Assignment

On
What is Sports Violence and it’s Causes?
Introduction

Sport plays an important part in human development and in strengthening the

fabric of society. It fosters social integration and participation and thereby makes a
valuable contribution to democracy. It promotes understanding between
individuals and groups from different countries and cultures. It also brings major
economic benefits at local, regional and national level. All of this is put at risk by
violence. Violence in sports involves the execution of behaviors that cause harm
and happen out of the rules and regulations of sports. Currie defines violence in
sports as "physical assault that is intended to cause physical pain or injury to
another player (or fan, coach, game official etc.), where such harmful actions bear
no direct relationship to the rules and associated competitive goals of the sport".
Violence in sports includes aggressive behaviors that are not related to the
purposes of the given sport. Reports indicate that there has been an increase in the
severity and the frequency of violence in sports. Surveys show that violence has
been prevalent mostly in sports such as football, ice hockey, and rugby. Although
violence in sports often stems from the players, other people among them being
parents, media, coaches, and fans have contributed to the epidemic of violence in
sports presently. Violence in sports can occur in various ways. Theories have been
proposed to explain their occurrence i.e. psychological, biological, and social
learning theories. Generally, the theories insinuate that instrumental violence
which is usually non-emotional and mission- oriented kind of violence has harm as
its main objective. In most instances of violence in sports, it is reactive violence
that is depicted whereby fans incite players to engage in violence on the one hand
and reflect violence (the fans) on the other. Therefore, violence in sports is an
epidemic that is triggered by the involvement of diverse groups of people including
the media, fans, parents, coaches, and the players themselves.
Theory
Theories that Explain Violence in Sports Basically, there are three theories that
have been proposed to explain violence in sports. These theories are the biological
theory, the psychological theory, and the social learning theory.
Biological Theory
Biological theory suggests that violence is a fundamental inherent human behavior.
It is on the basis of this theory therefore that sports have been perceived to be a
socially suitable way through which humans can discharge violence that has been
built up in them. The theory articulates that sport is an acceptable way for athletes
to release steam or aggression that has been pent-up. The theory upholds the need
for people to engage in sports because it helps them vent out aggression. However,
as it regards to violence in sports, the theory is of the opinion that it is the innate
feelings of aggression in people that prompts them to engage in violence behaviors
hence violence in sport is one of the ways that human beings use to release the vent
up aggression within them.
Psychological Theory
The psychological theory holds that violence is caused by dissatisfaction. That is,
violence results from the effect of a situation. For that reason, frustration is
generated when the person is blocked from achieving a certain goal. In sports
particularly, frustration can result from dubious calls made by the sports officials,
inability to make a certain play, injuries that cause interference with best possible
performance, boos from spectators, or jeering by players or coaches. The act of
violence in sports is thus attributed to the socialization process that has been
undertaken on athletes and their perception of aggression. This means that the
occurrence of violence in sports is dependent on the emotions that have been
created in the minds of the athletes especially by coaches. For instance, in the case
where a coach emphasizes winning and nothing less, frustration may accrue when
the players do not achieve this aim triggering the occurrence of violence. For that
reason, the psychological state created in the minds of the players is fundamental
to the prevention or occurrence of violence in sports.
Social Learning Theory
The Social learning theory on the other hand suggests that violent behavior results
from learning. According to the theory, persons learn new behaviors through
modeling and also through modeling by the use of punishments and rewards. In
sports, the young players perceive their sports heroes as role models and as a
result, they imitate their behaviors. At the same time, coaches, team mates, and
parents may also be taken to be role models and may depict support for violent
playing styles. Therefore, violence in sports can occur due to young sports persons
imitating the behaviors of their role models which may suggest aggression.
Coaches depict the values and skills of sports that are esteemed by youngsters and
that is why Violence in sports can occur in various ways. Theories have been
proposed to explain their occurrence i.e. psychological, biological, and social
learning theories. Generally, the theories insinuate that instrumental violence
which is usually non-emotional and mission- oriented kind of violence has harm as
its main objective. In most instances of violence in sports, it is reactive violence
that is depicted whereby fans incite players to engage in violence on the one hand
and reflect violence (the fans) on the other. Therefore, violence in sports is an
epidemic that is triggered by the involvement of diverse groups of people including
the media, fans, parents, coaches, and the players themselves. They tend to imitate
these values and skills. Primarily, within any given social environment, actions that
are exhibited are usually motivated by others and the social circumstances present.
In terms of leadership and role models, the behaviors they hold up are the
behaviors that will be imitated by those that they lead. Therefore, children will
imitate the virtues or the vices as they are executed by coaches. In the case where
violence is portrayed by coaches, then the possibility of violence in sports is
enhanced.
Violence in Sports
Violence in sports can be undertaken by spectators or by players. According to a
wide range of research studies, spectators can incite or reflect sports violence based
on the cues that they are given by players, other spectators, cheerleaders, and
coaches. In the norm, spectators obtain a sense of self confidence and social
identity from their teams. This causes them to emulate the behaviors of these
players in order to show identification. It is the connection with a given team that
creates group unity between the players, fans, and coaches hence they perceive
opposing teams as being enemies. The perception of other teams as enemies
promotes hostility towards the enemy groups and the hostility extends to
supporters, geographical location, ethnicities, and the alleged social class.
Furthermore, spectators can engage in violence due to reinforcement of aggressive
acts by either players, coaches, parents, or mass media. For example, when a
player portrays an aggressive style of playing and he or she is immensely rewarded
or paid a huge amount of salary, spectators read such cues and support aggression
or engage in aggressive behaviors as well. However, when violence behavior by
players is criticized by either parents, media, or coaches, the spectators are not
prone to engage in violent behaviors. In that case, violence in sports is dependent
on punishments or rewards that are given to reinforce sports. According to
Jamieson and Orr, the values and skills that are supported by coaches influence
how the players play and interact with opponents on the field. In turn, the same
attitude is transferred to the spectator’s hence causing or preventing violence in
sports depending on the values that have been supported by the coaches. In most
cases, players engage in physical violence against the other teams as a strategy
developed by coaches to defeat rival teams. When that happens, the players may
opt to fighting instead of playing and the effects of the fights may extend to the
fans and the whole field would be chaotic. Apart from the spectators, players can
also be involved in violent behaviors during or after the game. Violence in sports
by players is often vented on opposing players. As stated by the social learning
theory, it is the reinforcements and punishments at hand that in one way or the
other influence the occurrence or the absence of violence in sports. When violence
in sports is punished, there is a low likelihood of the same violence being repeated.
For example in February 2, 2000 in Gm Place, Vancouver, a cowardly swing was
made by Marty McSorley who hit the head of Donald Brashear from behind using
a hockey stick. The issue was negatively perceived since Marty was an elite athlete
hence his loss of cool through violence in the field was punished by being
suspended from the league for the longest time in history of sports confederation.
Such incidences reduce cases of violence in sports because players are encouraged
to avoid aggressive behaviors and do not create negative cues to spectators or fans.
In other cases, violence in sports can result from verbal abuse by players, parents,
coaches, and fans when they do not like moves by the other teams' fans, players,
and coaches. These abuses make the opposing teams or supporters angry and
eventually release their anger through violence. An example is when fans chant
racist chants; the verbal abuse against the opponents augments frustration and
forms a stage for violence to occur. Therefore, the loyalty that the fans, players,
coaches, and parents have towards a team can prompt them to verbally abuse the
supporters of the opposing team and consequently engage in violent behaviors.
Mass media also plays a role in promoting sports and in triggering violence in
sports. The main aim of the media is to provide its recipients who include sports
fans with entertainment. For that reason, the media airs all the leagues, money, and
records which in turn stimulate the players to desire excellence leading to the
creation of intense competitive sports for the spectators or fans. The media can
show how competition in sport is healthy e.g. it promotes the development of
sportsmanship skills. Similarly, the media can encourage rough and violent play by
giving violent plays more airtime compared to other normal plays. By using
television, radio, newspapers, and magazines, they inform the public about issues
surrounding sports and even glamorize famous players. The media may also
expose the viewer to information on how to control and curb violence in sports. On
the other hand, the media can show sports and violence related to sports.
Consequently, children access examples of sports violence which they may
emulate. Some of the commentaries may provide the viewers with descriptions that
suggest a link between excitement and violence.
Causes
There are two major theories on the cause of violence in sports. One theory holds
that humans have an instinct for violence, developed during a time when early
human ancestors had to resort to violence and aggressiveness to survive and
reproduce. Another theory deals with the sociological aspects of violence in sports,
stating that sports are "mock battles" which can become actual battles due to their
competitive nature.

Violence by Athletes
Through a "civilizing process", many modern sports have become less tolerant of
bloodshed than past versions, although many violent aspects of these sports still
remain. Athletes sometimes resort to violence, in hopes of injuring and
intimidating opponents. Such incidents may be part of a strategy developed by
coaches or players.
In boxing, unruly or extremely violent behavior by one of the contestants often
results in the fighter breaking the rules being penalized with a point’s reduction, or,
in extreme cases, disqualification. Outlawed tactics in boxing include hitting the
opponent on the back of the head, under the belly during clinching, and to the
back. Other tactics that are outlawed, but less seen, are pushing an opponent
extremely hard to the floor, kicking, or hitting repeatedly after the round has
ended. Similar actions have also happened in ice hockey and Australian Football
League matches.

Ritual Violence
High school, college, and even professional sports teams often
include initiation ceremonies as a rite of passage. A 1999 study by Alfred
University and the NCAA found that approximately four out of five college US
athletes (250,000 per year) experienced hazing. Half were required to take part in
alcohol-related initiations, while two-thirds were subjected to humiliation rituals.
Violence may also be related to nationalism or as an outlet for underlying social
tensions. It is often alcohol-related.
Violence by supporters of sports teams dates back to Roman times, when
supporters of chariot racing teams were frequently involved in major riots. Usually,
underlying political and theological issues helped fuel riots related to sporting
events in the Roman era. The Nika riots of 532 were especially deadly, with tens of
thousands reportedly killed.
In periods when theatre was considered a form of mass entertainment, there were
phenomena of rival fans supporting rival actors or theatrical teams, occasionally
leading to violent outbursts having many similarities to present-day violence of
sports fans – the Astor Place Riot in 1849 New York City being a conspicuous
example.
The actions of English football hooligans and firms in the 1980s caused English
teams to be banned from European competition for six years after the Heysel
Stadium disaster in 1985. Although the level of football-related violence was
significantly reduced in England after this event, in the recent Euro
2004 tournament, England were publicly warned that any violence by supporters at
matches could result in their ejection from the tournament. Many known hooligans
were prevented from traveling to the tournament in Portugal. There was a
collective sigh of relief from security experts in the USA when England failed to
qualify for the 1994 FIFA World Cup. Alan Rothenberg (chairman of the World
Cup organizing committee in the United States in 1994) said:
There were three countries in the world whose presence would have created
logistical and security problems, so we're very pleased they won't be coming: Iraq,
Iran and England.
From Munich to Christchurch: When Violence Hit Sports
The Bangladesh cricket team escaped unhurt and was not even the target but violence
has been specifically directed at sportspersons in the past, leading to bloody
repercussions. Here is a look at instances when sport, often a tool to propagate the
idea of world peace, found itself caught in the crossfire.
1972 Munich Olympics: The most gruesome incident of targeted violence against
sportspersons happened on September 5, 1972. Eleven Israeli athletes and coaches
were taken hostage and eventually murdered by terrorists during a 16-hour ordeal,
during which the world was witness to chilling images of athletes held captive on
gunpoint.

1987 New Zealand tour of Sri Lanka (Cricket): It was to be a three-Test tour but
New Zealand abandoned it after just the first match when a bomb planted by
separatists exploded near the team hotel in Colombo, killing 113 civilians.

2002 New Zealand tour of Pakistan (Cricket): New Zealand's cricket team was
touring Pakistan in 2002 when a bomb went off outside their hotel, killing 12 people.
The players were unscathed but the Black Caps' Board decided to call back the team.
A year before this, New Zealand were on their way to Pakistan for a series before
heading back midway owing to the September 11 terror attack in the USA. The series
was eventually abandoned.

2009 Sri Lanka tour of Pakistan (Cricket): The Sri Lankan team was on its way to
play what was to be the third day of the second Test against Pakistan at the Gaddafi
Stadium in Lahore. The team bus was, however, intercepted by at least a dozen
terrorists who fired at the bus, resulting in injuries to six Sri Lankan players and the
death of the bus driver. Six policemen died protecting the players while two civilians
were also killed. The Lankan team returned home and Pakistan has not hosted an
international match since then.

2010 African Nations Cup Football Tournament: Togo's national football side was
travelling through the Angolan province of Cabinda for the African Nations Cup when
the team bus came under gun fire from separatists. The side's assistant manager and
media officer were killed in the attack.
2019 Bangladesh tour of New Zealand (cricket): A day before the start of what was
to be the third and final Test of the tour, Bangladesh's cricket team was on its way for
Friday prayers at the Masjid Al Noor mosque in Christchurch, which was to be
followed by a practice session. The mosque came under attack from a gunman,
identified as an Australian extremist, and led to the killing 49 people. The players
remained safe but the tour was called off.

Effects

The damaging impact of violence or the threat of violence at or in connection with

sports events can extend far beyond its victims or those who may witness it.
• It actively discourages families, women, children, older people, ethnic minorities
and people with disabilities from attending matches.
• It creates a climate of fear among local residents, particularly those from ethnic
minorities, around stadiums.
• It ties up police and medical resources that could more productively be deployed
elsewhere. • Additionally, it may disrupt road and rail travel across a wide area.

Preventing Violence in Sports

There are a number of ways through which violence in sports can be prevented.
Coaches and physical educators are the group of people who are in the best
position to curb violence in sports by helping to create positive thoughts in sports.
Some of the ways of preventing violence in sports include;
Putting Sports in Viewpoint: Coaches should avoid highlighting the attainment
of victory at all costs. It has been found that, some coaches stimulate players to
make sure that they win instead of encouraging them to enjoy themselves and seek
to develop their individual skills in sports. Coaches are expected to praise skill
development and not equate the performance of a player with that player's worth.
Similarly, coaches can demonstrate stoic value by not allowing injured players to
play. By doing this, coaches would have curbed violence in sports and encourage
enjoyment as well as skill development in players.
Provision of Positive Role Models: According to studies, violence in sports
occurs in professional sports. In order to reduce the possibility of violence, coaches
should avoid being symbolically associated with professional teams for example
by using their names or logos. In addition, coaches should not use coaching
techniques that are being used by professional coaches. Instead, it is paramount
that coaches use coaching strategies that encourage team work and ownership of
the team by the players. Coaches should encourage players to contribute to the
success of the team by allowing them to participate in decision making and
listening to their feedback about the team. When players develop ownership of the
team, togetherness is fostered hence facilitating for better performance.
Integration of Values That Encourage Intervention into Sports Curriculum:
Strategies that encourage moral development will produce improved or modified
behaviors towards sportsmanship. Coaches and teachers should teach positive
values related to sports so that when players are in the field, they will show
positive attitudes. The same attitudes may be encouraged among spectators.
Therefore, inculcation of positive values among players will enhance positive
attitude among players and spectators and hence reduce violence in sports.
Involvement of Parents: Parents have a great influence on the life of their
children and thus they can immensely influence the attitude that the child develops
towards sports. Coaches and physical educators can involve parents by educating
them on the activities and objectives of co-curricular activities and how to be
vigilant on aggressive behaviors. In addition, parents can be informed on how they
can encourage their children to have positive attitudes towards competition.
Consequently, this involvement will form a platform from which players and
spectators can have realistic anticipation for sports performances. Furthermore,
parents can be involved in reducing violence in sports by helping to reduce
violence among players in the same team. For instance, there can be a get together
between parents and the team players. During socialization, the team players and
their parents will develop a close relationship that will enable them work together
as a team and prevent cases of violence since they will be supporting one team and
not an individual child.
Fan Penalties: By initiating the use of fan penalties, violence in sports can be
reduced because the measure ensures that the behaviors of the fans are kept
constantly in check. Just as referees in normal plays use yellow cards as a warning
sign to the players for extreme fouls e.g. use of bad language or ferocious tackles,
the fans can as well be assigned a yellow card if the fans are unruly and when the
unruly behavior continues, the fans can be given a red card and be automatically
forfeited from watching the game.

Conclusion
Violence in sports is the depiction of aggressive behavior against the rules and
regulations of a particular sport. Biological, social learning and psychological
theory are the three theories that have been proposed to explain violence in sports.
The biological theory suggests that violence results from the innate being of a
person, the psychological theory asserts that violence results from frustration
caused by lack of achievement of certain goals while the social learning theory
states that violence results from imitation. Violence in sports is common in
competitive sports notably ice hockey, football, rugby, wresting, basketball and
boxing. Violence in sports can be in the form of verbal abuse, threats, or physical
injury executed by players, spectators, coaches, parents of young players, and fans
or triggered by mass media. However, there are measures that can be implemented
to prevent or curb violence in sports such as involvement of parents, fan penalties,
putting sports in viewpoint, provision of positive role models and integration of
values that encourage intervention into sports curriculum.