million tonnes of bituminous and subbitu-
minous coal ash were produced. About 2.87 million
tonnes was used as cement raw material, in blended
cement and as cement replacement. Also, >5.5 million
tonnes was used in aerated and nonaerated blocks.
(PC34)
Slovakia
Slovakia used 250 000 tonnes in aerated blocks.
(PC35)
Slovenia (former Yugoslavia)
Slovenia is the only portion of the former Yugoslavia
for which data were available. The 130000 tonnes
utilized in blended cement and cement replacement was
12% of the ash production. (PC36)
South Africa
Worldwide, South Africa was the fifth largest prod-
ucer of coal ash, with 30 million tonnes of fly ash
produced in 1992. Disposal is a problem, since the
average ash content of the coal is -,~30wt%. In 1992,
397 000 tonnes was used in blended cement and concrete,
and 43000 tonnes was exported to Botswana and
Swaziland. (PC37)
Spain
In 1992, 4.4 million tonnes of hard coal and 4.6 million
tonnes of subbituminous and lignite coal ash were
produced. Over 1.2 million tonnes was used as cement
raw material, in blended cement and as cement replace-
ment. (PC38)
Sweden
There is no coal in Sweden, but coal was imported
from Australia, Poland, Russia and China. Compared
with 30 000 tonnes used in blended cement and cement
replacement in 1987, none was used as cement replace-
ment in 1992. This was because of the use of calcium to
scrub the SO2. However, 15 000 tonnes was used in
grout. (PC39)
Taiwan
In 1994, 1.505 million tonnes of coal ash was
produced, with ~811 000 tonnes used as cement replace-
ment and 57 000 tonnes in blended cement. (PC40)
Thailand
The Mae Moh power plant produced 1.09 million
tonnes of lignite ash in 1987. None was utilized. (PC41)
Turkey
About 95% of the 14 million tonnes of coal ash
produced in 1992 was lignite ash. About 91 000 tonnes
was used in blended cement. (PC42)
United Kingdom
1989 was the last year of the Central Electricity
Generating Board (CEGB) in the UK. It has been
replaced by two successor generation companies:
National Power and Power Gen. The use of 820 000
tonnes as cement replacement is an appreciable portion
of the 15.5 million of coal ash produced. The UK has a
well-established industry for use of coal ash in grout,
non-aerated and aerated blocks and lightweight aggre-
gate. Both National Power and Power Gen refused to
provide data for the 1992 survey. (PC43)
United States of America
Fly ash production in the USA decreased from 45.493
million tonnes in 1987 to 43.631 million tonnes in 1992.
There was also 16.368 million tonnes of bottom ash and
boiler slag produced in 1992. The USA is the third largest
producer of coal ash in the world. There were 450 coal-
fired power plants, with 1500 generating units.
The ash industry is proud of the job done in the
country under the free enterprise system. The major
emphasis for many years has been on the use of fly ash as
a cement replacement. Although the 1992 use of 7.168
million tonnes of coal ash in concrete and cement
products is substantial and is the second largest in the
world, there has not been much increase since 1987, when
the usage was 5.740 million tonnes 9'1°.
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4 Manz, O. E., Ash production and utilization in the
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696 Fuel 1997 Volume 76 Number 8