Aruna Koneru - English Language Skills-Mc Graw Hill India (2011)

English
Language Skills
About the Author
Aruna Koneru has been a faculty in the languages group at the Birla Institute of Technology and Science
(BITS), Pilani, Rajasthan for twelve years. She has also taught as a visiting professor in ICFAI Institute of
Science and Technology, Hyderabad.
Dr. Koneru has been teaching English language skills, technical report writing, linguistics, phonetics,
semantics and science-related writing at different levels for the past thirty five years. She has also taught
professional communication to employees of various companies. She has been associated with training
medical transcription professionals and GRE aspirants as well. She did her Ph D from BITS, Pilani, on
‘A Sociolinguistic Approach to English Language Teaching in India’.
English
Language Skills
Aruna Koneru
Formerly with BITS, Pilani (Rajasthan)
and
ICFAI Institute of Science and Technology, Hyderabad
Tata McGraw Hill Education Private Limited

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English Language Skills
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Preface
The almost universally expressed needs of a learner in the 21st century are: enrichment of vocabulary, correct
pronunciation and acquisition of language skills namely listening, speaking, reading and writing (LSRW).
It is strongly believed that the sound knowledge of language and continuous practice of various skills help in
developing the competence of the learner. The aim of this book is to provide knowledge and the application
of that knowledge to achieve proficiency in all four language skills (LSRW). Although the learner would
have been acquiring these skills right from school, this book provides a new and fresh approach to meet
day-to-day requirements of the use of language in a comprehensive and effective way. Effectiveness in using
language requires the possession of sound knowledge and definite skills. Without knowledge, skill is wasted
and without skill, knowledge loses its power. Knowledge provides concept and skill helps you to apply that
concept in everyday situations. To have skill and no knowledge leads to loquaciousness and bombast. To have
knowledge and no skill leads to rancour and discontent. Hence the main purpose of this book is to develop
proficiency in using language for specific purposes of speaking, listening with concentration, reading with
different speeds and writing correctly.
The approach of this book is specific and unique inasmuch as it is based on long experience. It provides,
in addition to the explanation of the concept, instructions and guidelines to employ all four language skills;
it also creates interest, curiosity, excitement and motivation in the learner to get himself or herself immersed
in the process of learning. By simply scanning the pages of the book, the learner gets an idea of certain facts
such as the pronunciation of some sounds, some letter combinations with ‘th-’, the analysis of the word like
the prefix ‘un-’ as a negative marker, the part of the word, and also the positive marker, homophones, etc. The
learner can register a lot of information by going through the book. A single exercise cannot form the habit
of vocabulary building or correct pronunciation or effective speaking and writing skills. Thus, the continu-
ous process of acquiring knowledge and applying it to various situations is essential. . Hence, the scope of
this book is broad, the arrangement of the material is cumulative, activity is the method and acquisition of
effectiveness is the aim. The method is effective because each concept recurs in a variety of different situa-
tions at different degrees of complexity. Lecturing time is less and activity time is more, through a number
of skillfully crafted exercises after every chapter. So activity reigns supreme. Effective training in language
skills integrates the work of other professional subjects. It ensures quick grasping of the concept and helps
the learner present his views effectively.
vi Preface
The learner by absorbing the contents of this book

gains the mastery of knowledge
acquires the clarity of concepts
puts in consistent effort to reach the set goal
follows purposeful and target oriented practice by using knowledge and concepts
ensures continuous application of the knowledge based on various situations at the workplace
develops the ability to integrate what you have learned into everyday communicative activity at the
workplace and
acquires proficiency in language.
The aim is to provide a practical approach which will guide the learner through the methods of
knowing – learning – practicing.
Although this book is designed to be used in the classroom, it is hoped that it may prove useful to those
who wish to study the subject by themselves and develop proficiency, or a personal reference book for those
who teach English or to use it as a source of reference book for training programmes offered by consultancy
firms, corporate sectors and government establishments. It is hoped that this book with its unique and com-
prehensive coverage of all four language skills (LSRW) will prove to be relevant and useful to all learners
of language and also to professionals.
I put together the material in the book during my teaching of courses ‘English Language Skills’ I and II
at Birla Institute of Technology and Science (BITS), Pilani, and at ICFAI Institute of Science and Technol-
ogy, Hyderabad. While teaching at BITS, Pilani, I was instrumental in introducing phonetics in a way that is
useful for learners to improve upon their pronunciation and to increase the average rate of delivery of words
per minute. While teaching at these institutions, extensive research has been done to identify and compile
all the relevant material suitable to non-native learners. It has been planned and designed meticulously.
Material has been tested at every available opportunity in the classroom and modified several times, Some
topics from this book were tested for competitive examinations like GRE, GMAT, etc. wherein I had an
opportunity to work as a consultant. I referred to articles, pamphlets and books of several authors. Many of
their ideas I adopted and modified to suit our real life situations. Over a period of more than three decades
of my teaching experience, many students at several levels participated in these activities and have really
been most useful in revising the material and consolidating the approach. The feedback they have given on
the continuous benefits they gained from this approach has been an incentive for me to produce this book.
The presentation strategy of the material used in this book is highly practical, that is, the knowing–learning–
practicing method, hence this is not just another theoretical book. It demands a high degree of the learner’s
involvement to achieve competence.
This book consists of 24 chapters, categorised under six units. Appendices provide supplementary infor-
mation as well as additional information.
Unit I (Chapter 1) explains ‘Listening Skills’. It gives an idea how phonetic features of language create
ambiguity for the listener. It further explains the barriers to listening and how to overcome them.
Unit II (Chapters 2 to 7) discusses ‘Speaking Skills’, the most desired requirement nowadays. It prepares
and equips one for participation in speaking activities (Chapters 2 to 4). The attention given to the sound
system and stress patterns is planned and designed to make the learner’s pronunciation intelligible nationally
and internationally and also to increase the speaker’s average rate of delivery of words per minute. Effective
speech is the ultimate goal. The other chapters (Chapters 5, 6 and 7) in this unit are actual speech activities
to prepare the learner to participate effectively in the art of conversation, debate and group discussion.
Unit III (Chapters 8 to 15) mainly covers ‘Study Skills’ that provide sound knowledge to equip the
learner with the necessary competence to read and comprehend effectively, to speak efficiently and to write
correctly. This unit also provides the basic material that helps the learner in developing competence in all
Preface vii
four language skills. It starts with a basic requirement for the learner, that is, to know the use of a dictionary
and the thesaurus (Chapter 8). The next two chapters namely Prepositional and Phrasal Verbs (Chapter 9)
and Vocabulary Extension (Chapter 10) provide substantial knowledge of the English language. Chapters
11 and 12 help the learner know how to use the correct word and then how to make correct and effective
sentences. ‘Learning Spellings’ (Chapter 13) is the next chapter which helps the learner avoid not only
spelling errors but also confusions of spellings in the English Language. For instance, some words have an
additional letter (or letters) in pronunciation which are absent in spelling. And in some other words a letter
or letters present in the spelling are silent in pronunciation. The topic on Punctuation (Chapter 14) guides
the learner in writing correctly and helps the learner in understanding the exact meaning of the sentence.
Broadly, punctuation is based on three principles: thought and meaning, the structural pattern of the
sentence and the conventions of the age. The chapter on Common Errors (Chapter 15) is mainly useful for
non-native language learners as it is essential for them to use language correctly so that their communication
is effective. Acquiring this background knowledge helps the learners to understand the intended message
of the speaker or the writer and also helps them in attempting any competitive examination with ease.
Unit IV (Chapter 16) on ‘Reading Skills’ explains in detail the various ways, purposes and speed of
reading the given material and comprehending it. It is strongly believed that this skill will help the learner
to acquire a sound vocabulary, as well as word usage and sentence construction skills. It will also be
of aid in avoiding spelling errors.
Unit V (Chapters 17 to 20) guides the learner in developing different types of ‘Writing Skills’. Chapters
17 and 18 teach different types of summerisation techniques which are useful at the workplace. Chapter 19
discusses different types of paragraphs with examples and guides the learner in writing different types
of paragraphs based on the requirement. The next chapter, Chapter 20, deals with the techniques of writing
essays and types of essays.
Unit VI (Chapters 21 to 24) covers ‘Business Communication’ which is required for every professional.
Chapter 21 gives detailed information on the structure, layout and style of writing business letters. This
unit further includes discussions on various types of business letters. It specially explains how sales letters
should be written. Writing job applications and resume preparation, which are the most important topics
for any learner, are also discussed in detail.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I am grateful to Sri N J Yasaswy, Member, Board of Governors, for his encouragement and for making the
necessary facilities available for the completion of this project. It is my pleasant duty to acknowledge my
gratitude to Dr V Panduranga Rao, Chief Academic Advisor, ICFAI and Dr G P Srivastava, Vice Chancellor,
ICFAI University, Dehradun for giving me an opportunity to teach this course on English Language skills
and for providing necessary facilities for the completion of work on this book. Their valuable suggestions
from time to time have greatly enhanced the value of this study. My special thanks to Sri T S Rama Krishna
Rao, Associate Dean, Academic Wing, ICFAI, Hyderabad, for his help and continuous encouragement to
complete this book. I am thankful to Sri G R K Murthy, Managing Editor, ICFAI University Press, for his
encouragement.
I would like to place on record my deep gratitude to Prof. Krishna Mohan, formerly Group Leader in
Languages Group, BITS, Pilani, who has been a constant source of inspiration. I sincerely wish to thank
my former colleagues of the Languages Group at BITS, Pilani.
My thanks are due to the faculty who taught this course at various ICFAI University Campuses and who
gave their suggestions so generously. I am especially thankful to Ms P Bhargavi for reading the manuscript
and discussing the subject and also to Mr C Radha Mohan for his encouragement. I would like to thank to
Mrs Padma Sundari for word processing the material with speed and meticulous care.
viii Preface
I extend my appreciation to the members of industry and academic institutions who gave their valuable
time and shared their knowledge and experience with me.
I would like to express my special appreciation to the Tata McGraw-Hill team particularly Ms Vibha
Mahajan, Mr Tapas Kumar Maji, Mr Hemant Kumar Jha, for their help, suggestions and continuous
monitoring for early completion of this project.
I have greatly benefited through continuous discussions with my husband Dr V Panduranga Rao, who
has been a pioneer in integrating the workplace needs with education through the famous ‘Practice School
– An Industry and University Linkage’ at BITS, Pilani, as its Dean during 1987–95, and subsequently as a
Founding Director, ICFAI Business School, Hyderabad, and as a First Vice Chancellor, ICFAI University,
Dehradun. His deep insights in terms of professional needs at the workplace and his commitment to the
cause of higher education have greatly helped me in completing this project.
Finally, I would like to place on record my deep sense of gratitude to my parents. I would like to ac-
knowledge my children Mr V Uday Kiran, Mrs V Kranthi and Dr V Kalyan Kumar for their patience and
invaluable support throughout my career. I would like to thank my son-in-law Sri A Sriharsha for his help
in collecting the material and providing some examples of real situations at the workplace, and also to my
daughter-in-law for her appreciation of my work. I highly appreciate my grand children for their innocent
cheerfulness when I was doing this project.
DR ARUNA KONERU
Contents
Preface v
Unit I: Listening Skill
1. Listening Skill 3
Introduction 3
Hearing and Listening 4
Phonetic Features of Listening 4
Purpose of Listening 7
Barrier to Listening 9
Guidelines for Improving Listening Skill 10
Summary 11
Self-Analysis Evaluation Form of Your Listening Skill 12
Review Questions 12
Exercises 13
Unit II: Speaking Skill
2. English Sound System 17
Introduction 17
Distinction Between Letters and Sounds 18
Classification of English Sounds 20
Syllable: Its Structure 30
Silent Consonant Letters in Some Words 31
Confusing Sounds for Practice 35
Words and Sentences for Practising Vowel Contrasts 38
Summary 39
Review Questions 39
Exercises 40
x Contents
3. Accentual Pattern of Words and Sentences 44

Introduction 44
Accentual Pattern of Single Words 46
Accentual Pattern of Compound Words 47
Accent Change According to Function 51
Sentence Accent 52
Summary 57
Review Questions 57
Exercises 58
4. Effective Speech 60
Introduction 60
Elision of Sounds or Syllables 61
Addition of Sounds or Syllables 62
Transposition of Sounds 62
Pronunciation Based on Semantics 63
Pronunciation of Inflectional Suffixes 63
Pronunciation of Some Common Word Endings 65
General Suggestions for Pronunciation 67
Enunciation 68
Pronunciation of Consecutive Consonants 70
Word Combinations in Sentences 72
Summary 73
Review Questions 73
Exercises 73
5. The Art of Conversation 75
Introduction 75
Small Talk 76
Body Language 77
Principles of a Good Conversationalist 79
Summary 83
Review Questions 83
Exercises 83
6. Debate 85
Introduction 85
Process of Organisation 86
Purpose 86
Rebuttal 91
Participating in a Debate 92
The Judges’ Decision 93
Preparation for the Debate 93
Summary 95
Review Questions 95
Exercises 95
Contents xi
7. Group Discussion 97
Introduction 97
Conversation, Debate and Group Discussion 98
Kinds of Groups 98
Importance of a Group Discussion 99
Features of a Group Discussion 99
Strategies of a Group Interaction 105
Barriers to an Effective Group Discussion 108
Suggestions for Self-Improvement 109
Summary 111
Review Questions 111
Exercises 111
Unit III: Study Skill
8. Dictionary: Its Use 115
Introduction 115
The Meaning of a Word 116
The Spelling of a Word 117
The Pronunciation of a Word 117
Synonyms and Antonyms 118
Grammar 119
Abbreviations 122
Dictionary Symbols 123
Use of a Thesaurus 124
Summary 125
Exercises 125
9. Prepositions and Phrasal Verbs 129
Introduction 129
Prepositions 130
Idiomatic Combinations 133
Phrasal Verbs 137
Summary 148
Exercises 149
10. Vocabulary Extension 153
Introduction 153
Context Clues 154
Word Analysis 156
Semantic Changes 167
Word-Formation Methods 167
Synonyms 174
Antonyms 176
One Word Substitution 179
Summary 179
xii Contents

Exercises 179
11. Effective Use of Words 183
Introduction 183
Word Order 183
Word: Its Meaning 186
Avoid Clichés 194
Summary 195
Exercises 195
12. Effective Sentences 197
Introduction 197
Unity of the Sentences 198
Coordination and Subordination 198
Emphasis in the Sentence 202
Use Periodic Sentences 204
Effective Repetition of Words and Ideas 204
Parallel Structures 207
Summary 208
Exercises 209
13. Learning Spellings 212
Introduction 212
Spelling Rules 213
Commonly Misspelled Words 222
Variant Spellings 224
Spell-Checker 225
Summary 225
Exercises 225
14. Punctuation 230
Introduction 230
End Punctuation Marks 232
Internal Punctuation Marks 234
Direct Quotation Punctuation Marks 243
Word Punctuation 244
Spacing with Punctuation 252
Too Much Punctuation 252
Summary 253
Exercises 253
15. Common Errors in English 256
Introduction 256
Errors in Using Nouns 257
Contents xiii
Errors in Using Pronouns 259

Errors in Using Prepositions 261
Errors in Using Verbs 264
Errors in Using Gerund or an Infinitive 268
Use an Infinitive not a Gerund 269
Errors in Using Adjectives 270
Errors in Using Adverbs 271
Errors in Using Conjunctions 272
Errors in Using Punctuations 274
Common Errors Due to Commonly Confused Words 274
Summary 280
Exercises 281
Unit IV: Reading Skill
16. Reading Skill 287
Introduction 287
Mechanics of Reading 288
Types of Reading 289
Reading Speed 291
Summary 292
Exercises 293
Unit V: Writing Skill
17. Paraphrase Writing and Précis Writing 299
Introduction 299
Paraphrase Writing 299
Methods of Paraphrasing 300
Difference Between Paraphrase and Précis 301
Guidelines for Writing Paraphrase 301
Definition of a Précis 302
Principles of Writing a Précis 303
Steps for Writing a Précis 303
Methods of Abridging Sentences 304
Summary 305
Exercises 306
18. Note-Making and Summary Writing 308
Introduction 308
Note-Making 308
Organising the Information 309
Shortening Process 311
Acquiring Note-Making Skills 314
Taking Notes 315
xiv Contents
Summary Writing 316

Basics of Writing a Summary 316
Overall Organisation 317
Guidelines for Writing a Summary 317
Summary 318
Exercises 319
19. Paragraph Writing 322
Introduction 322
Unity of the Paragraph 323
The Development of Sentences 324
Coherence in the Paragraph 327
Paragraph Development 329
Types of Paragraphs 334
Summary 337
Exercises 337
20. Writing an Essay 342
Introduction 342
Features of an Essay 343
Thesis Statement 343
Organisation of the Material 344
Modes of Developing Essays 347
Revise and Proofread the Essay 351
Summary 352
Exercises 353
Unit VI: Business Communication
21. Structure and Style of Business Correspondence 357
Introduction 357
Structure 358
Layout of a Business Letter 364
Styles of Presentation 365
Style of Writing 368
Summary 381
Exercises 382
22. Various Types of Letters 385
Introduction 385
Enquiry Letter 385
Important Points 386
Some Useful Expressions 386
Quotation Letter 387
Contents xv

Orders and Acknowledgement of an Order 390
Orders 390
Acknowledgement of an Order 392
Complaint and Adjustment Letters 394
Complaint Letter 394
Adjustment Letter 396
Circular Letter 398
Summary 400
Exercises 401
23. Sales Letter 403
Introduction 403
Features of a Sales Letter 404
Structure of a Sales Letter 405
Main Body of the Letter 407
Concluding Paragraph 407
Summary 408
Exercises 409
24. Job Application 410
Introduction 410
Locating Job Vacancies 410
Preparing a Résumé 411
Elements of a Résumè 413
Selection of the Organisational Plan 415
Preparation of the Final Copy 416
Writing a Job Application Letter 418
Summary 424
Exercises 424
Appendix A: Grammar and Usage: A Review 425
Appendix B: Speech Acts 429
Appendix C: One Word Substitutes 436
xvi Contents
Appendix D: Lexical Items 442

Appendix E: Commonly Confused Words 467
Appendix F: Idiomatic Expressions 475
Appendix G: Semantic Problems of Singular and Plural Nouns 483
Appendix H: American and British English 486
Appendix I: Foreign Words 490
Unit I
Listening Skill
Chapter 1
Listening Skill
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:

Know the importance of listening skill.
Differentiate between listening and hearing.
Identify the various purposes of listening.
Identify the barriers to listening.
Know how to overcome listening barriers.
Develop the ability to become a good listener.
Understand the cognitive process of listening.
INTRODUCTION
The ability to listen effectively is a vital skill since most of our learning comes from listening. It is interest-
ing to note that people discuss so many facets of communication but inadvertently overlook the listening
skill. Research studies have proved that it is the most important link in the process of communication. The
effectiveness of the spoken word depends not so much on how people talk but mostly on how they listen.
We have focused our attention on reading, considering it the primary medium by which we learn a language
and we have practically forgotten the art of listening. Some emphasis is placed on speaking while almost
none has been given attention to the listening skill. People never thought of listening as an important subject
by it. Now, we all feel the need for a training programme in listening skill. Generally, we spend more time
on listening than we spend on speaking, reading and writing. Surveys have shown that listening occupies
more time than any other communication activity. Obviously, we gather information to acquire knowledge
and to know about others. As a student, you have to listen to lecturers, instructions, conversations, views
expressed in group discussions and in other communication activities. As a professional, you would have to
listen to your boss, peer group, subordinates, seminar presentations and views discussed in various forums.
4 English Language Skills
Whatever may be the situations if you do not listen with concentration, you are likely to face problems.
The cultivation of listening skill, therefore, deserves importance along with other language skills namely,
speaking, reading and writing. By acquiring listening skills, you can gain a lot of benefits.
Effective Listening Skills

Make you understand concepts clearly.
Help you to understand the views of your co-workers.
Assist you to establish rapport with co-workers quickly.
Improve your intellectual ability to understand and evaluate the views and opinions expressed by
others.
Enable you to gather views, opinions and feelings of others on a particular concept or a problem.
Enable you to gather proper and accurate information.
Help the speaker to express his views clearly in dyadic and group communication situations.
Hence, it is necessary to cultivate the habit of listening skill with high concentration.
HEARING AND LISTENING

The common notion is that listening and hearing are same but there is a significant difference between them.
Hearing is a psychological process in which vibration of sound waves carry through the eardrums to reach
the central auditory system of the brain. The brain transmits this into sounds that we hear. The process is
automatic and fast. So, hearing means that sound is going on around us and our ears catch it. But listening
is something more than what your ears permit you to hear. It is simply a sound but our mind enables to
recognise these sounds as words and expressions and interprets them into thoughts or ideas. Your interpreta-
tion ability helps you to react to that hearing. For hearing, you do not require physical cues but for listening
you consider physical cues⎯such as eye contact, gestures and body language⎯in order to get the message
effectively. You may not have considered the physical cues to be important tools in understanding the mes-
sage while listening. Yet, what you see when a person is speaking, contributes to its meaning. All the facial
expressions, hand and body movements and mannerisms of a speaker may alter the meaning of the message.
Thus, we can define ‘listening is a process of hearing with understanding, interpreting and responding’.
Listening is a five-stage self-generated activity. The first stage is the reception of sound waves through ears.
The second stage is relating the sound to sound system of language. The third stage is comprehending the
utterances. The fourth stage is interpreting the message in the context. The fifth stage is the reaction to the
message. We can present this interpretation as follows:
Listening = Hearing + Relating + Comprehending + Interpreting + Responding.
PHONETIC FEATURES OF LISTENING

Our hearing of sounds of the English language is often influenced by the sound system of our mother tongue.
This influence leads to ambiguity in communication. These phonetic features may cause ambiguity in the
spoken language. So, it affects the listening comprehension skill. Phonetic ambiguity may arise from the
phonetic structure of the word, phonetic structure of the sentence and substitution of one sound for another
sound. Let us analyse these features with examples.
Listening Skill 5
Table 1.1 Substitution of One Sound for Another Sound
S.No. Word Actual Pronuncia- Pronounced as Understood as Sentence

tion
1. Fans /f{nz/ /f{ns/ fence Let us see our fans.
Listen as: Let us see our fence.
2. Peas /pI:z/ /pI:s/ peace or piece Let’s have some peas.
Listen as: Let’s have some peace/
piece.
3. Knees /nI:z/ /nI:s/ niece Her knees got hurt.
Listen as: Her niece got hurt.
4. Lock /l¡k/ /l¡:k/ luck Her lock was not very good.
Listen as: Her luck was not very
good.
5. Guards /gA:dz/ /gA:ds/ Gods I will depend on guards.
Listen as: I will depend on Gods.
6. Fears /fI@z/ /fI@rs/ fierce
7. Falls /fO:lz/ /fV:ls/ false
Hence, it is imperative that you first acquaint yourself thoroughly with the sound system of the target
language so that you can avoid ambiguity.
Homonyms and homophones are two categories in English language that may create ambiguity to the
listener (see Appendix D).
Homophones
Two or more words that are identical in sound but different in spellings are called homophones (see
Appendix D). In listening comprehension, this feature of English leads to a confusion. Let us look at the
following table:
Table 1.2 Homophonic Words
S.No. Words Pronounced Meaning

1. Soul /s@Ul/ The spiritual part of a person, believed to exist after death.
Sole /s@Ul/ The bottom part of the foot, on which one walks and stands.
2. Bow /baU/ To bend the head or body as a sign of respect or as a greeting.
Bough /baU/ Any of the main branches of a tree.
3. Cite /saIt/ To speak or write words taken from a passage, a book and an author.
Sight /saIt/ The ability to see.
Site /saIt/ A place where a building, town etc., was, is or will be situated.
4. Sum /sˆm/ An amount of money.
Some /sˆm/ A certain number of people or things.
(Contd)
(Contd)
5. Know /n@U/ To have something in one’s mind or memory as a result of experience or

learning.
No /n@U/ Not any.
6. Knew /nju:/ To have something in one’s mind or memory as a result of experience or
learning.
New /nju:/ Not existing before, introduced, made, invented or recent.
Homonyms
This is another category of words which are spelt alike but differ in meaning and sometimes pronunciation.
They belong to a different part of speech. These words are called homonyms. If you are not able to identify
these words, they create problems in listening comprehension. Let us look at the following table (refer to
Annexure D):
Table 1.3 Homonymic Words
S.No. Words Pronounced as Stress Parts of Meaning

Speech
1. Invalid /In'v{lId/ on second Adjective Not officially acceptable
syllable
/'Inv@lId/ on first syllable Noun A person made weak by illness or
injury
2. Minute /'mInIt/ on first syllable Noun Equal to 60 seconds
/maI'nju:t/ on second Adjective Very small in size or amount

syllable
3. Lead /lI:d/ no stress Verb To show somebody the way especially
by going
/led/ symbol pb Noun A chemical element
4. Wind /wInd/ Verb To make somebody too tired to be able to
breathe properly for short time
/wInd/ no stress Noun Air moving as a result of natural forces
/wAInd/ Verb To follow a twisting or twisting of
course
5. Compact /k@m'p{kt/ on the second Adjective Closely packed together
syllable
/'kVmp{kt/ on the first Noun 1. A formal agreement between two or
syllable more people/countries
2. A small flat box containing a mirror
and powder
6. Sow /s@V/ Verb To put or scatter seeds in or on the
no stress ground
/saV/ Noun A fully grown pig
(Contd)
Listening Skill 7
(Contd)
7. Tear /te@(r)/ Verb To pull something apart or into pieces

with force
no stress
/tI@(r)/ Noun A drop of salty water that comes from the
eyes when one cries
8. Slough /slaV/ Noun A very soft wet area of land
no stress
/slˆf/ Verb To let skin, dead tissue
Accent One of the important features of spoken English is accent. It is also an important aspect for
listening comprehension. It brings out the phonological unity of the word. In some words in English,
the placement of stress brings the change of sound and brings about a change of meaning and forms a
new word. For instance, CONduct (N) means a person’s behaviour, especially its moral aspect while
conDUCT (V) means directing, controlling and managing.
Let us look at the following table:
Table 1.4 Formation of New Words Based on Stress
S.No. Noun Verb Adjective Verb

1. OBject obJECT PERfect perFECT
2. PROduce proDUCE comPACT COMpact
3. REcord reCORD
4. PROgress proGRESS
5. IMport imPORT
6. INcrease inCREASE
7. DIgest diGEST
8. SUBject subJECT
If you are not aware of the stress patterns of the English language, you will face problems in listening
comprehension.
PURPOSE OF LISTENING
Listening requires intensive concentration. It demands conscious effort to get the essence. It depends on the
knowledge of the listener and also on his attitude towards the message, the sender and the purpose. Gener-
ally, we listen for a purpose and with certain expectations. When we go to hear a talk we are aware of the
topic and expect to acquire some knowledge. We listen to acquire knowledge, to compare our opinions and
to be polite. Let us now categorise the different purposes of listening. These are content listening, critical
listening and appreciative listening.
Table 1.5 Types of Listening: Its Purposes
S.No. Type of Listening Purpose Situation

1. Content Listening To understand and retain the information. Students listen to a classroom lecture.
To get the main aspects of the topic. Professionals listen to paper presenta-
tions in seminars, conferences.
Lawyers listen to legal arguments.
2. Critical Listening To accept or reject the message. Listening to a lawyer’s argument while
To evaluate critically. arguing the case.
To evaluate the validity of the conclu- Listening to a salesperson.
sions. Listening to politicians making their
To find the logic of the argument. election campaign.
To find the strength of the argument.
To find the implications of the message for
you and for your organisation.
3. Appreciative To derive aesthetic pleasure. Listening to a musician.
Listening To understand the speaker’s feelings, needs Listening to a lawyer’s arguments.
and tone, so that you can appreciate his/
her point of view
There are other purposes too for which people listen but these three are the most common and apply most
directly to you as a professional.
Cognitive Process of Listening

The process of learning depends on cognitive processing in the mind of the listener. The following flowchart
explains clearly of what happens when you listen:
Hearing the sound
↓
Assimilating the sounds cognitively
↓
Recognising the sounds
↓
Making sounds into words
↓
Examining the context
↓
Integrating the context into message
↓
Interpreting the message
↓
Evaluating the message
↓
Remembering the message
↓
Responding to the message
Figure 1.1 Cognitive Process of Listening

Listening Skill 9
BARRIER TO LISTENING
Listening is a cognitive activity. The cognitive process gives a clear picture of what happens when you lis-
ten. Due to some reasons, we fail to listen effectively. Learning requires both mental and physical activities
and is subject to both mental and physical barriers. You may be aware that there are numerous barriers that
interfere with our ability to listen effectively. Here are some of these barriers.
Table 1.6 Barriers to Listening
Lack of rapport between speaker and audience.

Inadequate physical conditions such as extraneous noise, improper arrangements or the
location of the room.
Pre-conceived notion of the speaker or on the physical topic environment.
Inappropriate use of language.
Inappropriate pronunciation of sounds and words.
Lack of perspective.
Lack of knowledge on stress patterns of words and sentences.
Lack of awareness of homophonic words.
Lack of awareness of homonymic words.
Lack of concentration.
Taking extensive notes.
Overcoming Listening Barriers

So far, we have discussed what listening is, the need to listen, difference between listening and hearing,
purpose of listening and barriers to listening. The major concern is now directed to how we can improve
our listening habits. Here are some practical hints which may help you to overcome the listening barriers
and enable you to become a good listener in the future.
Table 1.7 Overcoming Listening Barriers
Have a definite purpose of listening.

Have a prior background of the topic.
Pay unquestionable attention to what is said.
Be effective in taking notes.
Keep away the prejudice and personal opinions.
Be emotionally stable.
Be aware of non-verbal communication devices.
Allowing the speaker to complete the speech.
Be aware of stress patterns of the English language.
The following table describes the qualities of poor and good listeners:
Table 1.8 Qualities of Poor and Good Listeners
S.No. Poor Listener Good Listener

1. Inattentive listening impairs hearing. Shows conscious attention which supersedes all other
distractions.
2. Gets distracted easily. Avoids distractions.
3. Listens casually. Listens carefully for facts and ideas.
4. Shows little/no interest. Shows immense interest.
5. Lacks concentration. Shows unquestionable concentration.
6. Tunes out dry subjects. Tries to find out what is necessary for him.
7. Takes extensive notes. Takes less notes: only the important points.
8. Tunes out if delivery is poor. Concentrates on content not on delivery.
9. Ignores non-verbal communication tech- Pays attention to know the importance of the message.
niques.
10. Gives no importance to vocal techniques. Gives importance to get clarity of the message.
11. Draws hasty conclusions without complete Draws conclusions after complete comprehension of
comprehension. the topic.
12. Tends to enter into an argument without Interrupts only for clarification.
complete comprehension.
13. Does not show interest in difficult exposi- Takes the difficult expository material as an exercise or a
tory material. challenge to the mind.
14. Reacts to slogans and emotional expres- Interprets and comprehends slogans and emotional
sions. expressions and does not get carried away by them.
15. Tends to entertain in day dreams with slow Tries to anticipates the message mentally and draws
and monotonous speakers. conclusions out of it.
16. Does not show any interest to summarise Listens carefully and summarises the important
the important concepts. concepts.
17. Does not exercise the ability of inference. Tries to draw inference wherever it is required.
18. Ignores the tone. Tries to comprehend the message from the tone of the
speaker.
GUIDELINES FOR IMPROVING LISTENING SKILL

You should realise now that listening effectively is not as easy as one may have supposed. Therefore, listen-
ing requires a positive attitude, concentration and willingness. If you are smart enough to bring all these
requirements to the listening situation, you will gain much more in classes, in your job and in everyday
communication. Let us now briefly touch upon the guidelines for improving listening skills.
Listening Skill 11
Table 1.9 Guidelines for Improving Listening Skill
Think about the topic in advance.

Develop a desire to learn.
Focus on listening and not on delivery.
Determine the personal value of the topic for you.
Resist distractions.
Concentrate on the matter being spoken, carefully identifying the main points.
Depersonalise your listening so that you decrease the emotional impact of what is being said.
Better hold your rebuttal until you have heard the total message.
Concentrate on subject while listening.
Do not let your thoughts wander while listening.
Keep an open mind by asking questions that clarify your understanding.
Listen for main points as well as for facts, and know the difference between the fact and principle, idea
and example, and evidence and argument.
Make meaningful notes which should be brief and to the point.
Be flexible in your views it enhances your listening skill.
Stay ahead of the speaker by anticipating what will be said next and by thinking about what has already
been said.
Pay attention to speaker’s non-verbal skills which help you to comprehend the message.
Evaluate and criticise the content, not the speaker.
Distinguish the important points from the unimportant points.
Try to accept other’s views that will build understanding and mutual respect.
Practise your listening skill by attending lectures, public speeches and T.V. programmes.
Summary
Willingness to make a sincere and consistent effort, along with the techniques discussed here, will result in better lis-
tening and help you to gain information. Cultivating the habit of efficient listening contributes to one’s success at all
levels of life. The student must listen to the teacher in order to understand the subject. The telephone operator must
listen carefully in order to handle the requests of hundreds of calls. Professionals must listen carefully to carry on their
professional work. Hence, the habits of good listening are very important, so there is a need to check your listening
skill. You can test your listening skill by using the following self-analysis sheet:
Self-Analysis Evaluation Form of Your Listening Skill

1. Name of the Listener :
2. Name of the Speaker :
3. Topic of the talk :
4. Duration of the talk :
5. Number of words of the material of talk :
(If written document is available)
6. Your listening word limit per minute:
S.No. Habit Almost Usually Occasionally Seldom Almost

always never
1. Feeling the subject uninteresting.
2. Giving importance to delivery techniques and
personal appearance.
Paying attention to the organisation of the
material.
Being attracted towards the attitude of the
speaker.
Focusing attention on non-verbal communica-
tion techniques.
Giving importance to vocal techniques.
3. Letting personal prejudice.
4. Avoiding difficult and expository material.
5. Submerging the speaker’s point of view in a
morass of details.
6. Jumping into conclusions
(without listening completely).
7. Making inferences quickly.
8. Summarising the important aspects.
9. Tolerating distraction.
10. Paying unquestionable attention.
11. Getting over-stimulated.
12. Wasting the differential between thought-speed
and speech-speed.
Check yourself honestly on each one, tallying your score in accordance with the following scoring system.
Interpret your total score as follows:
Below 70% → You definitely need training.
Between 70–90% → Your listening ability is well.
90% and above → Your listening ability is extraordinarily well-developed.
Review Questions
1. Discuss the importance of listening skill as an essential component of communication process.
Listening Skill 13
2. What are the benefits of effective listening skill?

3. Describe the psychological aspects of the process of listening.
4. How does accent play a role in listening comprehension?
5. Discuss in detail the most important purposes of listening.
6. What are the barriers to listening?
7. How do you overcome listening barriers?
8. Can you give guidelines for improving listening skill?
9. “The effectiveness of the spoken word depends not so much on how people talk but mostly how they listen.”
Discuss.
Exercises
1. As a President of Students Union, give a brief talk on students’ extra-curricular and co-curricular activities. Check
their comprehension of what they heard with the help of a brief objective type feedback form. Then analyse their
listening comprehension skill.
2. Plan and hold a mock seminar on a selected topic and record it. Afterwards, play back the recording. Discuss it in
terms of listening skill.
(i) Do the oral contributions of different participants reflect good listening?
(ii) If not what are the reasons?
(iii) Can you give some guidelines so that they can improve their listening skill?
3. Record one of the language skills’ classes which you attended. Prepare a summary of your comprehension. After-
wards, play back the recording. Now check your own listening comprehension. Identify your plus points and minus
points. What measures you should take for effective listening?
4. Here are some sentences collected from students’ assignments of listening skill. These sentences contain errors
in homophonic words. Identify the error and replace it with correct homophonic word in each sentence.
(i) It is to be born in mind that hard work brings success.
(ii) Kavitha blue out the candle in her study room.
(iii) The cowboy controlled the bridal of the horse very skillfully.
(iv) Rachna visited the Nagarjuna Sagar Dam last year.
(v) Anil tried to meat Kavitha.
(vi) Kalpana fell pray to her greediness.
(vii) Kavya demanded a share in the prophet.
(vii) Please find out some of the numbers.
(ix) Ravi was throne into the lock-up.
(x) Spandana controlled her desire to veil when her father expired.
5. After the class has been divided into two or more teams, the instructor reads some factual information (newspapers,
articles, short stories or the like) to only one member of each team. Each of these team members tells what he or
she has heard to a second team member, who in turn tells to a third team member and so on until the last member
of each team has heard the information. The last person receiving the information reports what he or she has heard
to the instructor, who checks it against the original message. The team able to report the information with the
greatest accuracy wins.
Unit II
Speaking Skill
Chapter 2
English Sound System

Identify the spelling of the words and their sounds.
Know that one sound stands for different spellings.
Know that letter(s) stand(s) for different sounds.
Know the consonant sounds and vowel sounds.
Know the structure of the syllable.
Identify the number of syllables in a word.
Be aware of the articulation of in-flexional suffixes.
Be aware of the articulation of some common suffixes.
Identify the silent letters.
INTRODUCTION
We use language as a vital tool for communication with those around us, to share feelings and experiences,
to acquire knowledge, to exchange views and to form associations. The importance of language and the
social purpose of language as a medium of communication is emphasized in all aspects. People belonging to
multicultural and multi-linguistic societies use different languages for communication. Whatever may be the
language used for communication⎯English, Telugu, Hindi, French, etc.⎯it is generally accepted that we use
two mediums for linguistic communication, namely, speech and writing. In addition to these two mediums,
we use two other mediums to acquire proficiency in a language. These two are listening and reading. For
acquiring proficiency in language you have to acquire all four language skills, namely, listening, speaking,
reading and writing. In this chapter, we shall discuss the sound system of English so that you can develop
the competence to pronounce correctly and make your speech intelligible to all other people.
We use language when we want to give or take information. Here we use either spoken language or writ-
ten language. The former consists of a succession of various sounds and the latter consists of a succession
of symbols arranged visually. Each one of these two mediums is produced by different muscular activities
and each is addressed to a different sense. While using the spoken medium of language, we use our lungs,
larynx, tongue, palate, teeth, lips and some other organs and the medium is addressed to the listener’s ears.
While using the written medium of language we use our arm and fingers and the medium is addressed to
the eyes.
Written language is only an attempt to represent the sounds used in spoken language. For example, the
spelling of the word ‘bat’ represents a succession of three sounds – /b/, /{/, /t/, each represented by one of
the letters in the spelling.
In Indian languages there is generally a consistent relationship between the sounds and the letters used
to represent them in writing. In English, the correspondence between the written form and the spoken form
is not consistently maintained. It is, therefore, necessary for Indian students to make a systematic study of
English sound system. In this context, it is worth remembering R. K. Bansal’s words: “English as spoken
by educated people in India does not differ radically from native English in grammar and vocabulary but
in pronunciation it is different from both the British and American English. Even within India there are
a large number of regional varieties, each different from the others in certain ways and retaining to some
extent the phonetic patterns of the Indian language spoken in that particular region. These regional variet-
ies of English are sometimes not even mutually intelligible.”
So, this chapter explains the distinction between letters and sounds and the classification of English sounds.
It includes comprehensive description of consonant and vowel sounds. The peculiar feature of English is that
different spellings stand for the same sound. This chapter illustrates this feature with examples. It further
discusses the syllable and its structure. It also discusses silent consonant letters in some words. Finally, some
suggestions for pronunciation of suffixes and word endings are given, which prove useful to improve pronun-
ciation.
DISTINCTION BETWEEN LETTERS AND SOUNDS

A lot of conscious and systematic effort is needed to acquire good pronunciation and to make one’s own
speech intelligible to the other. It is necessary and essential for Indian students to be able to distinguish
between sounds and letters. The English word ‘next’ for example, has four letters – n, e, x and t – but five
sounds such as: /n/, /e/, /k/, /s/ and /t/. Similarly, the word ‘debt’ has four letters – d, e, b and t – but only
three sounds: /d/, /e/ and /t/. Here, the letter ‘b’ is silent. The following explanation will help you understand
the exact distinction between sounds and letters.
We are aware that the English alphabet has 26 letters and these represent 44 distinct sounds.
For example, the consonant sound /k/ is represented by different spellings as given here.
Table 2.1 Sound /k/: Different Spellings
Sound Letters Words

k kind
c call
/k/ cc accord
ck back
ch character
qu queen
qu conquer
English Sound System 19
Similarly, different sounds are represented by consonant letters ‘ch’ in different words as given here.
Table 2.2 Letters ‘ch’: Different Sounds
Letter Sound Words

/k/ chemistry
ch /tS/ bench
/S/ machine
Similarly, the vowel ‘a’ is represented by many sounds as given here.
Table 2.3 Letter ‘a’: Different Sounds
Letter Sound Words

/eI/ age
a /@/, /A:/ banana
/{/ man
/O:/ chalk
/I@/ ear
/I/ village
Further, some letters do not represent any sound. These are silent (see Chapter 2). Here are some ex-
amples.
Table 2.4 Silent Letters
Silent Letter Words

b tomb
c rack
d Wednesday
p psychology
t satchel
k know
Another interesting feature of the English language is that you would often find a letter or a group of letters
representing different sounds but with no graphical indication.
Here are some examples.
Table 2.5 Letter(s) Represent Different Sounds
Letter(s) Words Sound

rough
gh enough /f/
x examine /gz/
x luxuriant /gZ/
x box /ks/
x xerox /z/
x luxury /kS/
ph photo /f/
CLASSIFICATION OF ENGLISH SOUNDS

This, however, does not mean that there is no systematic classification of English sounds. In fact, a very
extensive and scientific classification of sounds and the comprehensive description of the sounds have been
made. A symbol from the internationally accepted system of signs is used for the representation of each
sound in English. These symbols are called ‘International Phonetic Association Symbols’, in short I.P.A.
Symbols.
For the production of speech we need an air-stream mechanism. The sounds are produced by the speech
organs by pushing the air-streams out of the lungs either through the mouth or the nose. Thus, each sound is
either oral or nasal. In the production of oral sound, the air is completely pushed out of the mouth whereas
the nasal sound is released either fully or partially through the nose.
Speech sounds can be voiced or voiceless. Voiced sounds are those in the production of which vocal cords
vibrate. In English, all vowel sounds and some consonant sounds are voiced sounds. Voiced consonant sounds
are: /b, d, g, dZ, v, D, z, Z, m, n, Œ, l, r, j, w/. In the production of voiceless sounds the vocal cords do not
vibrate. Many consonant sounds are voiceless; some are: /p, t, k, tS, f, T, s, S, h/. The details of voiced and
voiceless sounds are given in Table 2.6.
All speech sounds are usually divided into two broad categories – vowels and consonants. In the pro-
duction of vowel sounds, the air comes out through the mouth freely and continuously without any audible
friction and all other sounds are called consonants.
Description of Consonant Sounds

Consonants can be classified according to the place of articulation and also according to the manner of
articulation.
Place of Articulation Bilabial: Articulated by the two lips.
Examples: /p, b, m, w/
Labio-dental: Articulated by the lower lip against the upper teeth.
Examples: /f, v/
Dental: Articulated by the tip of the tongue against the upper teeth.
Examples: /T, ð/
Alveolar: Articulated by the blade of tongue against the teeth-ridge.
Examples: /t, d/
Post-alveolar: Articulated by the tip of the tongue against the back of the teeth-ridge.
Example: /r/
Palato-alveolar: Articulated by the blade of the tongue against the teeth-ridge, with the front of the tongue
raised towards the hard palate.
Examples: /tS, dZ, S, Z /
Palatal: Articulated by the front of the tongue against the hard palate.
Example: /j/
Velar: Articulated by the back of the tongue against the soft palate.
Examples: /k, g, Œ/
Glottal: Production by an obstruction or narrowing between the vocal cords.
Example: /h/
Manner of Articulation
Plosives: There is a complete closure of the air-passage in the mouth; pressure is built-up and then the air
is released with an explosion.
Examples: /p, b, t, d, k, g/
Affricate: There is a complete closure of the air-passage in the mouth; then the organs are separated slowly
so that friction is heard.
Examples: /tS, dZ /
Nasal: There is a complete closure of the mouth; the soft palate is lowered and the air escapes through the
nose.
Examples: /m, n, Œ/
Lateral: A lateral consonant sound is produced by a stricture of complete closure in the center of the vocal
tract. The air, however, has a free passage on the sides.
Example: /l/
Fricative: There is a narrow passage for the air between two organs and friction is produced when the air
passes through it.
Examples: /f, v, T, D, s, z, S, Z, h/
Frictionless Continuant: There is no closure or friction, but the sound has a consonantal function.
Example: /r/ in words like rain, red etc.
Semi-vowel: A vowel glide with a consonantal function.
Examples: /j, w/.
Table 2.6 Classification of English Consonants (24 Sounds)
Place Bilabial Labio- Dental Alveolar Post- Palato- Palatal Velar Glottal
Dental Alveolar alveolar
Manner
Vl Vd Vl Vd Vl Vd Vl Vd Vl Vd Vl Vd Vl Vd Vl Vd Vl
Plosive p b t d k g
Affricate tS dZ
Fricative f v T ð s z S Z h
Nasal m n Œ
(Contd)
(Contd)
Lateral l
Frictionless r
Continuant
Semi-vowel w j (w)
Vl stands for voiceless sounds.
Vd Stands for voiced sounds.
Description of Vowel Sounds

The air escapes freely and continuously without any friction when we produce vowel sounds. Let us il-
lustrate this point. Say the word ‘bee’. Here, the vowel sound is represented by the letters ‘ee’. It is found
that when we say this sound the air escapes freely and continuously without any friction. So this sound is
a vowel sound. We classify vowel sounds into three categories taking into account the part of the tongue
raised. These are front vowels, back vowels and central vowels.
Front vowels are those during the production of which the front of the tongue is raised in the direction
of the hard palate. The vowel sounds in the words bee, bag, bet and bit are examples of front vowels.
Back vowels are those during the production of which the back of the tongue is raised in the direction
of the soft palate. The vowel sounds in the words soft, chalk cool and put are examples of back vowels.
Central vowels are those during the articulation of which the central part of the tongue is raised towards
the central part of the palate (meeting point of the hard palate and the soft palate). The vowel sounds in the
words but, skirt, amount and dark are examples of central vowels.
We can also divide vowels, according to the degree of rising of the tongue, into two broad categories:
open and close. Open vowels are those during the production of which the tongue is far away from the roof
of the mouth. Close vowels are those during the production of which the part of the tongue raised is very
close to the roof of the mouth.
A third criterion we consider for the division of vowels is the position of lips: rounded, neutral, un-rounded
or spread. The lips can be rounded as in /u:/; neutral as in /e/; and un-rounded as in /i:/.
If the quality of vowel sound does not change, it is sometimes called a pure vowel.
A vowel sound which changes its quality is called a diphthong. There are twenty distinct vowel sounds in
British Received Pronunciation. Out of these twenty vowel sounds, twelve are pure vowel sounds and the
remaining eight are diphthongs.
Table 2.7 Pure Vowel Sounds
IPA Symbol Description Words

i: see these
i Front sit bit
e set bet
{ sat bat
ˆ shut bus
@: Central shirt bird
@ ago about
A: start bark
O soft boss
O: Back saw bought
u put bull
u: shoe boot
Table 2.8 Diphthongs
IPA symbol Words

eI say gate
AI shine bite
OI soil boil
@U so go
AU house bow
I@ sheer here
E@ air bare
U@ poor doer
Different Spellings for Same Sound

In the English language a single sound stands for different spellings. Some examples are given herebelow.
Table 2.9 Consonant Sounds
S.No. Words Letters Sounds

/p/
1. pin pen pack pot p /p/
appoint appear apply opposite pp /p/
phonetics phone physics photo ph /f/
psychology cupboard receipt p silent
nephew ph v
/b/
2. bat bag big about b /b/
rubber bubble pebble rabbit bb /b/
tomb comb doubt debt b silent
/t/
3. tin take rat bat t /t/
better settle little bitter tt /t/
talked laughed passed ed /t/
soften rustle Christmas listen cabaret castle t silent
/d/
4. day date drill meadow d /d/
riddle eddy sudden dd /d/
Wednesday handsome handkerchief d silent
(Contd)
(Contd)
/k/
5. call music basic act come c /k/
account occasion accord accrue accuse cc /k/
accent accept access accident cc /ks/
attack back sick brick ck /k/
character stomach chronic chlorine charisma ch /k/
conquer cheque mosquito mosque coquette qu /k/
quality queen quiet quarrel qualify qu /kw/
knee know knew k /silent/
box text fox fax x /ks/
coxswain x /k/
/g/
6. gate go get bag g
baggage luggage gg
ghost ghee ghat gh /g/
examination luxuriant x /g/
flight sight fight night might gh silent
hung long sing bang campaign g silent
/tS/
7. chin chip cheat chain lunch ch /tS/
catch match watch tch /tS/
furniture nature picture rupture ture /tS/
suggestion question tion /tS/
saturate, bitumen tu /tS/
/dZ/
8. join jeep juice jump j
genetic college gentle general cabbage ge
bridge edge hedge dg /dZ/
suggest gg
soldier di
/f/
9. face defend leaf fate f /f/
afford staff ff /f/
photograph nephew ph /f/
cough rough gh /f/
(Contd)
(Contd)
/v/
10. vain cover brave v /v/
of f /v/
nephew ph /v/
slough (N) gh /v/
/T/
11. thick thin thank thought through thread fourth th /T/
/D/
12. this then the these those there breathe th /D/
blithe the
/s/
13. single slope just purpose books s /s/
essence confess pass ss /s/
parcel face difference ce /s/
city pencil ci /s/
scene science sc /s/
box fax fox explain x /ks/
island isle debris rendezvous s silent
blitz hertz waltz z /s/
accept, accident cc /s/
/z/
14. zero zoo z /z/
scissors ss /z/
puzzle quizz zz /z/
exact examine gz /z/
poison easy bags sums boys s /z/
peas
washes noises passes es /iz/
rendezvous z silent
cheese se /z/
/S/
15. shade shine cushion push fashion sh
machine chagrin chef ch
moustache che
sugar sure insure s+u
nation motion education portion ti /S/
ambitions cautiously
conscience luscious sci
special official aficionado racial facial ci
(Contd)
(Contd)
ocean sebaceous ce
mission permission emission fission ss
tension mansion -sion /S/
anxious noxious xi
luxury xU
schist schwa sch
fuchsia chs
pshaw psh
/Z/
16. decision confusion si
measure pleasure s+u /Z/
garage collage ge
/h/
17. habit had haggle hair h /h/
heir honest honour hour hourglass silent
rhetoric rhyme rhythm silent
khaki silent
exhaust exhibit exhort silent
vehicle silent
what when where which while wheel silent
oh! ah! silent
ghost ghee ghat ghoul silent
/m/
18. mad man come m
summer hammer mm /m/
limb thumb comb mb
autumn solemn hymn mn
/n/
19. new no opinion run n
manner running nn /n/
know knife knelt kn
sign gn
column solemn hymn n silent
/Œ/
20. sing song long hang ng /Œ/
sink think monkey uncle nk /Œ/
/I/
21. laugh glad oil l /l/
yellow kill bottle cattle ll /l/
walk talk l silent
(Contd)
(Contd)
/r/
22. red railroad rag radio raillery broker r r
glamour glare deer
darken darling court card dwarf silent
/j/
23. yes yard young y
union pupil tube excuse u
beauty eau
due ue /j/
new few ew
view iew
couture aptitude tu
/w/
24. walk way well west w /w/
when what where which wh
quick queen quality quantity qu /kw/
language sanguine u
write wreck wrap wrong w siIent
coxswain w siIent
Table 2.10 Vowel Sounds
S. No. Words Letters Sounds

/I/
1. bit ink cliff silk i
begin biggest effect neglect reduce useless e
city system mystery y
baggage private surface a /I/
carries parties handkerchief ie
busy minute u
build guilty u y
carriage marriage ia
bargain captain ai
women o
/I:/
2. feed tree need feel meet ee
beat bread lead sea cream dream reach ea
piece chief thief field ie
(Contd)
(Contd)
receive deceive seize ei /I:/
police machine i
people eo
key ey
be bee e, ee
/e/
3. bed bet set left melt nest wet e
dead feather head lead pleasant weather ea /e/
any many a
/{/
4. bad sad mad apple rat hat tax a /{/
plait ai
/a:/
5. art balm calm park ask castle last dance
aunt father a
clerk e a:
heart ea
6. got hot pot dog moral gone o O
/O:/
7. all ball chalk wall call all
corn force horse morning sort nor or
before sore more ore
bought fought thought ought
door floor oor /O:/
chalk talk walk al + k
course fault ou , au
saw law awkward aw
caught daughter augh + t
board oar
towards warm quarter w + ar +
consonant
court four pour our
/u/
8. full put bush cushion pull push sugar u
book look cook good took room oo /u/
woman o
could should ou
(Contd)
(Contd)
/u:/
9. cool choose food loose tooth moon soon oo
noon tool -
do lose who move o /u:/
group soup wound through you ou
suit juice fruit nuisance uI
new nephew view review preview ew
/ˆ/
10. cut bus cup bundle gun uncle thus but u
son come month dozen govern o /ˆ/
country rough enough trouble young ou
/Z:/
11. serve term e
circle firm thirst dirt girl i /Z:/
hurt nurse burn surface turn u
/@/
12. about account human substance breakfast a
drama India
particular backward standard ar
sentence problem e
liberty otherwise entertain er
observe factory condition produce o /@/
centre theatre re
effort doctor actor sailor tailor or
continuous famous ou
surprise ur
colour honour favour our
through ough
creature measure nature picture ure
succeed u
/eI/
13. late gate hate date base age make a
day may say pray way ay
break great ea /eI/
aim pain rain straight aI
eight veil weigh eI
(Contd)
(Contd)
/aI/
14. bite fine ice nine write time high light rival i
climb /aI/
die tie either ie
fly reply y
coxswain ai siIent
/OI/
15. boil voice point oil noise oi /OI/
toy boy annoy oy
/@u/
16. home nose social no rope both go most o
host
blow know sow ow /@u/
boat road coast oa
/au/
17. now allow how town ow /au/
round bound out doubt mouth ou
/I@/
18. cheer deer ee
dear fear real near ear idea ea /I@/
mere zero here serious e
/e@/
19. air fair hair chair aI /e@/
care bare tear dare bear ar
/u@/
20. poor oo /u@/
SYLLABLE: ITS STRUCTURE

The smallest distinctive sound unit is called phoneme. This can be used to differentiate meanings of one
from another. In the word ‘pet’ there are three phonemes namely: /‘p’ ‘e’ ‘t’/. One or more phonemes form
the next higher unit called a ‘syllable’. In each syllable there is one sound that is more prominent than the
rest. Usually, it is a vowel. This is called the nucleus of the syllable. The syllables in English language have
their own patterns of structure. For example, in the word ‘bit’, the vowel ‘I’ is the nucleus of the syllable.
Vowels generally take the central position in the syllable and consonants take the marginal positions. When
we describe the structure of a syllable we use the symbol ‘c’ to represent a consonant and ‘v’ to represent
a vowel. Let us take the word ‘bat’. It is a monosyllabic word and the syllable is made up of three sounds
/b/,/{/,/t/ in that order. The structure of this syllable is therefore CVC.
The words which consist of only one syllable are called monosyllabic words. If words contain two syl-
lables, they are known as disyllabic words. Similarly, words that contain three syllables are tri-syllabic, four
syllabic words are tetra-syllabic and so on. Here are some examples for all these categories:
Table 2.11 Details of Syllables
Words No. of Syllables Structure of Syllable and Pho-

netic Transcription
MONOSYLLABIC WORDS
I 1 / aI /
/v/
eye 1 / AI /
/v/
be 1 / bI: / c v
bee 1 / bI: / c v
am 1 / {m / v c
sat 1 / S{t / c v c
DISYLLABIC WORDS
beggar 2 be Z@(r)cv – cv
digest 2 `dAI – dZest cv – cvcc
TRI-SYLLABIC WORDS
politics 3 'p¡-l@-tIks cv – cv – cvcc
adventure 3 @d – 'v@n – tS@ (r) vc – cvc – cv
TETRA-SYLLABIC WORDS
hesitation 4 hez – I – 't@I – S@n
cvc – v – cv – cvc
manufacture 4 m{n – ju – 'f{k – tS@
cvc – cv – cvc – cv
SILENT CONSONANT LETTERS IN SOME WORDS

Language existed first as speech and the alphabet is basically a device to represent it on paper. When letters
of the alphabet have definite values and are used consistently, as in Indian languages, the spelling of a word
is an accurate index to its pronunciation and vice versa. But this does not exist in English. The peculiar
feature of English is that the alphabet of English does not represent English sounds consistently.
For example the vowel letter ‘a’ stands for different vowel sounds as in the following words:
calm ball about late bad fair.
Similarly, the consonant letter ‘c’ represents different sounds as in the following words:
call ocean city.
Different combinations of letters are often sounded alike as in:
cool lose group suit new.
In many words, moreover, some letters appear to perform no function at all, such as ‘s’ in island.
There is another specific feature in the English language. For instance, in a few words, an additional
sound is inserted because of the etymological influence of other languages. In pronunciation, this additional
sound is inserted but in spelling there is no such indication of it. The sound ‘t’ is inserted in the pronuncia-
tion of words: scherzo /'ske@ts@U/; schizophrenia /skIts@U'frI:nI@/; schizoid /'skItsOId/ and the sound
‘f’ is inserted in the word lieutenant /l@ften@nt/. But in American English, this word is pronounced as
/lu:`ten@nt/.
Hence, it is essential to know the silent letters in the pronunciation of words. Here we will discuss silent
consonant letters.
The Letter ‘B’
The consonant letter ‘b’ is silent before ‘t’ in the following words:
debt debtor
doubt subtle
indebted undoubtedly
It is generally silent if it occurs at the end of the word and preceded by the letter ‘m’. Here are some
words.
tomb climb crumb limbed
comb plumber bomb
This letter is, however, pronounced if it occurs between ‘m’ and ‘l’. Here are some words.
jumble gamble bumble
tremble humble
It is pronounced in the following words:
timber chamber
lumber bombard
The Letter ‘C’
It is silent if it occurs before the letter ‘k’. Here are some words.
clock rock back sick
cock frock pack pluck
It is silent in the following words:
scene scent indictment Ctelology
science scenery Cnemis
In some words if the letter ‘c’ is preceded by letter ‘s’ and followed by the letter ‘h’, both letters ‘c’
and ‘h’ are silent. Here are some words.
schedule schism
But in the USA the letters ‘c’ and ‘h’ in the word schedule are pronounced as ‘k’.
In some words if the letter ‘c’ is followed by letter ‘h’, both letters are absent.
yacht
The Letter ‘D’
Wednesday
handkerchief handsome
The Letter ‘F’
It is silent in the following word:
halfpenny
The Letter ‘G’
It is generally silent before ‘n’ at the beginning or at the end of a word. It is also silent if it occurs
before ‘m’.
gnat align design phlegm
gnaw assign malign paradigm
It is not silent when ‘g’ and ‘n’ occur in two different syllables.
malignant signal dignity
ignorant stagnant recognise
EXCEPTION:
signing assignment
foreigner
It is silent if it occurs in the combination of ‘g’ and ‘h’.
right might
fight alight
The Letter ‘H’
It is always silent if it occurs with ‘i’ or ‘k’ or ‘r’.
Here are some words.
rhetoric rhyme rhinoceros
rhythm khaki Rhine
It is generally silent in the following words and their derivatives:
honest heir
hour honour
It is generally silent in ‘exh’ combination.
exhaust exhibit exhilarate exhort
Note: It is, however, pronounced in ‘exhale’.
It is generally silent in words starting with ‘wh’ at the initial position of words.
what and its derivatives
when and its derivatives
where and its derivatives
which and its derivatives
while, wheat, whim, whether, wheedle, wheel, wheeze.
It is silent in the final position as in:
oh! eh! ah!
It is silent if it occurs at the initial position and preceded by ‘g’.
ghost ghee ghastly
The Letter ‘K’
It is silent if it occurs at the initial position of words and followed by ‘n’.
know knave knowledge
knife knee knock
The Letter ‘L’
In a large number of words it is silent before the letters ‘f’, ‘k’, and ‘m’.
Here are a few examples.
calf chalk balm talk
half walk palm
It is silent in some other words such as:
could should
would
The Letter ‘M’

It is silent if it is followed by ‘n’ at the beginning of a word.
mnemonic
The Letter ‘N’
It is silent if it occurs after ‘m’ at the end of a word. Here are some words.
autumn hymn
solemn column
The Letter ‘P’
It is silent before ‘n’, ‘s’, and ‘t’ in the following words:
pneumonia ptomaine
psychology psalm
receipt corps (sl)
cupboard
The Letter ‘S’
It is silent in words like:
island corps (sl) apropos
isle debris
précis rendezvous
The Letter ‘T’
It is always silent in the combinations ending at -‘sten’, -‘stle’ as in the following words:
fasten castle rustle
listen whistle bristle
It is sometimes silent in the combinations ending at -‘tch’.
watch patch
catch satchel
It is silent in the combination of ‘th’.
asthma isthmus
It is silent if it occurs at the end of words like:
sobriquet ballet argot depot
buffet bouquet
It is silent in words like:
postpone Christmas mortgage
The Letter ‘W’
It is silent if it is followed by ‘r’ and occurs at the beginning of the word.
write wreck wren wrath
writ wring wrong wrinkle
It is silent in some other words as given here.
prawn lawn law grow coxswain
crawl low saw slow
It is silent in some of the ‘wh’ words as given here.

who its derivatives
whom its derivatives
whole its derivatives
whose its derivatives
The letter ‘Z’
It is silent in the following word:
rendezvous
CONFUSING SOUNDS FOR PRACTICE

Generally, there are some sounds which are likely to be confused for non-native speakers. To guide you in
pronouncing these sounds correctly some words and sentences are provided here:
Practice in consonant contrast sounds:
(i)
/p/ /f/ /p/ /f/ /p/ /f/
paid fade pearl furl pour four
paint faint peel, peal feel port fort
pair fair pen fen prayed frayed
pail fail pine fine pyre fire
pan fan pool fool
past fast
pat fat pound found
Sentences
1. Pawan pulled pails of fresh water from the well.
2. Parvathi prayed for a full hour.
3. Prem noticed and felt that artificial fibres are perhaps cheaper.
4. When Forheen cooked the food, it fell out of the frying pan into the fire.
5. Prawns fell down from the frying pan.
6. The police inspector found out the forgeries of people.
7. Parvathi felt faint when she peered from the terms of high floor building.
8. Flames flared up from the funeral pyre.
9. Pawani Palleti picked a peck of pickled peppers.
(ii) /tS/ /s/ /tS/ /s/
cheer sear church search
chill still chips sips
Sentences
1. The children are playing chess in the play ground of the church.
2. Seema watched the match for seven minutes.
3. The chicken scratched around out side the poultry.
(iii) /dz/ /z/ /dz/ /z/
budge buzz jest zest
barge bars jew zoo
change chains rage raise
gauge gaze region reason

jealous zealous wage ways
Sentences
1. There is a freeze on wage increases.
2. George has got no reason to be jealous.
3. John says he comes from Zurich.
4. The engineers found ways to sling chains across the gorge.
5. Jacob says that a narrow–gauge railway runs up to the resort.
(iv) /dz/ /Z/
ledger leisure
legion lesion
Sentences
1. My parent’s decision is to fix my marriage in June.
2. John clearly explained the division of the geographical and geological aspects.
3. George said there was a huge explosion under the bridge.
4. She is not obliged to believe in visions.
5. The judge’s decision destroyed our illusion.
6. Soil erosion is not just a joke.
7. Surgeons made a large incision.
(v) /v/ /w/ /v/ /w/
veal wheel vie why
vend wend vine wine
vein wane vest west
veil while vim whim
verse vest vent went
vet wet
Sentences
1. We’ll visit you twice a week.
2. Her verse gets worse and worse.
3. Always wear a warm vest in the winters.
4. Vardhani plays the veena very well.
5. Kavitha is a woman of vicious whims.
6. Veena has worn veils for quite a while.
(vi) /s/ /z/ /s/ /z/
bass bays niece knees
dose doze peace peas
fleece knees rice rise
loose lose seal zeal
mace maze sink zinc
Sentences
1. Students recited some prayers to Saraswathi.
2. It is too hot for the seals in the local zoo.
3. Saroj won a first prize by solving the crossword puzzle exceptionally.
4. Rises in the rice prices must be stopped.
5. Saroj, the president of communication skills club, was pleased to give the excellence prize to
Sampurna.
6. My nieces were pleased with their presents.
7. My knees are sore and my niece feels bad.
(vii) /s/ /S/ /s/ /S/
ass ash seep sheep
sake shake sew, sow, so show
sack shack sift shift
save shave sign shine
sea, see she sip ship
seal she’ll mess mesh
seat sheet sort short
seel shell sop shop
sour shower
Sentences
1. Sita showed me her snake-skin purse and shoes.
2. Shankar sells sea-shells on the sea-shore.
3. It’s a shame! She is such an ass.
4. Shekhar counted seventy-six sick sheep on the farm.
5. The rice ration seems scarcely sufficient for this village.
6. Shanthi feels that silken sheets are always a luxury.
7. She’ll shift the ash-tray seven times.
8. It’s a fact that close-meshed nets are most necessary.
(viii) /z/ /Z/
Sentences
1. There are no illusions about his zeal.
2. She’s left deserted on several occasions.
3. Metal corrosion is worst in the coastal zone.
4. In the confusion he changed a zero into a ten.
5. Zakir was imprisoned for embezzlement after the disclosures.
6. Masoori is a good resort for all kinds of leisure activities.
(ix) / S / / Z/
Confucian confusion
Sentences
1. She’s in the state of shock and confusion.
2. She made no allusion for the space shot.
3. She’s an occasion for running a ration shop.
4. Shanti has queer notions about multiplication and division.
5. His report of an invasion was a complete work of fiction.
6. Her exclusion from office was a result of your over-ambition.
7. It is a complex fission-fusion thermo-nuclear reaction.
8. Their pleasures may be appreciable, but they are somewhat unusual.
WORDS AND SENTENCES FOR PRACTISING VOWEL CONTRASTS

(i) Words
/{/ /a:/ /{/ /a:/
back bark hat heart
cat cart pack park
Sentences
1. Human happiness is so fragile.
2. This path’s far from my flat.
3. Have you seen the crack in the plaster?
4. Handle the vase carefully; it’s fragile.
5. I am feeling a bit fragile after last night’s party.
6. The calf got badly entangled in a thorn bush.
(ii) Words
/a:/ /n/ /a:/ /n/
balm bomb glass gloss
faster foster glassy glossy
last lost
Sentences
1. Superficial knowledge does a lot of harm.
2. Of course it’s dark inside a locked box-room.
3. She got a bar of chocolate in her pocket.
4. Kavitha’s song technique is masterlful.
(iii) Words
/a:/ /O:/ /a:/ /O:/
barn born cart court
bar bore darn dawn
car core hard hoard
card cord
Sentences
1. My daughter has gone for a walk.
2. I saw him and his sister in the car.
3. I have milk, corn flakes and a dry fruit bar for breakfast every morning.
4. I have bought books which I found hard to read.
(iv) Words
/n/ /ˆ/ /n/ /ˆ/
cot cut tongs tongues
cough cuff wrong rung
lost lust
Sentences
1. I’ve got a horrible cough.
2. He’s signed a bond for his scholarship.
3. We have drainage problem because the gutters are blocked with mud.
4. What is your mother tongue?
5. She’s got a positive lust for life.

6. Kavitha had a deep cut on her forehead.
(v) Words
/n / /@u/ /n / /@u/
bond boned got goat
blotted bloated knotted noted
cot coat rot wrote
cost coast toddy toady
dot dote toast
Sentences
1. She said that she wrote a note, not a novel.
2. Don’t talk rot on the telephone.
3. Always follow the most lightly loaded lorry.
4. The boat sank forty miles off the coast.
5. We note your wishes and hope to follow them.
6. They have got to copy these notes.
(vi) Words
/ˆ/ /@:/ /ˆ/ /@:/
bud bird hut hurt
bust burst such search
cut curt thud third
Sentences
1. Search in the internet and find out what subjects do you wish to study.
2. Doctor advised me to take a bun and a cup of milk.
3. Come to the office, and enter, this in the account immediately.
4. My elder brother is a doctor and he’s a blood bank.
Summary
In Indian languages, there is a relationship between sounds and letters which are used to represent them in writing. In
English, the frequent lack of correlation between sounds and letters which are used to represent them in writing always
creates a problem. Single sound stands for different spellings, single letter stands for different sounds and some letters
in some words do not represent any sound which mainly causes problem. So you must be aware of all these specific
features of the language.
The description of consonant and vowel sounds and the structure of the syllable of the English language; phonetic
realizations of tense; phonetic realization of inflectional suffixes; pronunciation of some suffixes and word endings and
general suggestions for pronunciation make you an effective speaker. Hence, consistent, conscious, systematic effort
and practice will be required to acquire correct pronunciation and to make one’s own speech intelligible at the national
and international level.
Review Questions
1. Discuss the classification of English consonant sounds.
2. Describe vowel sounds of the English language.

3. Identify which English sound stands for maximum different spellings.
4. What is a syllable? Discuss the structure of a syllable.
5. Discuss the rules that govern the pronunciation of inflectional suffixes. Give examples.
6. What are the phonetic realizations of past tense forming with ‘-d’ or ‘-ed’? Give examples.
7. Discuss briefly in what way the studying of silent letters is useful for oral presentation.
Exercises
1. Write the following words in ordinary orthography.
/ripbt/ /debrt:/
2. Identify and write down the sound represented by the underlined letter(s) in the following words:
phonetics accent ghost ocean
3. In each of the following words identify the number of letters and the number of sounds:
Words No. of Letters No. of Sounds

Tax
Slow
Enough
Miss
Physics
Honest
Exact
Text
Identify the common sound in each of the following pair of words and circle that sound:
put book photo laugh chagrin shell

mate Pain Europe yes zoo raise
shoot machine meat seal
5. Give one example from English for each of the following:
(i) The letters th representing [D]_______________..
(ii) The letters ch representing /S/ ________________.
(iii) The letters gh representing /g/ _______________.
(iv) A word in which medial b is silent ____________.
(v) A word in which medial l is silent ____________.
(vi) The letters gh at the end of the word that are silent _________.
6. Show how the letter e can represent different sounds in English.
7. How many different sounds does the letter a have in the following words? Group the words according to the vowel
sound used.
gas path tank alms talk alone

paper art avoid all table class
cane cart father sat
8. How many different sounds does the letter ‘i’ have in the following words?
sit site kick bit mine
9. How many different sounds does the letter ‘s’ have in the following words?
sea scissors rose boys boards
10. How many different sounds does the letter ‘g’ have in the following words?
college collage bag get orange
11. How many different sounds does the letter ‘c’ have in the following words?
cut circle centre
12. Decide which of the following words are pronounced /s/ as in see, /z/ as in sums, /S/ as in she, /ks/ as in box and
/tS/ as in chair.
Write answers in the space provided under each sound.
scissors face peas ocean

essence boards peace tension
pace nation explain luxury
text difference knees question
special suggestion special machine
nature sure science easy
Answer:
/s/ as in see
/z/ as in sums
/S/ as in she
/ks/ as in box
/tS/ as in chair.
13. Decide which of the following words are pronounced:
/u/ as in ‘could’
/u:/ as in cool
/au/ as in round
/@u/ as in nose.
Write your answers in the space provided under each sound.
book bound home took

nose should book moon
woman cook food doubt
choose month no most
go loose
Answer:
/u/ as in could
/u:/ as in cool
/au/ as in round
/@u/ as in nose.
14. Decide which of the following words are pronounced as /S/ as in ‘she’ /tS/ as in ‘church’, /dZ/ as in ‘Jump’ and
/Z/ as in ‘usual’.
shocking visual much college establishment

sugar such age vision join
chagrin manage reach prejudice pleasure
chance achieve attached tragedy casual
subjects engineering edge teacher pledge

cabbage machine gentle college furniture
nature
/tS/ /S/ /Z/ /dZ/
15. Arrange the following words into four groups, according to the pronunciation of the letters ‘g’ or ‘gh’. The first
four are done as examples.
give although though daughter

high against sugar tough
thorough engineering significant ghee
young rough gherkin through
cough emerged right enough
manage unchanged igniting college
extinguished generation age get
ghat long garage collage
S.No. /g/ /f/ /dZ/ silent /Z/

1 get rough age sign collage
16. Identify the odd sound of the underlined letter or letters in each of the following set of words:
a. gate gem gentle

b. thou thought thin
c. kidnap kitchen kind
d. blood doom room
e. champion champagne chancellor
f. peas peace piece
g. birth depth than
h feast east greatest
17. Given are thirty words. Read and identify the mono, di, tri and tetra syllabic words and put them under four cat-
egories of monosyllabic words, disyllabic words, tri-syllabic words and tetra-syllabic words. One example has been
worked out for you.
Example:
S. No Monosyllabic Disyllabic Words Tri-syllabic Tetra-syllabic

Word Words Words
1. broom assess bimonthly biology
1. arm 9. pack 17. female 25. instruct

2. digest 10. hesitate 18. default 26. nail
3. mould 11. keep 19. implement 27. biology
4. civilize 12. pot 20. knock 28. fragrant
5. march 13. hermit 21. hesitate 29. examination
6. oath 14. imperfect 22. lane 30. location
7. escape 15. just 23. inhuman
8. decrease 16. imbalance 24. engage
18. Assume that the speaker ignores the silent letters and pronounces each and every letter of the word in his
speech.
(a) Do you think it affects your listening comprehension?
If ‘Yes’, give reasons.
If ‘No’, give reasons.
(b) Do you think it effects the speaker’s presentation?
If ‘Yes’, give reasons.
If ‘No’, give reasons.
19. Can you find some sounds which are silent but you can pronounce? List them.
20. Identify the silent letters in the following words and try to formulate a rule for the same:
resign hockey indict design

feign rocky significant designate
crumble crumb rhyme rhetoric
psalm raspberry rustle précis
wrap mortgage debris hymn
21. Take 100 words with one or two silent letters. Find out how much time do you take to read these words aloud by
articulating every letter in the word and note down the time. Read these words aloud again leaving the silent letters
and note down the time. Now, find out the difference in time. Do you think your rate of delivery will increase?
Chapter 3
Accentual Pattern of
Words and Sentences

Know the stress pattern of English words.
Identify prominent syllable(s) in the word.
Know the articulation of monosyllable and multi-syllable words.
Identify the accentual pattern of compound words.
Identify how the change of stress brings the change in meaning.
Identify how the change of stress brings the change in parts of speech.
Know the stress pattern of the sentences.
Know the pronunciation of words in isolation and in connected speech.
Pronounce the weak forms.
Know the contracted forms.
Increase the rate of delivery of words in your speech.
INTRODUCTION
“Language is the Rubicon that divides man from beast” declared the Philologist Max Müller many years
ago. This is true even today. The boundary between a savage and the highest cultured man is the language.
It is only through the gift of language that the human being acquires reason, the complexity of thought and
the ability to speak that sets him or her apart from other creatures who share this planet. So the birth of
language is the dawn of humanity. We have always been endowed with the rudiments of language. However,
it is essential to know the sound system and the accentual pattern of a language. The study of English sound
system, silent letters and word accent help you speak effectively. The function of a word in a sentence,
the semantic aspect of a word in a sentence sometimes depend on the accentual pattern of the word in the
English language. If you know the principles of word accent and practice them with the correct accentual
Accentual Pattern of Words and Sentences 45
pattern you can avoid hiatus in communication and your speech will become intelligible to the listener. You
can also increase your delivery speed.
In spoken English, word accent is a significant feature. If a word contains more than one syllable all of
them are not equally prominent. The syllables, which are more prominent than the others are said to receive
the accent. For this purpose we can take the help of a dictionary, because a dictionary indicates the location
of the word’s accent. In the word ‘morpheme’, the first syllable / 'mO: / is stressed and so is spoken more
prominently than the second syllable /fI:m/. Similarly, in the word ‘de'light', the second syllable /-laIt/
is stressed and so is spoken more prominently than the first syllable /dI/. Taking another example, in the
multi-syllable word ‘remarkable'/ the second syllable /ma:/ is more prominent than the others. The syllable
that is more prominent than the others is said to receive the accent.
Stress may be due to the relative prominence of the syllable. That means, we use greater breath force on
one syllable than other syllables. Very often pitch change and stress work together to make a syllable more
prominent. It is difficult to give specific rules for stressing individual words. However, a few are given later
in this chapter. It is necessary to refer to a dictionary to find out the correct accentual pattern of a word.
In multi-syllable words we have the ‘primary or tonic accent’ and the ‘secondary accent’. If there is a
pitch change on one syllable of a multi-syllable word, that syllable is said to have the primary accent. Any
other prominent syllable is said to have ‘secondary accent’. The primary accent is marked with a vertical bar
( ' ) above and in front of the syllable to which it refers. The secondary accent is marked with a vertical bar
( ' ) below and in front of the syllable. For example, the word “entertain” /'ent@'teIn/ has three syllables
with primary and secondary accent as given here:
/'en.t@.'teIn/
It has the primary accent on the third syllable /'teIn/ and the secondary accent on the first syllable /'en/.
When words are combined into sentences, it is found that the accented syllables tend to occur at regular
intervals of time. In connected speech too, some syllables stand out from the rest. That means, they are
spoken more prominently than others. Let us see the following examples:
1. 'send an 'email (e-mail)
2. 'Ask me
In the first sentence there are three words. Two words are of one syllable each and the third word – e-
mail is of two syllables. The first and the third are stressed where as the second word ‘an’ (the article) is
unstressed. In the second sentence which has two words of one syllable each, the first is stressed and the
second is unstressed.
Let us take another example:
That is the problem I wanted to solve it.
/'D{ts D@ 'pr¡bl@m AI 'w¡ntId t@/ s¡lv It./
In this sentence the time intervals between the stressed syllables will be the same. This is the characteristic
feature of a sentence’s stress pattern. The words which convey the main message of the sentence are called
content words. As a general rule we can say that we stress those words in the connected speech that are
important for meaning. The content words are: nouns, demonstrative and interrogative pronouns, principal
verbs, adjectives and adverbs. Structural words are: articles, personal and relative pronouns, auxiliary verbs,
prepositions and conjunctions. These structural words are normally not stressed.
Since this course is meant for general students, we shall focus only on the primary accent. We consider
word stress pattern for the effective speaking point of view.
ACCENTUAL PATTERN OF SINGLE WORDS

Accent is one of the features that brings out the phonological unity of the word. An important feature of
spoken English is word accent. English grammarians have classified words as ‘full’ words and ‘form’ words.
These words are also termed as content words and structural words. Content words are words which carry
the main meaning of the sentence. They may be monosyllabic or multi-syllable words. Content words receive
the accent. Say the following content words orally by absorbing the stress pattern:
mo’siac mos’quito ‘mortify ‘mortax

re’generate ‘edit ‘woman ‘lady
‘people ‘money ‘shower ‘magic
‘river ‘tiger ‘happy
‘being ‘ocean ‘power
Form words are also called structural words. These words, generally, seem to belong to grammar rather
than to semantics; more strictly they belong to grammar rather than to lexicon. They can be said to have
meaning, but meaning of a grammatical kind. Yet this is not so much the meaning of the word itself, but
rather its meaning in relation to the other words and perhaps the whole sentence. We should not, for that
reason, wish to look for the meaning of such words in isolation, but only within the sentence. Generally,
these words are monosyllabic words like prepositions, personal and relative pronouns, articles, auxiliary
verbs and conjunctions. In the connected speech these words are unstressed.
Monosyllabic Words
Generally, the monosyllabic words are not stressed. Say the following words orally without stress:
lawn mill milk lake fish peep

mime beg lame egg pelt mince
leer fit comb hair lap robe
side sick thump veil vent verb
sock news rock oil
Disyllabic Words
In the following words, the first syllable receives the accent. Say the following words orally with stress:
'any 'agent 'careful 'eager 'button

'beggar 'body 'chicken 'holy 'butter
'bread 'able 'dentist 'damage 'captain
In the following disyllabic words, the accent is on the second syllable. Say the following words orally with
stress:
a’ghast a’bout be’lieve be’tween ad’mit

a’go be’gin re’ceive de’ceive
Tri-syllabic Words
In the following tri-syllabic words, both primary and secondary accents have been marked. The primary
accent is on the first syllable.
Examples:
'calcu'late 'edu'cate 'recog'nise 'recti'fy 'anything

'agency 'article 'eagerly 'nobody
The primary accent is on the second syllable in the following words:
be'ginning a'nother de'liver e'lastic de'velop

di'rection di'rector
The primary accent is on the third syllable in the following words:
'enter'tain 'under'stand 'disap'point 'recom'mend 'inhu'mane

'decom'pose 'seven'teen 'compli'mentary 'compre'hend
Tetra-syllabic Words
Primary accent is on the first syllable in the following four syllable words:
'comfortable 'popularly
Primary accent is on the second syllable in the following words:
a'bility de'velopment pho'tography

a'polo'gise ef ' ficiency
Primary accent is on the third syllable in the following words:
'acci'dental 'photo'graphic 'unim'portant

'diplo'matic 'circu'lation
Words with More Than Four Syllables
'oppor'tunity ex'ami'nation in'feri'ority

i'dentifi'cation 'agri'cultural
ACCENTUAL PATTERN OF COMPOUND WORDS

The words which are made up of two or more words are called compound words. Generally, the two words
are written as one word with or without hyphen.
Compound Nouns
Most compound nouns have the primary accent on the first syllable. Here are some examples:
‘blackboard ‘dinning-room ‘moonshine ‘tea-party

‘blacklist ‘earthquake ‘midnight ‘teamwork
‘blood bank ‘eastward ‘outset ‘weekday
‘counter-attack ‘fireplace ‘picture-gallery ‘workman
‘daybreak ‘kneecap ‘pickpocket ‘workout
Exceptions: Here some compound nouns are used as two words or with a hyphen. These words receive
primary accent on the second word. Some examples are here:
Picture-’postcard
World ‘power
World ‘war
Compound Adjectives
Most compound adjectives receive the primary accent on the first syllable.
‘earthbound ‘knee-length ‘snowball

‘countervailing ‘knee-jerk ‘snowbound
‘fireproof ‘moonlight ‘worldwide
Exceptions: Here are some exceptions:
knee-’deep over’blown world-’famous
knee-’high over’bearing world-’class
over’cast
However, there are a few compound words which have the accent on the second element. They are mostly
compounds with −ever and −self. A few examples are:
him'self her'self how'ever when'ever
Compound Verbs
Most compound verbs usually receive primary accent on the second word. Look at the following compound
verbs:
counter’act out’run over’book

Out’do out’sell over’come
out’fight over’act under’rate
Exceptions: Some compound verbs take primary accent on the first syllable.
‘countersign
It is difficult to formulate rules regarding word stress. Based on practice and experience, a few guidelines
are, however, given here to help you get acquainted with word stress.
Affixes
Sometimes, the stress pattern of a word is affected by the addition of affixes. Some affixes, however, do not
affect the stress pattern. Affixes which are attached at the beginning of a word are called prefixes. Affixes
which are attached at the end of a word are called suffixes.
Weak Prefixes In words with weak prefixes, the root is stressed not the prefix.
Examples:
a'bout a'cross a'broad ad'mit a'lone

a'mount a'loud a'part be'low be'tween de'velop
re'duce o'mit a'go ac'count o'lympic at'tend
Inflexional Suffixes When you add the inflexional suffixes such as –es, –ed, –ing, it does not normally
affect the accent.
Examples:
'village – 'villages 'actor – 'actress

be'gin – be'ginning re'mark – re'marked
ap'pear – ap'peared re'marking
Derivational Suffixes The following derivational suffixes do not normally change the stress pattern:
–age, –ance, –en, –er, –ess, –ful, –hood, –ice, –ish, –ive, –less, –ly, –ment, –ness, –or, –ship, –ter, –ure,
and –zen.
Examples:
– age 'anchor – 'anchorage – ly 'bad – 'badly
'orphan – 'orphanage
– ance a'ssist – a'ssistance – ment a'chieve – a'chievement
re'semble – res'emblance
– en 'bright – 'brighten
– er 'laugh – 'laughter – ness 'bitter – 'bitterness
– ess 'god – 'goddess – or 'collect – 'collector
– ful 'beauty – 'beautiful – ship friend – 'friendship
– fy 'class – 'classify – ess 'actor – 'actress
– hood 'mother – 'motherhood – or 'conquer – 'conqueror
– ice 'coward – 'cowardice –y 'blood – 'bloody
– ish 'yellow – 'yellowish – zen 'city – 'citizen
– ive in'tense – in'tensive
– less 'colour – 'colourless
Suffix –tion In words ending in –tion, the syllable preceding it is stressed.
Examples:
exami'nation appli'cation civili'zation compo'sition

imagi'nation qualifi'cation pro'duction impo'sition
determi'nation fortifi'cation intro'duction culti'vation
sanita'tion amplifi'cation conver'sation
Suffix –logy Words ending in –logy have the main stress on the syllable immediately before this.
Examples:
bi'ology soci'ology psy'chology pa'thology

zo'ology the'ology phrase'ology
Suffix –ity Words ending in –ity, have the main stress on the third syllable counted from the end.
Examples:
reponsi'bility possi'bility na'tivity curi'osity
elec'tricity proba'bility ac'tivity gene'rosity
ne'cessity
Disyllabic words ending in –ity, are accented on the first syllable.

Examples:
'pity 'city
Suffix –ic Adjective words ending in –ic, have the primary accent on the second syllable counted from
the end.
Examples:
patri'otic ele'ctric
eco'nomic mag'netic
Suffix –ical If an adjective ends in –ical, the primary accent is normally on the third syllable counted
from the end.
Examples:
gram'matical bo'tanical po'litical
e'lectrical geo'graphical
Suffix –ically In an adverb ending in –ically, the primary accent is normally on the fourth syllable
counted from the end.
Examples:
eco'nomically po'litically sympa'thetically em'phatically
Suffixes –fy, –ate, –ize If a verb ends in – fy, – ate, – ize, – ise, or – yse, the primary accent is on the
third syllable counted from the end.
Examples:
'signify 'radiate 'analyse 'educate

'magnify 'mediate 'visualise
'rectify 'recognise 'organise
Suffixes –ee, –eer The primary accent is normally on the last syllable, if the word ends in – ee or
– eer.
Examples:
engi'neer nomi'nee emplo'yee pa'yee pio'neer
Suffix –ian If a word ends in – ian the accent is on the syllable preceding the suffix.
Examples:
mu'sician 'poli'tician 'elec'trician li'brarian
Suffix –ious If the word ends in – ious the accent is on the syllable preceding the suffix.
Examples:
'glorious 'anxious in'jurious
meri'torious lu'xurious vic'torious
la'borious
ACCENT CHANGE ACCORDING TO FUNCTION

Stress is sometimes used to distinguish parts of speech. Some words in the English language have the same
form when used as a noun, an adjective or a verb. Here the accentual pattern depends on whether the word
is used as a noun, an adjective or a verb. The accent is on the first syllable when the word is a noun or
an adjective and on the second syllable when it is a verb. To make your speech intelligible and to follow
somebody’s speech you have to know these features. Here are some examples:
Table 3.1 Accent Change: Adjective-Verb
Adjective Verb
‘absent ab’sent
‘frequent fre’quent
‘perfect per’fect
‘present (also N) pre’sent
Table 3.2 Accent Change: Noun-Verb
Noun Verb
‘affix a’ffix
‘extract ex’tract
‘compress com’press
‘contract con’tract
‘increase in’crease
‘import im’port
‘insult in’sult
‘object ob’ject
‘progress pro’gress
‘produce pro’duce
Table 3.3 Accent Change According to Meaning
S.No. Word Accent and Phonetic Transcription Meaning

1 Minute /'mInIt/ N Any of the 60 equal parts of an hour
/mAI'nju:t/ adj Very small in size or amount
2 Invalid /In'v{lid/ adj Not officially acceptable
/’In'v@lid/ N A person made weak by illness or injury
3 Remit /rI’mit/ V To send money etc. to a person or place especially by post
/ 'rI: mIt/ N The area of control or influence that an official person has
(Contd)
(Contd)
4 Refuse /'refju:s/ N Rubbish
/rI'fju:Z/ V To show that one is unwilling to give or accept
5 Resume /ri'zju:m or r@'zju:m/ V Begins again or continues after interruption
/'rezju:meI/N A short summary or an account of something
Curriculum vitae
6 Compact /k@m'p{kt/adj Closely packed together
/ 'k¡mp{kt/N Small flat box containing a mirror or powder etc for the
face
A formal agreement between two or more people, countries
etc.
SENTENCE ACCENT
In order to speak effectively and to make your speech intelligible to the listener you should know which
words are to be accented in the sentence. When you pronounce a multi-syllable word one of the syllables
receives the primary accent. However, in a connected speech, this syllable may or may not receive the primary
accent. The accentual pattern in the connected speech depends on the relative importance given to that word
from the semantic point of view. It also depends on the rhythmic balance of the sentence because the stress
occurs at regular intervals in the connected speech. For example, the words ‘about’, ‘amount’, ‘approve’
etc. have two syllables. The first syllable is a single letter /@/ and it is a weak syllable. It does not receive
the accent. So it reduces its phonetic length. The second syllable receives the accent if you articulate it in
isolation. It can be illustrated with the following example:
At about ‘five o’clock my ‘friends are ‘coming.
In this sentence, the second syllable of the word ‘about’ doesn’t receive the accent. The words ‘five’,
‘friends’ and ‘coming’ are important words from the semantics point of view.
Let us take another example:
She ‘doesn’t ‘know what she is a’bout.
In this sentence the second syllable of the word ‘about’ receives primary accent because this word is semanti-
cally important. Therefore, accent at the level of the sentence is much freer than the word level. However,
certain kinds of words by virtue of their function in the sentences are likely to be more important in convey-
ing the meaning of the whole sentence. These are: nouns, main verbs, adjectives, adverbs and demonstrative
and interrogative pronouns. Here are some examples:
(i) ‘I am ‘going to ‘take the ‘class.
(ii) She ‘came ‘late to the class.
(iii) ‘Nobody ‘paid any attention to him.
(iv) I’d ‘like to ‘know who ‘took my ‘pen.
(v) She’s ‘going to ‘attend the ‘function.
(vi) There’s ‘nothing to be ‘done about it.
In these sentences the primary accent is indicated by the oblique pointing downwards.
Let us look at the following examples:
1. I 'recently ‘read a 'good ‘book on ‘communication.
2. It would have been 'better not to have w'ritten that expla'nation.
In these two examples, sentence one has eight words, five of which are stressed. Sentence two has eleven
words and here only three words are stressed. The most important point to remember is that in English
speech stressed syllables tend to occur at regular intervals of time. Thus, in the above first sentence, the time
intervals between the stressed syllables – re (of the word recently), read, good, book and Co- (of the word
communication) – will be approximately the same. In the second sentence, the time intervals between the
stressed syllables – bet (of the word better), – ri – (of the word written) and – na – (of the word explana-
tion) – will be approximately the same, even though they are more.
Weak Forms Another important aspect of English rhythm is the occurrence of weak forms. Since stressed
syllables tend to occur at regular intervals, unstressed syllables which occur between the stressed syllables
tend to reduce the phonetic length. For example, the word ‘and’ is pronounced /{nd/ in isolation, but in
connected speech, it is reduced to /@nd/ or /@n/ or /n/.
Consider the following examples:
Pick and pack / 'pIk @n 'p{k/ or / 'pIk n 'p{k/
Wear and tear / 'we@r @n 'te@(r)/ or / 'we@r n' te@(r)/
Both these sentences contain three words each and the first and the last words are stressed. The conjunction
‘and’ in these two sentences is reduced to /@n/ or /n/.
Similarly, ‘am’ / {m / is reduced to /@m/ or /m/. See the example:
I am going /I @m g@UIŒ/
This reduction of unstressed syllable is the most significant feature in connected speech. This feature will
help you to acquire the right rhythm of the English speech. The following is a list of common words which
are weak forms in connected speech:
Table 3.4 Auxiliary Verbs
S.No. Word Pronunciation Weak Form Sentence in Phonetic Sentence

in Isolation Transcription
1. am /{m/ /@m/, /m/ /aIm g@VIŒ/ I’m going.
2. is /iz/ /z/, /s/ /SI:z 'g@VIŒ/ She’s going.
3. are /a:/ /@/ before /wI@ 'g@VIŒ/ We’re going.
consonant
/@r/, /r/ before the vowel
4. was /wOz/ /w@z/ /aI w@z 'rI:dIŒ I was reading.
5. were /w@:/ /w@/ before consonant /w@ ju g@ViŒ/ Were you going?
/w@:r/ before the vowel
6. have /h{v/ /h@v/, /@v/, /v/ /h@v DeI gOn/ Have they gone?
7. has /h{z/ /h@z/, /@z/ /h@z I: gOn/ Has he gone?
/z/, /s/
8. had /h{d/ /h@d/, /@d/ /d/ /wI:d fInISt/ We’d finished.
9. do /du:/ /du/, /d@/ /d/ /wOt d ju 'wOnt/ What do you want?
10. does /dˆz/ /d@z/ /wOt d@z I: 'wOnt/ What does he want?
11. can /k{n/ /k@n/ /k@n aI g@V/ Can I go?
12. could /kud/ /k@d/ /k@d ju plI:z gIv mi: Could you please give me
@ bUk/ a book?
13. shall /S{Ï/ /S@l/ /SÏ/ /'wOt S@l aI du:/ What shall I do?
14. should /Sud/ /S@d/ /Sd/ /Sd aI 'g@V/ Should I go?
(Contd)
(Contd)
15. will /wil/ /l/ /aIl 'g@V/ I’ll go.

16. would /wud/ /@d/, /d/ /SI:d bI 'DE@/ She’d be there.
17. must /mˆst/ /m@st/ /m@s/ /aI m@s 'g@V nau/ I must go now.
Table 3.5 Conjunctions
S.No. Word Pronunciation in Weak Form Sentences in Phonetic Sentence

Isolation Transcription
1. and /{nd/ /@nd/ /en/ /'bred n 'bˆ‘@/ Bread and butter.
2. than /D{n/ /D@n/ /bet@ D@n ju:/ Better than you.
3. that /D{t/ /D@t/ /aI 'sed D@t aI w@z I said that I was busy.
'bIzI/
4. as /{z/ /@z/ /'wZ:k @z' hA:d Work as hard as you can.
@z ju: k{n/
5. but /bˆt/ /b@t/ /b@t aIm bIzI/ But I am busy.
Table 3.6 Prepositions

1. at /{t/ /@t/ /'luk @t h@r/ Look at her.
2. of /Ov/ /@v/ /@ 'kˆp @v 'k¡fI:/ A cup of coffee.
3. to /tu:/ /tu/ before a vowel /'gIv it tu O:T@ (r)/ Give it to author.
/t@/ before a consonant /'giv it 't@' mI:/ Give it to me.
4. for /fO:/ /f@/, before a consonant /'DIs Iz f@ me:/ This is for me.
/f@r/ before a vowel /DIs Iz f@r O:T@ (r)/ This is for author.
5. from /frˆm/ /fr@m/ /aI kˆm fr@m vIlIdZ/ I come from village.
Table 3.7 Articles
S.No. Word Pronunciation Weak form Sentence in Phonetic Sentence

1. a /eI/ /@/ /@ 'bVk/ A book.
2. an /{n/ /n/ /@n/ /'DIs Iz n '{pl/ This is an apple.
3. the /DI:/ DI: (before vowel) /DIs Iz DI: {pÏ aI w¡nt/ This is the apple I want.
D@ (before consonant) /'kI:p DIs 'bVk ¡n D@ 'teIbl/ Keep this book on the table.
Table 3.8 Personal Pronouns

1. he /hi:/ /hi/, /i:/ /i/ /wOt d@z i: 'w¡nt?/ What does he want?
2. her /h@:/ /h@/, /@:/ /@/ /'giv h@r @ 'buk/ Give her a book.
3. his /hIz/ /iz/ /It z iz 'buk/ It is his book.
4. him /him/ /im/ /Let im du/ Let him do.
5. she /SI:/ /SI/ /wOt d@z SI w¡nt?/ What does she want?
6. them /Dem/ /D@m/ /Dm/ /let /D@m g@U/ Let them go.
7. there /De@r/ /D@ (r) /D@r /D@r iz @ pen/ There is a pen.
(before vowels)
8. we /wi:/ /wi/ / 'k{n wi g@U/ Can we go?
9. us /ˆs/ /@s/, /s/ /DeI 'dZOInd @s/ They joined us.
10. you /ju:/ /ju/ /j@/ /if j@' k{n/ If you can.
11. me /mi:/ /mi/ /let mi g@U/ Let me go.
Contracted Forms Some auxiliary verbs can be shortened when joined with personal pronouns. The
resulting shortened forms have their own pronunciation. The use of these contracted forms in speech and
writing helps in smooth flow of thought process’ and in reading and conversation. Some commonly used
contracted forms are given here.
Table 3.9 Contracted Forms
S.No. Uncontracted Form Contracted Form

Written Spoken
1. I am I’m /aIm/
2. She is She’s /Si:z/
3. He is He’s /hi:z/
4. It is It’s /its/
5. You are You’re /Ju@/
6. We are We’re /wi@/
7. They are They’re /DE@/
8. I have I’ve /aIv/
9. She has She’s /Si:z/
10. It has It’s /its/
11. He has He’s /hi:z/
12. You have You’ve /ju: v/
13. We have We’ve /wI: v/
14. They have They’ve /ðeIv/
15. I had I’d /aId/
16. She had She’d /Si: d/
(Contd)
(Contd)
17. He had He’d /hi: d/
18. It had It’d /it@d/
19. We had We’d /wi:d/
20. You had You’d /ju:d/
21. They had They’d /DeId/
22. I shall I’ll /aIl/
23. We shall We’ll /wi:l/
24. He will He’ll /hi:l/
25. She will She’ll /Si:l/
26. You will You’ll /Ju:l/
27. It will It’ll /it l/
28. They will They’ll /DeIl/
29. I should I’d /aId/
30. She would She’d /SI:d/
31. You would You’d /ju:d/
32. We should We’d /wi:d/
33. He would He’d /hi:d/
34. They would They’d /DeId/
35. It would It’d /it@d/
Note: The contracted forms of shall and will are represented by ‘l’ in the written form and /l/ in the spoken
form. Both words are represented in the same way. Similarly would and should are also represented by
/d/.
Table 3.10 Negative Contracted Forms
S.No. Uncontracted Form Contracted Form

Written Spoken
1. am not I’m not aIm not
2. is not isn’t /iznt/
3. are not aren’t /a:nt/
4. was not wasn’t /wOznt/
5. were not weren’t /w@:nt/
6. have not haven’t /h{vnt/
7. has not hasn’t /h{znt/
8. had not hadn’t /h{dnt/
9. do not don’t /d@unt/
10. does not doesn’t /dˆznt/
11. did not didn’t /didnt/
12. shall not shan’t /Sa:nt/
(Contd)
(Contd)
13. will not won’t /w@unt/
14. should not shouldn’t /Sudnt/
15. would not wouldn’t /wudnt/
16. cannot can’t /ka:nt/
17. could not couldn’t /kudnt/
18. may not mayn’t /meint/
19. might not mightn’t /maitnt/
20. must not mustn’t /mˆsn't/
21. ought not oughtn’t /O:tnt/
22. need not needn’t /ni:dnt/
23. dare not daren’t /dE@nt/
24. used not usedn’t /ju:snt/
Note: Notice that the word ‘am’ is the only anomalous finite to which the shortened form of ‘not’, namely,
‘nt’ can’t be added.
Summary
All syllables in an utterance of multi-syllable word are not spoken with equal emphasis. From the above discussion we
can draw the conclusion that there are certain syllables which are stressed more than the other syllables in the word.
It is difficult to frame rules for stressing individual words. However, based on experience a few are provided in this
chapter. Stress changes, sometimes, function on the word and the meaning of the word.
For effective speaking it is essential to acquire the correct accentual pattern of the word, the features of accentual
pattern of the connected speech, correct pronunciation of contracted and the weak forms of words and a combination
of words. If you follow the principles discussed in this chapter, your speech will be nationally and internationally intel-
ligible to the listeners.
Review Questions
1. What is accent? Explain with examples.
2. Discuss ‘primary’ accent and ‘secondary’ accent. Explain with examples.
3. What is Affix? Discuss the various types of affixes with examples.
4. Discuss stress pattern of affixes.
5. In what way does the word accent help you in making your speech effective?
6. Do you think you can increase your rate of delivery by following the word accent?
7. If you do not follow the word accent of the speaker, do you think it affects your listening skill?
If your answer is ‘yes’ please provide reasons.
8. ‘Change of accent of the word brings a change to meaning of that word.’ Discuss.
9. Discuss the sentence stress in detail.
10. What is the characteristic feature of a sentence stress pattern?
11. Do you think you can increase your rate of delivery in oral presentation by following a sentence stress pattern?
12. “The reduction of phonetic length of unstressed syllables is the most significant feature in the connected speech.”
Discuss.
Exercises
1. Write thirty disyllabic words with the accent on the first syllable and thirty disyllabic words with the accent on the
second syllable.
(Write examples other than ones listed in this chapter).
2. Write thirty monosyllabic words with an accent and also write thirty monosyllabic words without an accent.
(Give examples other than those listed in this chapter).
3. Write ten words of three syllables each with:
(i) the accent on the first syllable
(ii) the accent on the second syllable
(iii) the accent on the third syllable
4. Write ten words of four syllables each with an accent on different syllables.
5. Give ten examples of words in which the accent is shifted according to the function of the word.
(Give examples other than those listed in this chapter).
6. Write ten disyllabic words with a weak-prefix.
(Do not give examples that are listed in this chapter).
7. Give five examples of words in which change of accent brings a change of the meaning.
8. Write ten words for each of the rules of the accent given in this chapter.
9. The following words are often stressed on the wrong syllable. Check each in a dictionary and write it with an
accent mark over the stressed syllable. Note that in some cases two pronunciations are acceptable. Read aloud for
practice after marking the accent.
acumen debate impotent peremptory

admirable desultory incomparable prestige
adult equitable inexorable recess
alias formidable infamous respite
awry grimace integral theatre
combatant herculean lamentable superfluous
condolence horizon mischievous
contrary hospitable municipal
conversant impious orchestra
curator
10. The following words receive the accent based on their function. Refer to a dictionary, identify the accent and mark
it. Differentiate the words according to their accents.
Contest
Rebel survey
Record torment
Subject indent
11. Here are some foreign words frequently used in English. Look up their pronunciation in a dictionary and mark the
stress. Read aloud for practice after marking the stress.
apropos, adagio, ad infinitum, ad ib, adieu, ad hoc, ad nauseam, blasé, bon voyage, bon mot, cuisine, compos
mantis, concerto, cognoscenti, de luxe, de facto, data, elite, en masse, en route, fiasco, facsimile, guitar, gratis,
hors-doeuvre hors de combat, lingerie, maestro, maraschino, mesa, nee, petite, premiere, rapport, sabotage, sine
die, sine qua non, status quo, sotto voce, trousseau, via, vice versa.
12. Write five phrases in which ‘and’ is used and in the spoken form it is reduced as /n/.
13. Write five sentences with auxiliary verbs and in the spoken form so that it is reduced.
14. Write five sentences of each of the following, in which the phonetic length in the spoken form is reduced:
(i) Conjunctions
(ii) Prepositions
(iii) Articles
(iv) Personal pronouns
15. Write five sentences using each of the words given in Tables 2.6 and 2.7. Show how they are delivered in the spoken
form.
16. Give a five-minute talk in the class following the principles of sentence stress pattern.
(i) Find out your rate of delivery per minute.
(ii) Do you think your rate of delivery will be increased if you follow the stress pattern?
(iii) Do you think your talk is effective?
(iv) Is your talk clear to the audience?
(v) Can you give more information to the audience?
17. Assume that your classmate gave a talk in the class without following the principles of sentence stress pattern.
(i) Find out his rate of delivery per minute. Is it less or more than your rate of delivery per minute?
(ii) Was your classmate’s talk effective? Or not?
(iii) If it was not effective what suggestions would you like to give to your classmate?
Chapter 4
Effective Speech

Overcome common problems of speech like elision or transposition of sounds.
Understand how pronunciation brings about a change in the meaning.
Pronounce inflectional suffixes correctly.
Pronounce endings of words correctly.
Overcome enunciation problems in speech.
Acquire the pronunciation of consecutive consonants in words and in sentences.
INTRODUCTION
Communication, broadly speaking, is a process of sending a message and receiving a message. The message
may be written or oral. In written communication the writer is the sender and the reader is the receiver. In
oral communication, however, the speaker is the sender and the listener is the receiver. If the listener receives
the speaker’s intended message exactly then the communication is effective. In written communication, the
writer has to write clearly and precisely. The reader responds to the way the information is presented as well
as the information itself. In the same way, in oral communication the speaker has to present the information
clearly to the listener. That means the speaker and the listener should be aware of the actual pronunciation
of sounds and clear enunciation. The effectiveness of communication depends upon the proper functioning
of sending and receiving the messages in the process of communication.
If you want to communicate your opinions, ideas and views to others so that they understand and act
as you want them to, you must know how to speak effectively. English for us is a ‘non-native’ language.
Our mother tongue influence will be more in our pronunciation of a non-native language. Hence, you must
learn how to pronounce English language sounds and words clearly so that you can speak effectively. Your
goal is that your listener should get the message clearly. Speech problems interfere with the communication
Effective Speech 61
process. They distort the message and divert attention from “what is being said” to “how it is being said”.
It is worth mentioning here Shakespeare’s words:
Mend your speech
Lest it mars your fortunes.
So far we have discussed the description of the sounds in the English language in Chapter 2 and an accen-
tual pattern of words and sentences in Chapter 3. We now focus our attention on problems of pronunciation
and enunciation of Indian speakers. Due to our pronunciation problems, our speech is not intelligible to the
listener at times. This chapter deals with effective speech. It discusses elision of sounds or syllables, addition
of sounds, transposition of sounds, pronunciation based on semantics, pronunciation of some inflectional
suffixes and pronunciation of some common word endings.
ELISION OF SOUNDS OR SYLLABLES

Elision means leaving out the sound or part of a word in pronunciation. Some speakers omit the sound or
syllable of a word in their speech. As a result the listeners get a wrong word. Hence it creates communica-
tion gap.
Table 4.1 Elision of Sound
Omission of sound Actual word

tree for three
champeen for champion
leven for eleven
Table 4.2 Elision of Syllables
Some speakers omit the syllable in their connected speech.
Omission of Syllables
s’pose for suppose
instute for institute
jool for jewel
libry for library
constuents for constituents
as’tent for assistant
as’ciated for associated
bot’ny for botany
analyts for analysts
Here are some words in which you tend to omit sound or syllable. You can practice to overcome the problem
of omission of sounds or syllables. Practise the following words without omitting any sound or syllables.
Practise the following words by saying them aloud:
Table 4.3 Practice Material
company geography literature ridiculous

cigarette geometry probably pleasure
geology giant poetry measure
government ideal particular
ADDITION OF SOUNDS OR SYLLABLES

Some Indian speakers add sounds or syllables when they pronounce some sounds.
Table 4.4 Addition of Sounds or Syllables
Janvuary for January

umberella for umbrella
athalete for athlete
ischool for school
ischolar for scholar
masonary for masonry
Here are some words wherein you tend to add an additional sound or syllable. You can practice to overcome
the problem of addition of sounds and syllable to a word. Practise the pronunciation of the following words
without adding the sound or syllable. Practise them by saying them aloud.
athlete elm hindrance scale

athletics extraordinary idea
banana film laundry
burglar grievous lightning
chimney helm mischievous
TRANSPOSITION OF SOUNDS
In some words, some sounds may be switched or transposed in the connected speech. Non-native language
speakers face this problem in particular. Here are some examples.
Table 4.6 Transposition of Sounds
calvary for cavalry

irrevelant for irrelevant
prespiration for perspiration
prespicacious for perspicacious
Effective Speech 63
Here are some words wherein you tend to transpose sounds while pronouncing them. You can practice to over-
come transposition of sounds in a word. Say each of the following words aloud to overcome this problem:
Hundred Modern Prodigy Poinsettia Western

Larynx Northern Prescription Southern
PRONUNCIATION BASED ON SEMANTICS

Sometimes the meaning of the word is based on its pronunciation. It is difficult to identify such words. It
is also difficult to find a particular pattern for pronunciation of some words. There are no specific rules to
follow the pronunciation of words based on their meanings. Experience and practice have more or less given
us some guidelines in the pronunciation of certain words. The following table illustrates the point clearly:
Table 4.8 Pronunciation based on Semantics
S.No. Word Phonetic Tran- Meaning

scription
1 Tear /'te@(r)/ V To put something apart or into pieces with force.
/'tI@/ N Drop of salty water that comes from the eye when someone cries.
2 Slough /sl¡U/ N A very soft wet area of land.
/slˆf/ V To let the skin, peel off.
3 Sow /s@U/ V To scatter seeds in or on the ground.
/saU/ N Fully grown female pig.
4. Lead /lI:d/ V To show somebody the path especially by going in front.
/led/ N A chemical element.
5. Live /laiv/ adj. Having life, e.g. live fish.
/lIv/ V To remain alive.
6. Wind /wInd/ N Air moving as a result of natural forces.
/waInd/ V To follow a curving or twisting course.
7. Use /ju:z/ V To employ something for a purpose.
/ju:s/ N The action of using something.
8. Close /kl@Us/adj. adv. Near in space or time.
/kl@Uz/ V To move or make something move so as to cover an opening.
PRONUNCIATION OF INFLECTIONAL SUFFIXES

Inflectional Suffixes
The inflectional suffixes, ‘–s’ or ‘–es’ (i.e., suffixes used for making plurals and possessives of nouns and
simple present tense third person singular forms of verbs) are pronounced as /–s/, /–z/ or /–iz/. Though these
suffixes are always represented by the letter –s or the letters –es but their pronunciation is different. The
different pronunciations of these suffixes are governed by the following rules:
Rule 1:
These suffixes are pronounced as /–s/ after voiceless consonants other than /s/, /S/, and /tS/.
Examples:
Plural Nouns Verbs
Cats – /k{ts/ Looks – /luks/
Cups – /kˆps/ Cuts – /kˆts/
Locks – /l¡ks/ Laughs – /lA:fs/
Months – /mˆnTs/ Picks – /pIks/
Possessive Forms
The clock’s hand /DI klOks h{nd/
The cat’s tail /DI k{ts teIl/
Rule 2:
These suffixes are pronounced as /z/ after voiced sounds other than /z/, /Z/ and /dZ/.
Plural Nouns
Tubs – /tˆbz/
Boards – /bO:dz/
Heads – /headz/
Sons – /sˆnz/
Bags – /b{gz/
Gods – /g¡dz/
Mouths – /mAUDz/
Verbs
rubs – /rˆbz/ loves – /lˆvz/
sends – /sendz/ comes – /knmz/
lends – /lendz/ pulls – /pUlz/
reads – /rI:dz/ leads – /lI:dz/
Possessive Forms
The table’s legs → /DI teIblz legz/
The boy’s father → /DI bOIz fA:D@/
The girl’s mother → /DI g@:lz mˆD@(r)/
Sentences
1. Those lazy boys are very fond of toys.
2. Those noisy boys are very busy these days.
3. The bees buzzed round the bee’s hive.
4. The girl’s arms were a mass of bruises.
5. It baffles his brother how lizards exist in the desert.
6. The bazaar’s closed on the festival days.
7. He leads the group with rods in his hands.
8. When I write the words on the board, he nods.
9. He reads easily what is written on the blackboard.
Rule 3:
These suffixes are pronounced as /iz/ when the root ends in /s/, /z/, /S/, /Z/, /T/, or /dZ/.
Effective Speech 65
Plural Nouns
churches –/tSe:tSiz/ roses –/r@Uziz/ passes –/pa:siz/
brushes –/brˆSiz/ Judge –/dZˆdZiz/
Verbs
closes –kl@uziz reaches – r I:tSIz
changes –tSendZiz searches –s@: tSiz
Possessive Forms
The horse’s mouth /ðI hO:siz mAUT/
The Judge’s daughter ðI dZˆdZiz dO:t@(r)/
Sentences
1. Those watches are cheap.
2. She searches for benches and roses.
3. She changes her dresses.
4. There were masses of dark clouds in the sky.
5. She was covered in bruises after falling on the benches.
6. Do not throw peaches.
Inflectional suffixes /-d/, /-ed/

Rule 1:
These suffixes are pronounced as /-id/ when a word ending with a sound indicated by /t/ or /d/.
attended – /@tendid/ heated –/hI:tid/ started – sta:tid
ended – /endid/ wanted –/wOntid/
Rule 2:
These suffixes are pronounced as /t/ when a word ends with voiceless consonants.
laughed –/la:ft/ packed –/p{kt/
looked –/lukt/ wished –/wiSt/
Rule 3:
These suffixes are pronounced as /d/ when a verb ending with voiced sounds.
loved –/lˆvd/ played –/pleId/
called –/kO:ld/
PRONUNCIATION OF SOME COMMON WORD ENDINGS

1. When word ends in –ian preceded by the letter /c/, it is pronounced as /Sn/.
Examples:
physician politician
electrician magician
musician academician
2. If the word ends in –tion and it is preceded by a vowel, it is pronounced as /Sn/.
Examples:
classification execution convocation
justification exploration convolution
admiration consultation
summation pronunciation edition
3. If the word ends in –stion, it is pronounced as /@n/.

Examples:
question exhaustion
suggestion
digestion
4. If the word ends with –age, it is pronounced as /– IdZ/.
Examples:
village postage cabbage
luggage baggage hostage
5. If the word ends with ‘–ial’ preceded the letter by the letter ‘c’ or ‘s’ or ‘t’ it is pronounced as /S/.
Examples:
judicial residential preferential
commercial confidential social
controversial essential
6, If the word ends with –cious or –tious, it is pronounced as /@s/.
Examples:
judicious ambitious
delicious superstitious
suspicious
propitious
7. If the word ends with –ance, –ence, –ant, or –ent it is pronounced as /@/.
Examples:
disturbance agreement agent
difference
preference
arrogant clairvoyance
8. If the adjectives and nouns end in –ate, they are pronounced as -/@i/.
Examples:
aggregate (N) certificate (N)
fortunate (Adj.) delicate (Adj.)
consummate (Adj.) intimate (Adj.)
deliberate (Adj.) penultimate (Adj.)
9. If the verbs end in –ate, they pronounced as /ei/.
Examples:
educate differentiate commentate rate
cultivate puctuate aggravate fate
hesitate consummate aggregate
10. If the word ends in –est or –et and if they occur in unaccented syllables they are pronounced as
/–it/.
Examples:
ticket socket
racket pocket
darkest
hardest
Effective Speech 67
11. If the word ends in –tain, it is pronounced as /–t@n/ or in some words as /–tn/ or in some words as
/–tIn/
Examples:
/–t@n/ /–tn/ /–tIn/
mountain curtain caption
fountain certain
GENERAL SUGGESTIONS FOR PRONUNCIATION

1. The structural words starting with the letters th– are pronounced as /D/ (the sound as in the word: the)
except in ‘thorough’.
the that though thereafter then
there they thither therefore themselves
thereabouts these therefrom them
thereon those therein thee
thereby than thereof their
thereto thou
thereupon thence
2. The content words (words which carry the main meaning of the sentence) starting with the letters
th– are pronounced as /T/ (the sound as in thin).
thin thread theory
think three theme
thick thank thirst
3. Generally, if the word contains double consonants they are pronounced as single consonant sound as
given in the following examples:
bladder clipper hammer
balloon cobbler affect
cladding communication aggravate
clammy grammar
clapper compass
Exception:
Lamppost (This is the only word that retains double consonant sounds which I noticed.)
4. If the consonant letter ‘c’ occurs double in the words, it is pronounced as ‘k’ as given here.
account accost
accommodation accord
acclaim occur
accumulate occasion
accuse
5. If the consonant letter ‘c’ occurs double in the words, it is pronounced as /ks/. Here are some ex-
amples.
accent accentuate
access success
accept
accident
ENUNCIATION
Enunciation is the process of forming, uniting and separating speech sounds. It means how distinctly you
utter a sound or a syllable of a word in isolation and in combination of other sounds or words in the con-
nected speech. Some structural words in the connected speech reduce their phonetic length. Also, you have
to reduce the phonetic length of unstressed syllables of the multi-syllable word in the connected speech.
When you enunciate words correctly, your words are clearly shaped and easily understood. If your enun-
ciation is clear you can increase the rate of delivery of words per minute in your speech. Here are some
typical enunciation errors:
Gover’ment for government
Wonnerful for wonderful
Goonight for goodnight
To enunciate clearly and distinctly you must use your mouth parts, lips, tongue, upper and lower teeth ridges,
palate (refer to Chapter 3). Technically you can check your enunciation by recording your speech and by
analysing your articulation of sounds and syllables of words correctly. If you find any error in pronunciation
of a sound or a syllable, correct yourself. If your friends often have difficulty in understanding what you
say, or in telephone conversation and teleconferences, the listeners often ask you to repeat what you said,
then your enunciation may be at fault.
You can overcome enunciation problems by practicing the pronunciation of some consonant sound com-
binations and word combinations. We do not have any hard and fast rules to follow for the pronunciation of
these consonant sound combinations. There is no rule to explain why the consonant letter ‘x’ is pronounced
as: /gz/ in the word ‘examine’; /ks/ in the word ‘text’; /Z/ in the word ‘Xerox’; and /kS/ in the word ‘luxury’.
My research in the analysis of words, experience and practice has enabled me to formulate some guidelines in
the pronunciation of certain combinations of consonant sounds. Although there are some exceptions to most
of the guidelines there are some generally applicable principles. Hence, we tried to frame some guidelines
for some combination of sounds.
Pronunciation of Sounds /n/ and /g/ Combination

The combination of these two sounds causes some confusion. You can avoid this problem of enunciation
by using the following guidelines:
1. All words ending in the combination of /n/ and /g/ sounds are pronounced as /n/ similar to the ending
sound of the word ‘sing’ – / sIŒ /.
Examples:
ping bring bang hang reading
sing ring lung speaking writing
2. The derived words from the words ending in the combination of /n/ and /g/ are also pronounced as
/η/ similar to the ending sound of the word ‘sing’ –/siη/.
Example:
bringer singer ringer songester songbird
songwriter winging hangnail hangover hanger-on
Exceptions:
The medial -ng- is pronounced as /ηg/ as in the word ‘finger’
Examples:
longer-longest
stronger-strongest
younger-youngest
Effective Speech 69
3. The combination of ‘-nge’ at the end of a word is pronounced as /-ndZ/. Here are some examples.
ginger change launge single
angel flange plunge
binge hinge range
4. In all other words, ‘ng’ is pronounced as /Œg/ similar to the pronunciation of ‘Œg’ in the word ‘sin-
gle’.
anger finger linger
angle hunger
Exception 1: In the word ‘hangar’, the ‘ng’ combination is pronounced in two ways as in the word ‘sing’
and also as in the word ‘single’.
h{Œ@(r), h{Œg@(r)
Exception 2: ‘ng’ combination in the word ‘gingham’ in pronounced as in the word ‘sing’.
Oral Practice-A
Practise the following words and sentences aloud. Here the combination of /ng/ sounds is pronounced as
in the word ‘sing’.
Words for Practice:
Among harangue springer tongue
clingy prongless sleangy twangy
fangless ringlet slang thronging
Sentences for Practice
(i) The bringer of singer’s troupe is coming from a long distance.
(ii) He is coming in to sing a song, but not interested in going out.
(iii) The throng around the bell ringer is singing and humming.
(iv) The slangy singer sang a song.
(v) The young singer is hanging clothes on the hanger.
(vi) The smiling young child is running very fast.
Oral Practice-B
Practise the following words and sentences aloud. Here the combination of /n/ and /g/ sounds is pronounced
as the word ‘finger’.
Words for Practice
anger dangle ginger linger morning tangle
angry English hanger longer owing triangle
bangle elongate jingle mingle single rectangle
bingo fungus jungle mixing stranger younger
bungle fringy language meaning spangled
mourning singular
Sentences for practice

(i) The English language is easy to learn.
(ii) If you are hungry for mangoes, do not linger.
(iii) When I was single my pockets did jingle.
(iv) The angler hurt his finger.
(v) Linger longer.
PRONUNCIATION OF CONSECUTIVE CONSONANTS

We often notice that some speakers swallow the last word of the sentence or sometimes the last syllable of
the last word of the sentence. Some non-native language speakers find it difficult to pronounce the consecu-
tive consonants in the end of the word. But for some speakers perhaps it is a facile. If you take care of the
end of a word the rest will take care of itself. Here are a few useful sentences which contain words that
are very often slurred in delivery. Agility will come from quick and repeated practice but try not to let it
be at the expense of flow. Along with the other techniques of speech, such as assimilation and production
of individual sounds; word stress and sentence stress; articulate properly the word endings and consecutive
consonant clusters. Then the message in your speech will be clear and your speech will be effective.
Now read these words paying particular attention to the consecutive consonants.
Consecutive Consonants in Words
–cts : conflicts, facts, respects, restrict, convicts, ducts, acts
–dths : breadths, hundredths, widths
–fts : lefts, rafts, shifts, tufts, lifts
–fths : fifths
–ghths : eighths (‘gh’ silent)
–kst : axed, mixed, relaxed, boxed, hoaxed
–kses : sixths
–lds : builds, fields, folds, holds
–lfth : twelfth
–lks : silks
–lts : belts, melts, faults
–lps : helps
–lth : health, wealth
–mbs : limbs
–mps : lamps
–mpts : tempts
–nct1y : extinctly, distinctly, succinctly
–nds : hands, bands, winds
–ngth : length, strength
–ntly : apparently
–nts : rudiments, students, ants
–pths : depths
–pts : accepts, precepts, concepts, adopts, receipts (‘p’ silent)
–skt : asked, risked, husked, frisked, masked
skr– : scream, scrawl, scrub, screw, script, scribe, scramble, scroft, scrupulous, scrounge
–sks : asks, desks, disks, risks
skw– : square, squat, squint, squirm, squeeze
spl– : split, splash
–sps : clasps, lisps, rasps, wasps
spr– : spray, spread, spree, sprout, spruce, sprain, sprint, sprite
str– : strain, strike, stray, stride, straw, stroke, struck, stranger, strong,straight
–sts : adjusts, frosts, digests, insists, lists, mists, tests, pests, quests, casts, feasts, rusts, invests,
blasts, ghosts
–xths/ : sixths
Effective Speech 71
To acquire pronunciation of these final clusters the first consonant in the cluster should be prolonged and
then the following consonants are added.
Consecutive Consonants in Sentences Now read the following sentences paying particular attention
to the consecutive consonants and ends of words analysed after every sentence:
1. The difference in temperature between the sun’s centre and its outer surface has been measured by
physicists and astronomers.
–fference in the word difference
–ture in the word temperature
–n’s ending of the word sun’s
–ce beginning of the word centre preceded by n’s
–sicists in the word physicists
–str– in the word astronomer
2. It is particularly important that the government is through by February the fifth.
–ticularly in the word particularly
–vernment in the word government
–bruary in the word February
–fth in the word fifth
3. I requested Teena to help me in checking the reports.
Here it is difficult to pronounce ‘d’ in the word ‘requested’ used before ‘t’. It needs practice.
4. I wanted to refer to technological books in the library. So the secretary gave me a directory of con-
temporary contributors.
Here, it is difficult to pronounce ‘d’ in the word ‘wanted’ before ‘t’.
Some speakers find it difficult to pronounce the various syllables in the following words:
technological secretary contemporary
library directory
5. It is not that she refuses to recognise the strengths of the material, but she would be more satisfied if
she could see laboratory tests.
In this sentence the word ‘refuse’ is a verb. It should be pronounced as /rI1fju:ZIZ/. But we gener-
ally pronounce it wrong. So, the wrong pronunciation here distorts the meaning. Refuse as a verb
means “unwilling to accept” and as a noun it means ‘rubbish or waste material’. As a noun it has to
be pronounced as /’refju:s/. For non-native speakers it is difficult to identify this type of problem in
English. If you are aware of the fact then whenever you have doubt you can refer to dictionary and
correct yourself.
recognise refuses tests
strengths laboratory
6. I refuse to throw the kitchen refuse.
In this sentence, the word ‘refuse’ is used as verb and as well as noun. There is a difference in pro-
nunciation and also a difference in the meaning. To acquire effective speech you have to identify this
type of problem and practice.
7. The twelfth hole in the municipal golf counsel is extraordinarily difficult, but the visiting professional
made a phenomenal drive.
Most of the speakers, generally, do not pronounce ‘f’ in the word ‘twelfth’. Some speakers find it
difficult to pronounce the various syllables in the following words:
twelfth professional
extraordinarily phenomenal
8. I want the kilts with three widths of the worsted and two and half widths of the suiting by eleventh
January.
In this sentence the word ‘worsted’ is a noun. Some speakers may get confusion of the word. The
word ‘worst’ is an adjective and a superlative degree of ‘bad’. The word ‘worst’ is noun also. The
word ‘worsted’ is also a noun which means a fine wool cloth used for making trousers, kilts etc. Hence
you may get confused. To avoid this type of confusion you have to refer to a dictionary on a constant
basis.
The word ‘eleventh’ creates another problem. Many Indian speakers omit the first sound in their
pronunciation.
January: Many Indian speakers add the sound ‘v’ after the letter ‘n’ in this word.
–lts in the word ‘kilts’
–thr in the word ‘three’
–dths in the word ‘widths’
WORD COMBINATIONS IN SENTENCES

The big bug bit the big black bear.
The boats were blown back to harbour by the breeze.
Draught dried up the paddy fields.
I was exhausted by the great gusts of wind.
In August there was a plague of gigantic grasshoppers.
Prabhu practices the pronunciation of the word ‘probably’.
Try to touch the tiger’s tail.
Convert it into present perfect tense.
Cauliflowers, Cabbages and Leeks cost more in the market this week.
You can’t keep liquids in that pink bucket because it leaks.
Phani fried fast five floundering fish for Forheen’s family.
Feroze prefers only half a pound of coffee.
My nephew lives in a village above the valley.
I want to thank you for your thorough checking of this.
She scythed smoothly through the thin grass.
She sells seashells by the seashore.
The bees buzzed round the hives.
I watched him teaching chemistry.
He changed his orange pyjamas gently.
The tragedy had a strange effect on his judgment.
Shekhar’s sixth sheep is sick.
Mirages are the usual illusions of the desert.
I asked Tom to act quickly.
My niece was pleased with her presents.
My niece hurt my knees.
They looked at him as he frisked his pocket.
When the blood was transfused, he was infused with some lone.
Effective Speech 73
I guess he was a bit confused when he refused the permission.

The seething sea ceases.
Prooma’s pronunciation of ‘pronoun’ is correct.
Summary
Acquisition of effective speech is based on continuous and consistent practice. Elision of sounds or syllables, transpo-
sition of sounds are some of the hurdles of effective speech. Any change of sound brings the change of meaning. So
pronunciation is based on semantics as well. Acquaintance with pronunciation of inflectional suffixes, common word
endings, some common sound combinations, consecutive consonants in words and in sentences and word combinations
are essential for acquisition of effective speech. Correct pronunciation increases your rate of delivery.
Review Questions
1. What is meant by elision of sounds and syllables? Give your own examples.
2. Discuss transposition of sound. Give your own examples.
3. How do you prove that pronunciation is based on semantics? Give examples.
4. What difficulties do you face in pronunciation of words and sentences with consecutive consonant clusters? How
do you overcome these problems?
5. What principles do you bear in mind for the pronunciation of consecutive ‘n’ and ‘g’ sounds?
6. In what different ways is the inflectional suffix –s or –es (used for the plural and possessive forms of nouns and
the present simple third person singular form of verbs) pronounced in English? Give five examples of each.
7. What are the different phonetic realisations of the past tense forming suffix –d, –ed in English? Indicate when each
one occurs.
8. What is enunciation?
9. Can you suggest some guidelines to overcome enunciation problems?
Exercises
1. Record some speeches and conversations. Notice any elision, addition and transposition of sounds. List them. Write
guidelines to overcome these problems.
2. From your recorded speeches and conversations identify consonant clusters. List them. What guidelines do you
give to articulate consonant clusters clearly and correctly?
3. Write an exercise to get practice in the articulation of the following consecutive consonant sounds:
/–kt, –zd, –dz, –ks, –kst, –skt, –cts/.
4. Elision of sounds or syllables is common among non-native speakers of English. Identify this problem in the fol-
lowing words, write the correct word and explain. Orally practice till you get correct pronunciation.
asterik
substute
candate
superindent
registar
antactic
fedral
constution
vissitude
magistate
diptheria
miniture
verbage
5. Some non-native speakers add the sounds unnecessarily to the original word when they pronounce some sounds.
Identify the unnecessary sounds in the following words and delete the additional sounds and do practice till you
get correct pronunciation:
dialate
masonary
ischool
pronounciation
hinderance.
6. Some speakers transpose the sound in some words. In the following words identify the transposing sound and cor-
rect them. Orally practice till you get correct pronunciation.
perogative
foliage
7. Pronunciation of the following words is based on semantics. Explain. Orally practice till you get correct pronuncia-
tion.
refuse
compact
minute
wound
invalid
Chapter 5
The Art of Conversation

Participate well in the art of conversation.
Know the effects of body language in the process of conversation.
Know the importance of small talk in the process of conversation.
Know how to start the conversation.
Know the principles of a good conversationalist.
INTRODUCTION
Conversation is the most important characteristic that human beings possess. Old friends gather together
to share their experiences, views, feelings, emotions or ideas. On such occasions conversation is at its
best. Conversation is an affair of give-and-take of ideas, experiences, views, feelings or emotions. The talk
changes from one topic to another in free-and-easy exchange. The members of the group relax and enjoy
each other’s company.
Man is a social animal and first and most significant of his act is the ability to participate effectively in
human relationships. It requires that you express your ideas appropriately and understand the forces mold-
ing the situations. It is then that your conversational skills are socially acceptable. It is a social act in which
an experience is exchanged, a thought transferred, a feeling mutually enjoyed or a conviction expressed or
agreed upon. Whenever two or more people come together situation of conversation occurs. The occasion
and form of such situations are beyond conjecture. Each is unique. Yet, certain features are common and
recur so regularly that we can identify and frame them as essential features of conversation. These are: small
talk, body language and principles of a good conversationalist.
SMALL TALK
Conversation is not just words or phrases or sentences. It is a complex interplay between people. Small
talk is the important speech act in the interplay. It is the stage in a conversation that reveals much of our
background interests, attitude (positive or negative) and nature (reticent or loquacious), where participants
seek common ground and establish relationships. If the people who are conversing are experienced and have
ideas to exchange then that communication is highly useful. They may contribute something to the subject
under discussion. If small talk works well the rewards can be great. It may lead to a long, useful and fas-
cinating discussion of important matters. The full pleasure of this type of conversation is only experienced
on rare occasions.
Sometimes, conversations are dull and lack zest. The participants of conversation may talk a great deal
and they may chatter continually, but they never say anything worth listening to. They jump back and forth
from one subject to another, uttering commonplaces about each, but they never have ideas and their remarks
are never interesting. This does not mean, however, that a conversation is dull or highbrow, or even serious.
A real conversation implies an exchange of ideas and opinions; there must be something to communicate.
When the members of a group contribute to a conversation, where one spurs on another, makes thoughtful
comments, presents specific views, discusses on current affairs, then that conversation will be useful and
interesting.
Talking about the weather, current affairs, politics etc. create interest among participants and act as con-
versational gambit in small talk. Speech acts given in Appendix B are highly useful to develop conversational
skills. Here are some well-appreciated, well-tested effective gambits to get a small talk started.
Express comments or questions on how you or the other person arrived.
Examples:
The traffic was horrible.
The flight was delayed.
I thought I’ll be late.
I’ve never expected that the traffic was so bad here.
How was your journey?
Were you on time?
Did you find the parking place?
Express comments or questions on surroundings.
Examples:
Weather is pleasant, isn’t it?
Look at that! The scenery is very beautiful.
This is a beautiful house, don’t you think?
This locality seems to be very posh.
I am quite new to this place.
I am afraid I do not know many people here.
I don’t know the local language.
Perhaps it may create problems for me.
Express comments or questions on current events, news, books and television programmes.
Example:
There is a lot of political disturbance now-a-days.
Express comments or questions on people who are central to an event.
The Art of Conversation 77
Examples:
Do you know Mr.__________________?
How do you know Mr._______________?
Since how long you have been in contact with him?
Mr._______________ is a nice person.
Try to observe how the other person responds to your comments and questions or statements. Style of
conversation differs from person to person. Everyone has his or her distinctive conversational style. Some
people ask questions quickly. Some people readily express generalised statements. Some people express
their opinions casually. Observe the style of other people to find out what they prefer. Your small talk will be
effective if you identify that both of you have a common interest. When introducing people to one another,
you help them to start up a conversation. When introducing a person, first say his/her name and then you
add a snippet of information. This helps the participants to extend conversation.
Example:
This is Anand. He won the best teacher award recently.
BODY LANGUAGE
Before the invention of verbal communication, people used to communicate with one another by using their
bodies. They smiled and touched one another to indicate affection. They gritted their teeth to show anger.
When the needs and activities of human beings increased, this system of communication became more
complex. Good listening involves understanding the thoughts and feelings of a speaker. Similarly, watching
someone’s body language is important and it involves reaching into the thoughts and feelings behind a per-
son’s words. In conversation, people’s body language – the way they sit and stand, what they do with their
hands, how they show their facial expressions – convey subtle feelings and opinions of people. The body
language helps us to communicate without words. These can give you important clues of their thoughts and
feelings and also indicate that they are confirming or contradicting the words they utter.
Here is a table indicating how the position of the body relates to the degree of formality.
Table 5.1 Body Posture
Position of Body Posture Degree of Formality

Sit in symmetry Legs together, body in a straight line Formal situation.
Arms folded in the lap
Relaxed position Body sprawls, throws legs out to one side Informal situation.
Rests one arm in his lap
The other along the back of the chair
Body in a spreading curved position
When a conversation is going on, people mirror each other’s stance, mannerisms, gestures and facial
expressions. When a conflict arises, body language is adjusted accordingly. Body language is considered as
a vehicle of communication along with voice and pitch. Here are some signals to watch out for in people’s
body language:
Table 5.2 Body Language Interpretation
Position of the Body Signals’ Meaning

Leaning forward Wish to get involved
Leaning backward and keeping hands behind head Indicates uneasiness
Keeping the body away Suggests less involved
Drooping shoulders Lack of confidence
Bending the head towards the ground Lack of confidence, showing respect
Sitting or standing close or very near Like to converse intimately
Talking with some distance Formal
Grooming mannerisms:
Patting the hair Indicates uncertainty of self and needs reassurance
Picking fluff
Lint of a sleeve
Hitching up the trousers
Folding the arms, crossing the legs, drooping the chin Defends self
into the chest
Pressing the hands in front of someone Pleads with someone; shows submissiveness
Slump Sounds tired or breathlessness
Facial Expression As an efficient conversationalist, adapt your body language to suit different situations
and different people. In the process of conversation people focus mainly on the face, eyes and the head
of the other person. Face is the primary index of your emotions. It suggests your interests. It reveals your
knowledge and your confidence. It also shows your anger, pleasure, happiness, anxiety and hesitation in
quick succession.
Table 5.3 Facial Expressions
Facial Expression Semantic Signal

Frown Shows anger, discontent, worry, deep thought
To disapprove something or somebody
To show seriousness
Tightened Jaw muscles Show antagonism
Smile Friendliness
Table 5.4 Eye Contact
Eye Contact Semantic Signal

Eye contact Indicates confidence and wish to involve in conversation
No eye contact Lack of confidence and not interested in conversation
Raised eye brows Indicates disbelief or surprise
Table 5.5 Head Movement
Head Movement Semantic Signal

Tilting your head to one side Seem to be more receptive
Keeping the head rigidly still Seem to be inflexible and reluctant to participate
Moving head too much Distract the attention. Seem to be desperate for approval
Use of Touch Use of touch in a conversation brings warmth, intimacy and friendliness. It clears semantic
barriers to some extent.
Table 5.6 Use of Touch
Touching Semantic Signal

Pats, touches on the arms and back Can express understanding
Can show sympathy
Gentle prods in the ribs Reassurance
Precise humour
Voice Modulation The voice of the participants in a communication also communicates a lot. The tenor
of the voice is as important as the word. Here are some hints:
Table 5.7 Voice Modulation
Nature of Voice Connotation

Monotonous voice Boring, lack of vigour, enthusiasm and zeal
Slow speed low pitch Depression
High-pitch Enthusiasm
High-pitch; long drawn out speech Disbelief
Ascending tone Astonishment
Analysis of all these tables guides us that we react through our eye contact; facial expression; body
posture; movements of body, hands, shoulders and head; touching and voice modulation. Body language is
an invaluable aid in expressing our ideas clearly. Perhaps the most important fact in using meaningful body
language is to use them naturally and spontaneously.
PRINCIPLES OF A GOOD CONVERSATIONALIST

A good conversation should always stimulate and excite participants. Remember that curiosity is the best
attribute you should have if you want to be good at a conversation. Conversation is a speech act and the
principles which you follow to become a good speaker apply to the art of becoming a good conversational-
ist. However, conversation is an art which can be acquired through practice. Now let us discuss the qualities
of a good conversationalist.
Be Brief Some people have the habit of talking endlessly on one topic. Some people switch from one
topic to another and before they are half-way through they think of yet another topic. Very often they jump
from one topic to another in a bewildering array of utterly unrelated ideas. They never come to the exact
point. It results in meaningless conversations and leads to confusions. It creates boredom in the process of
conversation. Hence, avoid telling unnecessary and unimportant points and meaningless details. Get to the
point as quickly as possible.
Show Interest in Others’ Talk A good conversationalist takes the approach from the point of view of
the listener. An efficient conversationalist is interested in the interests, opinions, views and feelings of the
listener. A good conversationalist makes the other person talk about his interests, opinions, views and feelings
and then takes cue from the conversation. A few well-chosen questions and dialogues will usually reveal his
interests and opinions and the conversation is on. Remember that there is no more an effective or sincere
way to attract anyone than to be interested or to seem interested, in whatever concerns him.
Be a Good Listener A good conversationalist is a good listener as well. He never interrupts another
speaker. He never monopolises a conversation. To participate effectively in a conversation, you have to wait
for a good opportunity before you “take the floor”. In the meanwhile do not get frustrated because you have
thought of something to say and you have to wait for a moment before you have a chance to say it. The art
of listening with interest and attention is one we can all cultivate.
Be Alert An able conversationalist shows alertness in the process of conversation and shows keenness
to know what is going on in a situation. He also shows responsibility to create interest in others. Suppose
if you know nothing of the subject being discussed, try to ask a few intelligent questions in order to learn
something about it. If you know just a little about it, use the opportunity to acquire knowledge. If you have
a lot of knowledge about the discussion, share your knowledge and interest with others. Be alert while
participating in a conversation.
Be Sincere and Direct In the process of conversation if you agree with everyone on every point there
would not be a meaningful conversation. If everyone agrees on every point then the conversation will not
be fruitful. A good conversation may be highly argumentative. It is often like that. But it is not necessary to
start an opposing view in such a manner so as to offend others. Similarly, one should not hurt the reticent
nature of people and the feelings of those who do not agree by being too positive in stating an opinion. One
needs to realise that an extreme doctrine or a starting point of view may often arouse intense interest. But
one should not hurt the feelings of those who do not agree by being too brusque in stating an opinion. Flat
contradiction is always rude. It is quite possible to disagree completely with anyone and yet to be tactful,
courteous and diplomatic. It is also possible to be so good-natured but indifferent in a conversational activity.
Participate in the communication process positively and objectively and use polite and courteous language.
Then the conversation becomes more stimulating rather than uncomfortable.
Be Considerate to Other’s Views The best way to participate in a conversation is to be considerate
of other’s views. One of the advantages of a conversation is that, in conversing with others, you become
acquainted with many ways of solving problems and your own thinking will be refined in this process. By
closing your mind to the opinions of others you shut off rich sources of growth and by failing to form an
opinion for yourself, you make yourself the prey of every wave of opinion which passes over you. Some-
times if a person is interested in the topic for some reasons, he is ready to swing into action on all occasions.
Assuming that others are also interested, he keeps on talking about it. Others in the group will become dull
and inactive and not interested.
If you have had any unusual experience in which others might be interested, you may use it judiciously
to add to your conversational powers. If you overdo it, you lose all the advantage of the experience in the
conversation. Conversation will become monotonous if the person is interested in only one topic. Develop
a wide variety of interests.
Be Tactful Tact is an art which can be developed. It is easy to be tactless: Tactlessness comes from lack
of consideration of the rights and feelings of others. A particularly irritating form of tactlessness is that of
asking personal questions. A very good rule to follow is to never ask a personal question. Avoid the habit
of asking your friend what he paid for his suits or how much rent he pays for his residence, what is his
father’s line of work or any question related to his private affairs. A tactless person can spoil everyone’s
pleasures very quickly.
Be Skillful Make sincere efforts to become skillful as a conversationalist. Look upon conversations as the
source of broad, enriching experiences. You will often learn much from both good and poor conversational-
ists. By analysing the conversation you will discover what is effective and what is dull or unpleasant. To
become a good conversationalist, you must observe how best speakers of the group conduct themselves and
how they create interest among members. Analyse the subject of their conversation. Observe their manners,
their involvement and their alertness. Be enthusiastic in your study of it. Your attitude towards conversation
can change your life. Once you gain experience, you can direct conversations from dullness to brilliance.
Be Clear in Expression The choice of language is also important in a conversation. Use the simple
language. Avoid using stilted expressions, high sounding words, stereotyped expressions, clichés, slangs,
ambiguous words and pompous jargon. However, this does not mean that conversational language cannot
be sloppy and careless. The following tables give the best examples of all these types:
Table 5.8 High Sounding Words
S.No. High Sounding Words Simple Words

1. Gobbledygook Difficult to understand.
Unnecessary complicated language.
2. Palpable That can be felt or touched, obvious.
3. Pedigree Experience, the background history of a thing or a person.
4. Gobsmacked Too surprised to be able to speak or respond.
5. Embattled Worried.
6. Repercussions Results.
7. Propinquity Closeness/nearness.
8. Imponderables: (pl) Things whose importance you cannot easily calculate.
Table 5.9 Stereotyped Phrases or Expressions
See
Listen
Look
I see, you see
I understand
I know
You know
Don’t you know
I mean
Do you know what I mean?
My point is
Table 5.10 Clichés
Hot bed of politics

A tower of strength
By leaps and bounds
Conspicuous by his absence
Kicked the bucket
Last but not the least
Part and parcel
To add insult to injury
To beat around the bush
To sell like hot cakes
The bottom line
Your better half
Without rhyme or reason.
Table 5.11 Slangs
Guy
Skip it
Hush it
You vanish
Disappear
Table 5.12 Ambiguous Words
S. No. Ambiguous Word Meaning

1. Bimonthly Produced or happening every second month
Twice a month
2. Are Verb: to be form
Noun: a metric unit of area equal to 100 square metres
3. Lawn Noun 1: an area of short, regularly cut grass in the garden of a house
Noun 2: a type of fine material used for dresses
Table 5.13 Pompous Jargon
Pompous Jargon
Esteemed favour
Dysfunction
Viable
Elitist
Quotient
Polarisation
These words or expressions are likely to irritate people when repeated frequently in a conversation.
Summary
Conversation is a speech situation. If you want to become a good conversationalist follow sincerely the principles of
effective speaking. If you have something interesting to talk about, say it clearly and then you will become a good con-
versationalist. Read as much as you can – newspapers, books, magazines, journals and articles. Every person has had
some unique experiences and you can learn something from his experiences if you make him talk about them. There
are two aspects of the process of conversation by which you can become a good conversationalist. One aspect of the
process concerns your ability; the other is concerned with your ability to make others in the group participate in that
particular activity. Learn to talk with everyone you meet. Never argue with a pompous person. It is also important to
speak clearly in a pleasant voice with a suitable diction. Refer to Speech Acts (appendix B) for further improvement
in conversational skill.
Review Questions
1. What is meant by small talk in a conversational activity?
2. Do you believe that the body language sometimes helps to communicate your feeling without words? Give rea-
sons.
3. What clues does the body language provide to the conversational activity?
4. Discuss the principles of a good conversationalist.
Exercises
1. Listen to some conversations of well-known speakers.
(i) Observe how they used body language during the conversation. Examine how their use of body language
enriched their conversation.
(ii) Find out the principles that they used in their conversation.
2. Record some conversations. Listen to these records afterwards.
(i) What are your observations in terms of the use of language, manners and alertness?
(ii) What do you think about their use of language in extention to their conversation?
(iii) Did you notice that sometimes their use of language leads to an argument? If so, what are those points?
3. Listen to the conversation at specific situations such as:
(a) among classmates
(b) among friends
(c) at bus’ standings, railway stations and air-ports
(d) at the restaurants
(e) at the reservation counters
(f) at the bank
(g) at the shopping places
(h) among retired people
(i) among professionals
(i) Find out how they conversed and how they extended the conversation?
(ii) What type of words did they use to extend their conversations?
(iii) How did they use body language to enrich their ideas?
(iv) What type of language did they use?
(v) Did you notice any barriers in communication during their conversations?
(vi) Did you notice any internecine in their conversations?
If so, can you suggest some guidelines to overcome that?
(vii) Did you notice any strife during their conversations?
(viii) Finally, what guidelines can you suggest after listening to their conversations?
Chapter 6
Debate

Analyse the given situation and formulate arguments
Acquire clarity of expression
Present arguments with logical reasoning
Avoid convoluted arguments
Identify proposition, issue and argument
Acquire speaking skills
Convince others with your arguments
Present your arguments confidently.
INTRODUCTION
Debate is a formal argument or discussion of a problem. Argument is a common feature of your daily
conversation. The word ‘argument’ in this context means ‘a debate or discussion’ on a controversial issue
but not an ‘angry disagreement’. In class you argue about sports, current events, education, history, stock-
market, reservations, politics and new policies. People in all kinds of work educationalists, policy makers,
scientists, doctors, teachers, journalists, executives, politicians, lawyers and sales representatives know the
importance of being able to argue convincingly. It is a process of thinking about something before decid-
ing what is to be done. It is an exercise in controversy. It is an argument on the merits and demerits of a
stated proposition. This chapter mainly focuses on the process of organisation of debate, purpose, clarity
of expression, choosing a topic, writing a proposition statement, main features of a proposition statement,
issue, argument, rebuttal, participating in a debate and the judge’s decision. It also provides you with the
technique of evaluation which you may use to evaluate a debate competition. There are usually two teams
of two to five members each. If a team is affirmed by one side it is called the “affirmative” and if denied
by the other side it is called the “negative”.
PROCESS OF ORGANISATION
In this context, the affirmative team is also called ‘for’ or ‘pro’. The negative team is called ‘against’ or ‘con’.
Each team speaker is called first affirmative, second affirmative or first negative, second negative and so on.
A debate is an oral activity is divided into two parts. During the first part (constructive speeches), both
sides present their arguments as ‘for’ or ‘against’ the proposition. After an intermission there are rebuttal
speeches. During this time, both sides try to refute the opposing arguments. The order of speaking may be
in the following way:
Table 6.1 The Order of Speaking
Constructive Speeches Rebuttal Speeches

a. First affirmative First negative
b. First negative First affirmative
c. Second affirmative Second negative
d. Second negative Second affirmative
Notice that the affirmative side opens and closes the debate and that the first rebuttal opens with the first
negative.
Debate is a process of arguing about a problem publicly. The result of this argument leads to a decision.
Each speaker with his past experience anticipates the future and argues on the problem. For example, in a
trial, the court is trying to decide whether the person is innocent or guilty of a past act so that it may pass a
judgement now. Evidence is brought to light to determine what decision ought to be justly made. Similarly,
at a workplace, executives meet regularly to decide what has been effective or ineffective in their previous
activities and administrative activities. In both the above types of situations the immediate outcome is not
an action but a decision. The court decides the guilt or innocence and the executives decide to maintain the
status quo or to revise the system.
An analysis of past experience gives a clear understanding of the problem. Such an understanding of
the future is not possible. Hence, the participants must deal with not only with facts but must consider pos-
sibilities and probabilities. In deciding the nature of past experience, facts are sought; in thinking of future
acts the most probable points for debate are sought. That the latter is not an easy task. It may be realised
from the attempts of your discussion, you can formulate your arguments with evidence to convince your
audience.
PURPOSE
Your purpose is to persuade the listener to accept your views on a debatable subject. You try to prove that
your opinion is correct. In its simplest form, debate is a statement of opinion, logically argued and then sup-
ported, proved and established by reasons and evidence. In its broad form, a debate is a skillfully planned
and a tightly reasoned argument to convince the audience.
To solve any problem, planning is essential. The discussion on the problem must be deliberate and the
arguments must be supported by evidence. The nature of arguments must be intellectual rather than emo-
tional, seeking to convince rather than to persuade. The method of the speaker is simple and direct and
he endeavors to make known all the available facts and likely probabilities. The goal is not the action but
reflection; not to do, but to decide. It requires conviction and proceeds from furnishing ample reasons and
facts to the mind. Its approach is intellectual rather than emotional. Hence, to convince people, it requires
the clarity of expression, evidence, arguments and logical reasoning.
Debate 87
Clarity of Expression
As a speaker, you must impress the audience with your clarity of expression. Perception and accuracy in
thinking are the essential ingredients in clarity of expression. Debate requires as many thinking and writing
steps as any other type of oral presentations. Perhaps, thinking and writing in advance are of crucial im-
portance to participate effectively in a debate. This means that before you actually begin writing arguments
for your participation you plan your logical presentation of ideas. The effectiveness of this activity depends
almost entirely on this logical presentation of opinions, reasons and evidence.
You can achieve this by stating each point in a simple yet precise language. Your arguments should be
logical. It leads to continuity of thought process. The thought process and the logical arguments supporting
it are generally joined by connectives such as because, for, therefore, hence, thus and since. Present your
ideas, facts and arguments in a simple language and express them directly. Avoid convoluted arguments.
Avoid complications introduced by “asides” or digressions. Present your ideas or opinions with facts and
arguments in their simplest form.
You can do this by choosing the topic, stating your proposition, determining the issue and supporting
your issue with convincing arguments and valid evidence. Let us analyse each of these vital elements.
Choosing a Topic
Thinking in advance is one of the requirements for choosing a topic for a debate. You must choose a debat-
able issue as a topic for a debate. That is, the topic must be one for which there are arguments for both the
pro and con. It must state an opinion and not a fact because facts are not debatable. By definition fact is
a statement that can be proved to be true or false. An opinion on the other hand, is a judgement or belief
that cannot be proved as true or false. Opinions can only be supported by means of evidence. You can use
opinions with logical supporting evidence to convince people. Look at the following example:
Not Suitable: Child labour is more in the Northern region than the Southern region of India. (It is a
statement.)
Suitable: Child labour should be abolished all over the country. (Opinion)
A debate must also be about a significant issue. Issues related to personality, personal likings or tastes
are completely unsuitable as topics for a debate. For example if you say, ‘I like medical profession’, it is an
expression of opinion since it states a personal preference. A statement of personal preference is an expres-
sion of an opinion but not an arguable proposition.
Writing a Proposition Statement The statement of the point to be argued in a debate is called a ‘propo-
sition’. In other words, what you assert or deny about your topic is your proposition. Proposed action must
be direct, simple and precise. It deals directly with the subject. This statement expresses your opinion on the
topic in a declarative form that often contains the words “should” or “should not”. Here is an example.
Reservations for admission in higher education should be abolished.
Sometimes issues are so complicated that you may have some doubts about what your opinion actually
is. In that situation spend time researching, read current magazines and newspaper articles, discuss the is-
sue with intellectuals and with your friends and explore other possibilities to get more information. If you
carefully analyse the information which you have collected on the issue and if you try to understand the
different points of view, you will be able to decide your opinion.
The simplicity of your proposition is an aid to your argument. An involved or a complicated proposition
leads to a misunderstanding and wastes the most convincing of efforts. The following guidelines are useful
to make an effective proposition. They should:
Be simple and clear to audience.
Create an interest in the audience.
Express ideas in a simple yet precise language.

Be challenging.
Search for novel ideas.
Deal with novel ideas and aspects.
Use the novel ideas creatively, interestingly and excitingly.
Be well-adapted to the audience.
Support your arguments with examples.
Avoid trite expressions.
Avoid belligerent arguments.
Avoid generalised statements.
Finally, your objective is to create an interest in your audience and to ensure that your problem will be
solved.
Main Features of Proposition Statement To make an effective proposition statement you should know its
main features. The proposition should be stated in a debatable form. After reading the proposition state-
ment one should get arguments for both the pro and the con. It may be framed either as a question or as a
resolution such as given below:
Question Form: Should cricket be prohibited as a high school sport?
Resolution Form: Cricket should be prohibited as a high school sport.
The following points may give you some understanding of the main features of a proposition:
1. Should contain only one central idea
Example:
“Fraternities and sororities should be banned in educational institutions and every student ought to
participate in at least one extracurricular activity.”
The above statement contains two ideas. We can split it into two separate debatable topics; we can
separate it in the following way:
Debatable: Resolved: Fraternities and sororities should be banned in educational institutions.
Debatable: Resolved: Every student ought to participate in at least one extracurricular activity.
2. Should be debatable
Example:
Statement: Drug-addiction has greatly affected the younger generation.
Debatable: Government should ban drug-addiction.
Here the first statement is a generalised one. It is a personal opinion. We cannot debate this. The second
statement is debatable.
3. Should be stated affirmatively
Example:
Confusing: Capital punishment should not be abolished in schools.
Clear: Capital punishment should be abolished in schools.
The first statement is clear but confusing from a debate point of view. Since the affirmative would have
to argue that it should not be abolished it is a position which causes confusion. The second statement
is clearer and there is no confusion.
4. Should be Specific
Make the proposition statement clear and specific. You should select words and the sentence structure
in such a way that its meaning is clear and not ambiguous. Its terms and conditions should also be
clear.
Read the following statements:
(i) The management should do something about student recreational facilities.
Debate 89
(ii) Recreational facilities for the students need to be improved.

(iii) The management should sponsor a supervised recreation center for the students on the cam-
pus.
Of the three statements, the third one is most specific. It tells us what should be done, who should do
it and where the recreation center should be. Both first and the second statements are vague.
Some times a proposition statement, even though it is clear and specific requires an explanation. It
requires a definition or a meaning of some of its terms. This explanation can be given in the beginning
by the speaker.
5. Should not use words of uncertain meanings
Example:
Nowadays that oil is more valuable than ghee.
This statement does not express a clear and an exact meaning. The word ‘valuable’ has no exact
meaning. It raises questions: Doesn’t it mean essential? Useful? Healthy? Costly? Hence, it is not a
debatable proposition statement.
6. Should refer to current problems
Current issues generally create enthusiasm and interest in an audience. There are several problems
related to society that stimulate controversy. These are:
Privatisation of higher education
Reservations for admission in higher education
Drug addiction
Privatisation of national banks
Sudden price-rise of gas
Issue
Issue means an important topic for a discussion or an argument. In every proposition there are some points
that all sides will agree to without an argument. In any controversy these common points must be made
clear to save time. Identification of these common points helps determine the points at issue. Hence, it is
essential to know the sense in which the speaker agrees or disagrees with his opponents. These are three
types of issues: fact, definition, and justification.
Issues of fact deal directly with the meaning of the proposition. The facts may be interpreted, challenged
and justified from both affirmative and negative sides. An issue of fact is questioned from both the sides.
An issue of definition does not deny the point of view and instead supports it. It specifies the issue. Then
an issue may revolve around justification. Distinction of the nature of the issue clarifies the point at issue
and aids in arriving at an understanding.
Arguments
Having analysed the proposition and the main features of proposition and determined the issue clearly, the
speaker seeks to marshal his proof. The proof consists of a series of subordinate propositions to support the
main proposition. This requires an ordered sequence of thought presented logically with evidence. Evidence
is the means of convincing the audience.
Now you will need to outline the argument you like to use to support your opinion. It must be logical.
That is, you must present logical reasons, believable evidence and outline it in a clear and orderly manner.
Choosing Reasons Support your proposition statement with logical reasons and evidence. Generally,
reasons are statements that explain why you hold your opinion and the listener should also agree with it.
Reason may be a fact, an example or an incident. You can present any point that supports your opinion.
For the following proposition statement three reasons are given:

Proposition Statement:
Freshmen should be exempted from the course English Language Skills if they have secured an A or a B
grade in the English proficiency test.
Reason 1: Freshmen who have secured an A or a B grade in the English Proficiency Test have already
proven that they do not have a language problem.
Reason 2: Freshmen will prepare well to get an A or a B grade in the English Proficiency Test so that they
need attend the English Language Skills course.
Reason 3: This course is useful for students who are required to improve their language skills.
The effectiveness and forcefulness of an argument, however convincing it is, depends almost entirely
on the reasons that you choose to support the proposition. The following guidelines are useful to prepare
effective arguments:
An argument must contain sufficient reasons
Reasons must be forceful, logical and convincing
Each reason must be distinct
Each reason must be relevant
Each reason must be provided with evidence in terms of examples, incidents and quotations from
experts
Choosing Evidence When you have formulated the proposition, identified issues related to it and listed
reasons to support it, the next step is to gather the evidence. You will use this evidence to support each
reason. Evidence is the specific information to prove your point of view. Each reason is an argument and
should be supported by evidence.
So, gather sufficient evidence to support each reason and to refute opposing reasons. Follow the guidelines
given below for gathering evidence:
Collect evidence from a reliable source
Refer to books, journals and other types of documents
Base evidence on your personal observations
Refer to an authority or an expert in that field
Take an expert’s opinion
After collecting the information for evidence, evaluate it. It must be relevant to the reason. Any piece
of information that is not directly related to it is irrelevant and should be eliminated from the argument.
Illogical and irrelevant information will weaken the argument and confuse the audience. When you develop
your arguments, be careful that the reasons are relevant to the proposition statement and that the evidence
is relevant to that reason.
Making Outline of the Argument The final ‘writing-in-advance’ step in developing an argument for
a debate is to make an outline of your argument. It helps you in presenting your ideas clearly. The outline
must consist of your proposition statement, the supporting reasons and the evidence. Sometimes you may
wish to end your argument with a “call to action” or an “appeal” to perform a specific action. You should
include this statement in your outline as well. Prepare your outline in a simple yet precise language. Avoid
ambiguous, vague and abstract words. Use concrete and specific words and clear as well as directly stated
sentences. Avoid long and convoluted sentences. The format for preparing an outline of your arguments is
given below:
Debate 91
Exhibit 6.1 Outline of an Argument
Proposition Statement
Introduction
The Main body
Reason 1
Evidence
Evidence
Evidence
Reason 2
Evidence
Evidence
Evidence
Reason 3
Evidence
Evidence
Evidence
Conclusion
Call to action or an appeal (if necessary)
The number of reasons and the evidence will vary. Your argument will be convincing, forceful and effective
if you provide specific and concrete evidence to support your reason. You should choose the reason in such
a way that it can be supported by concrete and clear evidence. Such reasons offer the strongest believable
support to your proposition statement.
The arguments, reasons and evidence are prepared in the form of a ‘brief’. A brief is an orderly arrange-
ment of all the arguments needed to prove or negate a proposition. Write all the statements in the ‘brief’ in
complete sentences so that it is easy to prepare for a debate.
In the introduction give brief background of the question, define difficult terms of proposition (if any)
and express your point of view. Mention clearly the issues related to the proposition. In the brief, proper
issues are discussed with evidence. The conclusion summarizes the main arguments and reasserts or denies
the proposition.
REBUTTAL
Rebuttal is the most interesting and critical phase of a debate because it evaluates a debater’s ability to anal-
yse and answer an opponent’s arguments. To refute effectively, a debater must be able to think effectively,
quickly and speak promptly.
At the time that you are gathering the material and thinking about the proposition, issues, arguments,
reasons and evidence, prepare for the rebuttal. Think about possible arguments, and reasons of your oppo-
nents. If you are able to anticipate possible arguments and reasons of your opponents then you will become
an effective debater.
When you prepare your brief, consider the arguments and reasons you anticipated that your opponents
might use; confer with your colleagues about them and assemble those arguments to refute your opponents.
Summarise each argument and your answer to it on a separate card. Have your cards available for reference
during the debate. You will be in a weak position if you ignore a major argument of the other side. Your
success will depend on your ability to answer your opponent’s arguments.
Think critically and logically of the opponent’s arguments and then start refuting. While refuting, state
your opponent’s arguments clearly and fairly, quoting your opponent’s words if possible. Present evidence
to prove that the argument is illogical, misleading or unproved. Refutation can start during the constructive
speeches. Give a reply to your opponent’s arguments when your turn comes to speak. Due to the time con-
straint, however, most of your replies must wait until the rebuttal period. In a rebuttal limit yourself to the
main arguments of the opposition. It is a waste of time to spend time refuting minor points. If you negate
the opposition’s main contentions, the minor points can be ignored. This is because the minor points cannot
stand if the major point is negated.
PARTICIPATING IN A DEBATE
Use simple, polite and a courteous language. Address the chair as “Mr. Chairman” or “Madam Chairperson”.
Refer to the judges as “Honourable Judges”. Use the customary terms instead of referring to the partici-
pants by names. ‘The first affirmative speaker’, ‘the first negative speaker’, ‘my worthy opponents’, ‘my
colleagues’ or ‘my teammates’.
Success in a debate is on the basis of a reasoned argument with evidence and the speaker’s convincing
delivery.
Non-verbal Language Along with the verbal language we use non-verbal language to communicate our
ideas effectively. In other words it is our body language and vocal techniques that play an important role
in communication. The basic purpose of a study of body language is to fully comprehend the intent of the
message. Personal appearance is a significant non-verbal communication clue. Generally the audiences form
an impression about you from your personal appearance and posture because they see you before they hear
you. So you have to pay attention to your personal appearance and posture. The way you conduct yourself
when you face the audience is the posture.
Before you are called upon to speak, sit in a relaxed manner and be cool. When you are called upon to
speak, try and appear calm as you rise to speak, poised and confident. Go straight to the podium and do not
rush into your speech. Stand straight at about six to eight inches from the mike. Keep your hands on your
sides, stand quietly, look at the entire audience, pause for a while to let the audience settle comfortably
and make sure that the audience is paying attention. Then and only then should you start speaking with
shoulders up and chin parallel with the floor. The way you approach and walk to the podium, the way you
stand, the way you keep your hands and the way you look at your audience convey your subtle feelings to
your audience.
Table 6.2 Non-verbal Language: Standing and Walking Style
Non-verbal Indication Interpretation

Standing erect and upright Exudes self-confidence
Standing at ease Confidence, a tendency to be goal oriented
Keeping legs somewhat stiff Confidence and focus
Walking sprightly Confidence and a trait of someone who readily
pursues their objectives
Quick stride and arms swinging freely Goal oriented with a definite mission
Walking energetically Commands attention from the audience.
Pace impressively deliberate Focused; exudes confidence
Looking alert and neatly dressed Commands respect from the audience
Squaring the shoulders straightening the back Determination
Debate 93
They indicate the forcefulness of your argument, the reinforcement of your ideas, emphasis on your point of
view and contradiction of your opponent’s ideas. All these points can be illustrated in the following table:
Table 6.3 Non-verbal Language Interpretation

Leaning the body forward To emphasise a point
Frown To disapprove of a point
Raised eye-brows To indicate disbelief
Eye contact To show your self-confidence on your argument
If you are weak in presenting your argument your body language will indicate that to your audience. So it
is better to avoid a bad body language. Here we are providing some hints which may be useful for you:
Table 6.4 Non-verbal Language Interpretation

Drooping shoulders Lack of confidence in your own ideas.
Bending the head towards the ground Lack of confidence in your argument.
Lack of eye-contact Inability to prove your point of view.
Looking over the heads of your audience Inability to argue and convince the audience.
Hands in pocket, strutting style of walking fidgeting Shy, withdrawn, critical extreme certainty, self-centered,
and a slow pace with the head bent down proud, lack of confidence and/or preoccupied with some
other problem.
THE JUDGES’ DECISION

The ability to argue convincingly is the main feature of a debate. The decision of the judges is based on
the skill of the debater and not on the truth or falsity of the proposition. The judges base their decision on
the forcefulness of arguments and the convincing ability of the candidate and not on their own views of the
proposition. The decision of three appointed judges determines the winner of the debate. Generally, judges
give reasons for the decision. Success of a debate is based on a reasoned argument with evidence and the
speaker’s convincing ability.
Another method is by means of a shift-of-opinion poll. Organisers announce the proposition statement.
Ballots are distributed to the audience to record their opinions regarding the proposition statement before
the commencement of the debate. At the end of the debate another ballot is taken. Only ballots showing
a change of opinion are counted. The decision is awarded to the team that caused the greater number of
listeners to change their opinion.
PREPARATION FOR THE DEBATE

The preparation for a debate is a group task. Each member of the team must do his/her share in the prelimi-
nary study and research. The first step is the selection and wording of the proposition. Once the negative
and the affirmative sides have been chosen, each team begins its preparation. To participate efficiently in
the debate some guidelines are given as follows:
Research the topic

Explore the origin and the history of the topic
Organise the material for the issue which he is to defend
Focus on the points presented by the speaker
Try and develop an interest among audience
Give pertinent support for the issue
Prepare adequate notes while listening to the other speaker
Make preliminary preparation for the rebuttal
Learn the techniques of delivery
Acquire correct pronunciation of sounds
Take special care to narrow the issues to the exact points of difference
Avoid irrelevant arguments
Avoid unnecessary information
Don’t accuse, harass or upset the speaker.
Listen carefully to the speaker so that you can give a rebuttal. While you listen notice whether the speaker
posed the question or gave a statement. A question must be answered and interpreted in your rebuttal; a
statement may go unchallenged; or merely accepted. Such difference provides the real field of battle for
thought and humour.
Since debating skill is only acquired by practice, practice repeatedly by using an Evaluation Performa
provided here.
Sample Critical Debate Performa
Student Name _____________________________ Date _____________
Topic for Debate: _________________________________________
Speech Skill Affirmative Speaker Negative Speaker

Poor Fair Adequate Good Excellent Poor Fair Adequate Good Excellent
Analysis of Preposition
Presentation of Issues
Division of Proposition
Pertinence of arguments
Arrangement of
arguments
Validity of evidence
Clarity of expression
Rebuttal
Extemporaneous
expression
Wit
Attack on significant
issues
Debate 95
Summary
Debate is an argumentative oral communication situation. It is an oral discussion on controversy. It advocates a particular
point of view which is competitive in nature. It requires an intellectual argument but not an emotional one. Its focus is
on how to convince people with logical arguments and reasoning. Hence, clarity of expression, credible evidence and
logical reasoning are essential requirements to be successful in a debate.
Debating focuses attention on controversial issues, especially those affecting public interest. It stimulates thinking,
develops the ability in speaking, provides training in research and encourages the habit of suspending judgement until
all the facts are at hand.
A Debate is a speaking-skill contest in which arguments are used to win. It is a form of discussion in which two sides
publicly argue on the proposition statement in a systematic way using simple language. Generally, controversial topics,
those affecting the public interest, are selected for debating. It stimulates thinking, develops the ability in speaking as
a skill, provides training in research and trains us to use convincing arguments.
Review Questions
1. ‘Debate is an exercise in controversy.’ Discuss.
2. What is a proposition statement? Discuss.
3. Discuss guidelines in order to participate effectively in debate.
4. ‘Clarity of Expression is an essential requirement to be successful in a debate.’ Discuss.
5. What are the main features of preposition statement? Discuss.
6. How do you prepare arguments to justify your proposition statement for debate?
7. What is a ‘Rebuttal’? How do you prepare a rebuttal for a debate?
8. In what way is non-verbal language useful to communicate your ideas in debate?
Exercises
1. Form a ‘communication skills club’ at your college. Conduct some debate competitions. You can use the
following topics:
(i) Brain drain should be stopped
(ii) Generation gap is a myth
(iii) End of the year examinations should be abolished from the university system and alternative methods should
be devised to assess the student’s performance
(iv) Higher education should be completely privatised
(v) Internet is more of a bane than a boon
(vi) Human cloning should be banned
(vii) Ragging should be banned
(viii) Sick public sector units should be sold to private companies
(ix) All the banks in India should be privatised
(x) Terrorism should be controlled by force and not by negotiation
(xi) The organisation of a beauty contest should be banned as it is against the spirit of our culture
Write a summary of the arguments of each discussion and discuss them with your friends. Then show it to your
communication teacher for his/her comments, suggestions and guidelines.
2. Each of the following statements is too vague or general to serve as a proposition statement. Rewrite each statement
so that it is specific enough to serve as a proposition.
(i) Drug addiction causes many problems

(ii) Our college library needs improvement
(iii) It would be a good idea to do something about acid rain
(iv) There are too many highway accidents caused by truck drivers
(v) Child labour is unfair
3. Compose five proposition statements for a class debate and write at least three issues for each proposition.
4. Choose one of the proposition statements that you wrote for Exercises 1 and 2. Write as many reasons as you can
think of to support your opinion. Then evaluate each reason on your list, eliminating those that are not distinct
reasons and those that are not relevant to the argument. Write the proposition statement you have chosen, followed
by all the reasons that you have created that strongly support your opinion.
5. The following questions are on arguable issues. Select one and state your opinion in a clearly composed proposition
statement. Then give at least three reasons to support your opinion.
(i) Should reservations be given for higher education to those candidates who have participated nationally in
tournaments?
(ii) Should all homework be eliminated for students up till class VIII?
(iii) Should television network news programs be prohibited from predicting the winners of any election until
after all of the polls are over?
6. Choose the proposition statement you worked with in Exercises 4 and 5. Spend some time thinking of all arguments
that the opposing team might use as a viewpoint. List all of the opposing reasons and decide how you would refute
each reason. Write a paragraph refuting each of the opposing reason.
7. Refer to the arguments you have outlined for Exercises 4 and 5. Choose one of these and decide the kind of evi-
dence that you would look for to support each reason. Outline your arguments by including the evidence that you
would use to support each reason.
8. Use each of the following sentences as a proposition statement. Decide whether you are for or against the proposi-
tion statement. You may rewrite the statement so that it accurately reflects your opinion on the issue. Then write
an outline in which you present your opinion, the reasons why you hold that opinion and the evidence to support
each reason.
(i) The Board of Education should (should not) have one student as a member
(ii) The minimum wage should (should not) be raised
(iii) Students who are caught cheating in a final exam should be automatically debarred
(iv) All restaurants should (should not) be required to have non-smoking sections
(v) All restaurants should have the cellar as a parking place
(vi) In order to avoid traffic problems the Government should provide public parking places for vehicles
9. Attend some debate competitions and take some pictures of some of the speakers with different facial expressions
(anger, excitement, agreement and disagreement etc.) as well as their gestures. Record their talks as well. Analyse
them and identify the meanings of the gestures that the pictures convey. Listen to their talks again. Find out how
non-verbal clues reinforce the speaker’s ideas. Write down your findings.
Chapter 7
Group Discussion

Know the importance of a group discussion.
Develop the skill of analysing the different aspects of a problem.
Improve oral communication skills.
Avoid interpersonal conflicts in a discussion.
Convince others with your arguments.
Develop intensive listening skills.
Concede to others’ point of view.
Present your views politely and courteously.
Regulate the rate of your delivery.
INTRODUCTION
The word ‘group’ means a number of persons or things gathered or acting together or naturally associated.
The word ‘discussion’ means the process of discussing something. Hence, the compound term ‘group dis-
cussion’ means the process of discussing in a group. It is used to refer an interactive oral communication.
Human beings have a natural tendency to form groups. The ever increasing complexity and globalisation of
the modern society needs deeper thinking. To increase the efficiency at the workplace, there is a continuous
and increasing need for optimum use of manpower, resources and material. This needs deep thinking and
a critical analysis of the problem from all aspects. It is realised that this can be done by a group not by an
individual. Based on the requirement each organisation forms groups. So the process of group thinking is an
essential method of solving problems. It is believed and realised that every group has a purpose to achieve.
After the purpose has been served the group may disband or in some situations, may continue. Whatever
may be the situation there is a need for which the group has been formed. It aims at doing something better
than what an individual can do. Groups work effectively in generating or evaluating alternatives.
The term ‘Group Discussion (GD) is used to refer to ‘Oral Communication Process’ in which a small
number of professionals meet to discuss a particular problem, topic, issue or situation among themselves
as well as to exchange information, to analyse the situation and to attempt to arrive at a consensus or to
make a decision on the announced topic. Hence, the exchange of ideas, opinions, thoughts and feelings take
place through oral communication. It is an interactive oral process. It is basically a method for developing
personality traits, for getting information on a significant issue or for solving problems by the process of
group thinking. Generally, a group through free discussion among themselves exchange information and
attempt to reach a decision. GD serves as an error-correcting mechanism, provides support and confidence
to its members and gives information as well as providing a solution to the problem. It is, therefore, a
cooperative activity in which certain basic steps must be followed by the entire group. It is a technique of
shared thinking.
The aim of a GD is not persuasive thinking. For discussion, it seeks to extend the thought process among
the minds of the entire group. This requires that the problem-solving pattern of thinking and critical analysis
be maintained. For this purpose many minds converge on each step in the thought process so that many
shades of a meaning and view points will be brought to bear on the problem. Thinking process of many
people tends to bring more clarity and understanding of the problem and provides a more complete solu-
tion.
CONVERSATION, DEBATE AND GROUP DISCUSSION

As a student you should know the differences among these terms. Although conversation, debate and group
discussion are interactive oral communicative activities, there are marked differences.
A ‘conversation’ – is unplanned, unstructured and a private oral communicative activity. It ranges
over many topics casually touching on each to entertain, to persuade or to instruct.
A ‘debate’ is a formal planned argument on a particular problem. A debate considers two sides of a
problem. The supporters of each side attempt to defeat their opponents by their arguments. Their arguments
are carefully prepared with reasons and evidence. They present their arguments in extended speeches.
A debate usually follows a formal procedure and involves a decision by judges.
A ‘discussion’ is also a planned oral activity presented in public. Its focus is on one topic which is ex-
amined in depth under the direction of a discussion leader. Its purpose is to consider a problem, evaluate a
proposed solution and arrive at the best possible solution.
KINDS OF GROUPS
Basically, groups may be formal or informal. An informal group is formed to meet the desired needs of
individuals and establish relationship among them where as a formal group is formed to complete a spe-
cific task. Generally, informal groups are small groups and remain self-regulating. Formal groups by virtue
of their task related nature require more of a professional attention. Often formal groups will form one or
more informal groups. The small groups are of four kinds. First one is an experiential group. This group is
composed of people who want to develop personal insights, overcome personality problems, develop com-
munication skills or grow as matured professionals from the advice and feedback of others. The second group
is a learning group. The purpose of a learning group is to help members learn about a subject by sharing
their knowledge and insights among themselves. The third group is an information gathering group. The
main objective of this group is to gather adequate information about a particular issue, topic or problem and
discuss that issue. The fourth group is a problem-solving group. This group is formed to solve a particular
problem. Professionals generally form small informal groups while conducting conferences and discuss the
problem informally. Finally they come to a common understanding of the problem.
Group Discussion 99
IMPORTANCE OF A GROUP DISCUSSION

Group discussion is one of the most important skills that every student and every professional must acquire.
As a student, as a job seeker, as an employee, as a professional or as a company executive you need to ac-
quire the ability to take part in a GD effectively. A student may have to take part in academic discussions,
student meetings, group deliberations and interactive classroom sessions as a partial fulfillment of the course
requirement of some of the courses or for selection GDs are used as an admission procedure in professional
courses. GD trains the student to function at the workplace efficiently. Several qualities may be inculcated
by a proper use of this tool; for example conceptual clarity, discernment of subtle nuances of a problem,
mature reaction to other’s views, effective presentation of one’s own ideas, ability to persuade and sagacity
to see reason etc. These qualities are highly valued in the professional life.
In addition to a written test or interview for employment, a GD is often used as a part of a selection
process. It is used as a device for observing the personality traits of a candidate and for judging the suit-
ability of the candidate for the job. A job seeker may be required to face selection GDs as part of a selection
process. Several traits come to the fore during the discussion and these traits cannot be identified by simply
conducting the interviews. This device helps the prospective employer assess the applicants. It is obvious
therefore, that a representative of the prospective employer sits throughout the GD and observes the group’s
performance. He judges each individual’s personality traits such as intellectual ability, creativity, approach
in solving problems, leadership qualities, ability to convince others, tolerance, accommodating other’s point
of view and group behaviour. It is evident that in this process he would also notice the clarity of thought
process and felicity of expression of each member.
Professionals of different fields must also have to take part in professional meetings, discussions and
conferences. Some of the traits which are vital for success in the professional world are:
Quick grasping power.
Matured reaction to views expressed by others.
Positive approach to issues and problems.
Leadership qualities.
Power of exposition.
Analytical ability.
Communication skills.
Group behaviour.
Ability to present orally in a convincing manner.
Ability to develop team management skills.
Ability to accommodate others’ news.
All these situations require the ability to make a significant contribution to group deliberations. These also
help a group in the process of decision making, ability to present the views orally in a convincing manner
and the ability to develop team management skills.
FEATURES OF A GROUP DISCUSSION

It is difficult to specify the number of participants that would make a discussion useful and fruitful.
Many studies indicate that the group functions well if it consists of three to twelve members. If the
number is more than twelve, some tend to avoid participation and remain passive. If it is less than three,
the discussion lacks the diversity of opinion. The importance of a GD is that all members are potential
speakers as well as listeners. A small group permits everyone to shift easily between speaking and lis-
tening. The advantage in such a group is that everyone in the group is able to get across his views and
opinions. For our purpose, we will consider a small group consisting of three to twelve members.
The members of a small group are interdependent since everyone gets a fair chance to speak and express
their opinions. Whatever you say as a member of a group has an impact on the rest of the group. If you
participate effectively and contribute something to the thought process of the discussion of the group, then
the discussion would be successful. The members influence each other through effective arguments. If the
group notices that any participant is reticent on a particular issue, the other members of the group should
try to elicit his opinion on the issue. The members exchange ideas, knowledge and beliefs with one another.
If they work together they can almost always deal with the problem better than an individual. This is so
because:
Groups have more resources than individuals.
They can gather more information than individuals.
They can offer more view points.
Decisions can be taken easily based on the discussion.
There is a built-in-error-checking mechanism in all groups.
Error in information or judgement by one member is easily noticed and corrected by another
member.
The Role of a Group and Its Participants So far we have discussed different kinds of groups, im-
portance of a GD and the features of a GD. Let us now turn our attention to the role of the group and
the group participants in the GD activity. The effectiveness of the group depends on the ways in which
its members interact, react and express their views. Every member of a group must take an active role
in the discussion. This would ensure crystalisation of views and bring to light the different aspects of
the topic under discussion. The participants of the group would ensure a smooth flow of interaction and
ultimately aid to the achievement of the specific purpose for which the discussion was organised.
While doing so the participants should ensure the following activities:
Defining the Problem Before a group starts a discussion on an issue, it must know exactly what problem is
going to be discussed or resolved. The best way to define a problem is to phrase it as a question of policy. The
question of policy generally includes the word ‘should’. Thus the subject for a GD is in the form of a ques-
tion. In phrasing the question for a discussion, your group should follow several guidelines. These are:
Make the problem or the issue as clear and specific as possible.
The problem or issue should be such so as to allow a wide variety of solutions.
Be wary of a problem or an issue that can be answered with a ‘yes’ or a ‘no’.
Avoid a biased or a slanted problem or issue.
Make sure that you pose a single issue not multiple ones.
Make sure that the issue for discussion is understandable to all members of that group.
For example:
What measures should our institute take to raise the academic standards?
Analysing the Issue After the issue has been defined the group begins to analyse it. While analysing a prob-
lem pay attention particularly to two aspects of the problem. First, show how severity of the problem. Find
out the scope and the limitations of the problem. Assess what might happen if the problem is not resolved.
Second, find out what are the causes of the problem. Next, what are the consequences of the problem?
Collect the historical background of the problem. Find out the factors behind it. Ascertain its major causes.
Acquire sound knowledge of the issue. Subject knowledge contributes to your ability to analyse the facts
or information in a systematic way. Correlate your knowledge with your personal experience. The ability
Group Discussion 101
to analyse existing knowledge and assimilate new ideas generate bright and brilliant ideas and schemes. A
person introducing new ideas, taking initiative during the course of the interaction, leading the group in the
right direction and taking the group along with him will emerge as a natural leader. During the discussion
the participants are expected to analyse the problem, interpret it and present their points of view clearly. It is
simple to present the data and information but it is very difficult to conjoin different aspects of the problem
in such a way that it creates an impression of a well thought of analysed presentation in the GD.
Gathering Information A thorough understanding of the problem is essential to gather the information. If you
have time, research in the library. Have an interaction with someone who is an expert on that topic. Sometimes
you can rely on your own knowledge and experience. If members have collected complete information on
the problem then the GD will be effective. When meeting with your group make sure that you have done
the research so that you are confident that you offer complete, unbiased and useful information.
Commitment Think about the topic, purpose of the GD and how at best can you contribute to it. To become
an effective participant in a group, you should align your goal with the group’s goal. There should be a strong
desire for the members to co-operate, to work closely together and to commit themselves for completing
the task. Problems do arise when one or more members have personal goals that conflict with the group’s
goals. You should try not to advance your own interests or boast your own ego at the expense of the group
or its goals. Commitment is an essential feature to participate effectively in a GD.
Encourage Participation All members of a group must participate with commitment and share their ideas
with one another. Every member of the group should encourage others to express their ideas freely and
analyse opinions and ideas of others with a positive attitude. The participants should not get the feeling that
the other participants will criticise or belittle their point of view. They must feel that their points and ideas
will be analysed and be treated with genuine respect and consideration. To participate freely the following
points may be helpful for the participants:
Have a positive attitude.
Be objective in presenting views.
Listen attentively.
Ask others’ opinion on a particular issue.
Show interest in others’ views and information.
React to their views.
Encourage a free exchange of ideas.
Accommodate others’ argument.
Provide a supporting environment (for example, it is an important point for discussion).
If some ideas occur to you while other participants are speaking make a note of what you want to say.
When you are given the floor, try to make your comments or ideas as specific and to the point as possible.
If you want to ask a question or raise a doubt, make it clear and direct. Do not hesitate to present your point
of view if you can clear up a point or correct an error or contribute some additional information. Avoid all
traces of belligerency and unpleasantness but do not be afraid to think or believe differently. However, be
positive and objective in thinking.
Avoid Interpersonal Conflicts Generally, groups tend to be heterogeneous. So, participating in a GD means
dealing with conflicts. It is quite natural in any group activity to have conflicts in the point of view. Some-
times, these conflicts may be desirable for the success of a group activity. Conflicts may be at the task level
or at the opinion level but should not come to a personal level. The following suggestions may be useful to
avoid conflicts in a GD:
Create a conducive and co-operative atmosphere.
Never dominate others.
Avoid conflicts among participants.
Encourage conflicts between ideas or at the task to generate the most useful suggestions or
solutions.
Analyse conflicting opinions with a positive and unbiased attitude.
Clarify conflicting statements or opinions so that they do not lead to personal conflicts.
Handle conflicting opinions objectively.
Make sure that a group discussion does not turn into a debate. Remember that just denying or affirming
someone’s ideas or arguments does not contribute anything to the discussion. If you want to present any op-
posing point of view, be sure that you have reasons for your point of view which seem sound to you. When
you have to reject an idea do it gently with no hint of a personal attack. Never try to show off or dominate
others. Emotional ebullience and a display of excitement or anger have no place in this type of discussion.
Sarcasm, bullying, bellicose and antagonism can disrupt a profitable discussion. To participate effectively
and to make it useful, you should cultivate self-imposed discipline in the discussion. Be tactful and involve
in group building and group maintenance activities which strengthen and regulate a group discussion.
Keep the Discussion on Track Illogical arguments lead to gaps in reasoning in a GD. Identify the arguments
of wooly-headed people and put logical reasoning under the spotlight. It is essential to identify digressions
and avoid it otherwise it may sidetrack the group. It is the responsibility of every member of the group to
keep the discussion on track and to intervene if the group wanders too far afield. You may have to go in
a logical and systematic way to ensure a smooth flow of discussion. Avoid irrelevant arguments and hasty
comments in order to achieve a successful participation in a GD. When you notice the digression politely
point it out and express the main objective of the GD. Summarise the points made now and then present
your viewpoint. In this way you can keep the discussion on track. While working in a group make sure that
the group’s goal is always in the forefront. The following are some of the points which are useful to keep
the discussion on tract:
Focus the attention on the main objective of the GD.
Stick to the time-schedule.
Now and then summarise and clarify the points already presented.
Remind them; warn them against the digression of the thought process.
Draw attention of the group to the purpose of the GD.
Avoid illogical and wooly arguments.
Oral Communication Skill

To participate effectively in a discussion, you should follow the etiquette of oral communication skills in
addition to the sound knowledge of the subject. As the exchange of ideas in a GD takes place through oral
interaction, the ability to speak confidently and convincingly is essential in a GD. Keep your discussion short,
simple, precise and direct. Give only the essential information. Avoid unnecessary details of information and
descriptive mode of presentation which may lead to lengthy monologues or a labyrinth of jumbled ideas
and issues. For an effective oral communication clarity of expression is essential. So careful thought should
be given to the topic floated for the discussion before you begin it. The common saying is that clarity in
thinking reflects clarity of expression. Substantiate your point of view with examples so that you can make
your ideas clear to your listeners. If you express a generalised statement without examples or reasoning it
indicates a lack of knowledge on the subject. If you present your point of view logically and with examples
and have closed-ended questions (yes/no as a response) you will be rated as an effective presenter. If you
would state a general statement instead and raise a question to leave the forum for others, immediately some
other intelligent participant will take up the issue and come out with impressive points. For example, if one
participant gives an idea:
“Drug addiction creates a lot of problems among the youth. What do you think about it?”
The other participant comes out with examples.
“Yes, it is true. Drug addiction has become common among the youth. They are wasting their precious
time, money, are unable to do anything and are spoiling their future and health. We must think seriously on
how to eradicate this”.
Then the other participants start giving their points of view on the issue. This type of an expression
motivates others to participate in the discussion.
The participants should not create an impression of simply continuing the previous point. Instead if a
participant gives an example and presents his point of view, it motivates the others to discuss it further on
the issue. For example: If one participant expresses his point of view on pollution:
“The effects of pollution are erosion, depletion of natural resources, and illness of mind and other health
problems.”
If another participant adds to this by saying: “Yes, it is true, even the Taj Mahal in Agra is the best ex-
ample of the effects of pollution”.
Here the participant seems to be continuing with the previous speakers’ views. Instead he may say:
“Yes, you are correct. Monuments of international importance too are getting affected from pollution.
The Taj Mahal is the best example of this.”
Leadership Skills
Leadership in a group is the ability to influence or convince members of a group in such a way so as to
achieve the goals of that group. A successful group leader in a GD helps the group to reach its aimed goal
in time by leading the group in a direct and efficient manner. The employer evaluates each individual’s
unique personal skills such as intellectual ability, initiative, adaptability, creativity, assertiveness, approach
in solving problems, decision-making, ability to convince others, discretion, accommodating other’s views,
objectivity and persuasiveness. These are some of the leadership skills that are useful in proving oneself as
a natural leader in a GD. Thus, anything that contributes to the achievement of the goal can be considered
as a leadership skill. Although leadership skills are shared among members of a GD, each participant should
try to show efficiently these skills whenever the need arises. The leader of a group should be the one who
knows the excitable members of that group, one who uses influence, gives the sanest judgement, gives sensible
reasons, shows anger easily and one who wants to monopolise the situation. In other words an intelligent
leader analyses the situation to determine what leadership style will motivate the others to go in the right
direction and achieve the assigned task in time. The employer consistently observes and evaluates all these
skills. The leadership skills of group leader of a GD are given as follows:
Initiates the discussion.
Creates an atmosphere in which the members feel free to participate.
Promotes positive group interactions.
Clarifies points, as and when required and explain them.
Views the situation objectively and dispassionately.

Keeps the discussion on track and confined to the subject.
Recording the specific information during the discussion for further actions.
Summarises the group’s progress at the end of the meeting.
Solicits the views of others.
Promotes solidarity within the group.
Moderates the task to achieve it.
Points out the areas of agreement and disagreement.
Tackles problems with confidence.
Resolves the difference of opinion between two or other members of the group.
Reduces interpersonal tensions.
Analyses the issues facing the group.
Talks with confidence.
Finds workable solutions with ease.
Intensive Listening Skill

Intensive listening skill is highly required to participate in a GD. The ability to listen effectively is an im-
portant skill. It requires intense concentration and a conscious effort to understand and evaluate the ideas of
others in a discussion. Your listening ability depends on your attitude towards the information, the speaker
and the purpose. It also depends on your knowledge of the subject. You must listen carefully to what is said
by others. Research studies have proven that the average listener recalls only a little more than half of what
has been said. By understanding and applying the following guidelines, you can reduce the communication
gap between the speaker and the listener. You must try:
To acquire information
To evaluate information
To get the main ideas
To understand the speaker’s reasoning
To understand the speaker’s supporting ideas
To know the attitude of the speaker towards the topic of discussion
Non-Verbal Communication Clues

A group discussion is an interactive oral communication. Non-verbal communication is an integral part of
oral communication. The process of communicating without the use of words is non-verbal communica-
tion. It includes facial expressions, postures, gestures, eye-contact etc. Since non-verbal communication
expresses individual emotions, feelings and attitude; it conveys the meaning effectively. For our study point
of view, we consider some hints of non-verbal communication. Since non-verbal clues, such as eye contact,
gestures, body-position and facial expressions can speak more than words, examiners closely watch non-
verbal behaviour of a candidate to determine the personality traits of the candidate such as co-operation,
defensive nature, alertness, interest in the subject, lack of interest, aggressiveness, self-confidence, curiosity,
acceptance, disagreement, surprise, positive attitude etc. Examiners generally observe the body language of
candidates. Maintain eye contact while listening to others’ views or presenting your views in a GD. This
will indicate that you are paying attention to what the others are saying in that GD. You should recognise
the power of non-verbal messages and use them effectively. Some suggestions of non-verbal clues are given
in the following table:
Table 7.1 Significance of Non-verbal Communication Clues
Non-verbal Clue Significance

Keep your hands on your lap that is the right hand Indicates that you are a logical person
atop the left
Frequent hand movements Indicates distraction
Use occasional hand movements Use for emphasis
Use to reinforce an idea
Arms crossed over the chest Indicates defensive nature
Hand on the chin, index finger towards the eye Signals critical evaluation of the points
Creates the impression of deep thinking
Push the body to the back of the chair and sit straight. Indicates alertness
Keep legs firmly on the ground Indicates alertness
Leaning towards a speaker or listener Shows interest in the subject
Sitting on the edge of the chair Signals co-operation
Straddling a chair using the back of the chair as Signals aggressiveness and dominance
a support while sitting
Sitting cross-legged Signals informality
Shaking of one’s legs when listening to the other Indicates frustration
interactions Signals the inability to get what he wants
Stretching of legs in front of self Signals a lack of interest and a casual attitude
Too much flaying of the hands Gives the impression that hands are used to commu-
nicate
Lacks the ability to use suitable words and proper ex-
pressions to get the idea or the message across.
Locking hands tightly Conveys inflexibility and rigidity in thinking
Draping the hand around the head of the chair Signals informal behaviour
Facial expressions
Raising eyebrows Signals surprise and curiosity
Lowering eyebrows Signals acceptance
Frowning on the forehead Signals anger
Furrowed forehead Signals displeasure, anger and disagreement
Open mouth Signals shock as well as surprise
Chin is thrust forward Signals confidence
STRATEGIES OF A GROUP INTERACTION

A group discussion is basically an interactive oral group process that provides opportunities for interaction.
It involves both person-to-person as well as person-to-group interactions. If every member of the group
contributes to the group’s thinking process, it brings success to the GD. To ensure an effective performance
in a GD test, you should know how to participate in a GD. Here are some strategies along with useful ex-
pressions to participate in a GD:
Table 7.2 Interactive Strategies and Useful Expressions for a GD
Interactive Strategies Useful Expressions

To begin a GD It is a thought provoking topic. Let’s start the discussion.
Our topic of discussion is very important and useful to all of us. Let’s start.
May I begin . . .
Let me explain/interpret the concept first.
I feel that . . . is a big problem, today.
To continue the discussion (The moment any speaker completes the point you can start the discussion.)
That is really an interesting point, but can I add another point . . .
Well, that is true. I can add factual information to your point.
Your point is a valid one. Let’s discuss further on this aspect with examples. . .
May I give an example to your point?
I don’t agree with you. Let me explain why.
It’s not acceptable. Can we analyse this issue further?
To give an opinion My opinion on this aspect is . . .
I’m of the view . . .
In my opinion . . .
I’m pretty sure that is correct but . . .
I have no doubt on that but . . .
I’d like to express my opinion . . .
According to me this issue is . . .
So far as I’m concerned . . .
My experience says . . .
To ask for an opinion May I know your opinion on this . . .
What do you think about it?
Would you like to say anything on this?
Do you want to make any comments on this?
What do you feel about this issue?
What is your opinion on this aspect?
Can you explain your opinion on this issue?
What is the general opinion on this?
Does anybody have anything to say?
Do you have any comments on this suggestion?
To defend your opinion Let me restate what I meant . . .
I repeat what I said earlier, because . . .
What I’m trying to say is . . .
The point made by Mr. ... really supports my view. .
This is what I was trying to suggest . . .
To seek clarification You said ... What does this imply?
Just a moment. I don’t understand . . . .?
You said . . .. Could you please elaborate?
If I understand your statement correctly, it is . . .
To accept others’ view That is definitely the right approach.
I’m strongly in favour of that . . .
It is the best solution
This is a good idea
(Contd)
(Contd)
To reject others’ view It is not possible . . . .
It is not feasible. . .
I can’t accept this . . .
I’m strongly against that . . .
I really find it unacceptable
I’m absolutely against this proposal . . . .
I’m sorry, I can’t accept . . .
I’m sorry, but that is not possible/feasible . . .
I’m afraid that is not practical . . .
To avoid aggression Could you hold for a minute . . .
Can you please stop for a while?
Just a minute, please.
Please wait, at least let me complete my argument.
Could you clarify this point further . . .
Let me clarify this issue.
To intervene continuous talk Sorry to disturb you, but may I add a point here . . .
of others Excuse me; I have a point to add . . .
Please allow us to express our point of view . . .
Let me have a word . . .
Please consider other’s point of view.
May I say something here?
If I’m not mistaken, we are overlooking a point here.
Before we go further, let us . . .
To avoid interruption politely Let me complete my point.
Please allow me to complete my point of view.
Could you hold for a minute? Let me complete my sentence.
Just a minute please . . .
After listening to my point of view . . .
You have a point, let me . . .
That is a good point, but I still think that . . .
Sorry to disturb you, but may I add a point here . . .
That is a good idea, but I still feel that . . .
I appreciate your point of view, but . . .
I can understand your point of view, but . . .
Your point sounds interesting, but . . .
To make a reticent participant What do you say about it?
participate Would you like to share your views?
Would you like to express your views?
May we know your opinion . . .
Do you accept this . . .
To make suggestions I suggest that first we . . .
Let’s start with . . .
What about . . .
May we consider . . .
Why don’t we . . .
Shall we . . .
(Contd)
(Contd)
To insist upon Let me emphasise this point . . .
I have to say again that. . .
I must again draw your attention to what I had said earlier.
I am afraid but I have to insist upon the fact that. . .
I reiterate.
To give in I concede . . .
I take that back . . .
I now see the point . . .
I accept your argument . . .
Yes, you are right. I withdraw . . .
To focus on the discussion I think we’re off the track . . .
I’m afraid . . .
I think there are other views we should think about. For example . . .
The main point of the discussion is . . .
The focus of the discussion is . . .
I think I can substantiate your point . . .
I think . . . is a good example of . . .
Yes, you are right . . .
Yes, we have a point in your argument . . .
Yes, I didn’t think from that angle . . .
To disagree with others I don’t agree with you on this point . . .
This is not the issue . . .
We should not think in this way . . .
Oh! No. May I explain why . . .
Oh! You can’t say that . . .
I don’t think so . . .
I’m afraid I think differently . . .
To keep the discussion on I think we are deviating from the main issue.
track Let’s come back to the main subject.
Don’t you think it is a deviation from the issue under discussion?
I know what you mean but it would be better if we restrict ourselves with the given
subject.
I do understand your point of view, but let’s stick to the main subject under discus-
sion.
I appreciate your analyses, but it is a deviation from our topic.
That is well appreciated, but I do not find the link between what you want to say
and the subject under discussion.
Let’s discuss something related to our topic.
Let’s avoid digression.
BARRIERS TO AN EFFECTIVE GROUP DISCUSSION

The participants in a GD should know how to behave in a group, how to discuss, how to accommodate oth-
ers’ views and how to lead the group on the right track and how to convince other members of the group.
So, it is not enough if you talk well and encourage others to talk. Experience shows that people fail to
communicate with each other in group activity programmes. This failure is because of many reasons. Let
us discuss some of these reasons:
Sometimes people may not understand:

— The meaning of abstract words and expressions
— The meaning of cliché and literary jargons
— Connotative meaning of words
— The meaning of ambiguous words
Without fully understanding the statement of the participant the other participant contradicts
the statement. Hence, communication does not take place in this type of situation. Since there
is no communication, each participant thinks immediately that the other person is illogical and
loses temper.
Generally people are biased and strongly believe in the importance and validity of their own point
of view and fail to realise the other’s point of view. So, communication in that situation is not effec-
tive.
Participants may not realise the reasoning and practical approach in the process of discussion. Hence,
they think that willingness to compromise indicates a lack of integrity. According to them “what is
right is right”. They think that they are always right.
Participants sometimes interpret strong disagreements as a personal attack.
If no participant gives the impression that he “knows-it-all”, then the co-operation is excellent.
If some participants are frequently intent to undermine others’ confidence, it reduces the group’s ef-
fectiveness.
Sometimes participants are forced to take a decision on a disputed issue. Usually it is wiser to postpone
the decision on a disputed issue.
Sometimes participants accept a solution to the problems raised during the process of discussion in
order to avoid a quarrel or to save time. This procedure merely postpones or compounds difficulties
instead of finding a reasonable solution for those issues.
SUGGESTIONS FOR SELF-IMPROVEMENT

As a student you have to participate in a GD to develop your personality traits. As a fresh graduate you have
to take part in a GD because it is one of the evaluation components in a selection process. Often you would
be asked to participate in a GD in your organisation to find a solution to a problem. You should analyse
your performance every time after your participation so that there is continuous improvement. While doing
so you should bear in mind the following points:
Initiate the group discussion and generate points to discuss.
Define the topic or issue and interpret it.
Keep your points simple and intelligible to interactants.
Follow the principles of oral communication.
Analyse the scope of the topic or the issue.
Discuss the implications of the problem.
Follow the principles of politeness and courteousness.
Maintain a friendly and pleasant atmosphere throughout the group discussion.
Deliberate and be clear in expressing your point of view.
Substantiate your points with explanations and example.
Listen intently to the views of others.
Encourage and motivate reticent participants to speak.
Make each member feel that his/her contribution is vital.
Look at and address all the members of the group while expressing your point of view.
Summarise the views of others before expressing your own.

Concede to others’ point of view if their views are reasonable.
Emphasise the points which you consider significant.
Be brief and to the point in the presentation of your views and have proper pronunciation.
Keep the discussion on track. If it deviates from the main issue try to keep it on track.
Try to review the points now and then.
Intervene politely as and when the situation demands.
Make your pronunciation intelligible.
Summarise the main view points at the end.
State the conclusions reached.
Try to conclude the discussion within the scheduled time.
Regulate the rate of your speech.
Pause wherever necessary to make your presentation clear and effective.
Put the required stress on appropriate syllables.
Check your point of view’s validity.
Keep your mind focused on what was being said.
Don’ts
Do not raise your voice too high nor speak too softly.
Do not speak in a monotone.
Avoid using speech mannerisms and time fillers.
Do not wish to belabour the point.
Do not belittle others.
Avoid bellowing.
Avoid traces of squabble nature.
Do not show bellicose nature.
Do not be belligerent.
Do not show emotional ebullience.
Do not display excitement and/or anger.
Do not be aggressive in presenting your views.
Do not make any personal remarks.
Do not dominate the discussion.
Do not monopolise the situation.
Do not use aggressive gestures.
Do not encourage personality conflicts.
Do not jump to conclusions.
Do not try to be the centre of attention all the time.
Do not enter into a dyadic discussion.
Do not speak continuously for a long time.
Do not frown at somebody.
Do not fiddle.
Avoid scowling.
Do not recline nor lean forward.
Do not ignore any member of the group.
As a student and later as a professional you may have to take part in a GD. Your effectiveness would
depend on whether you possess the personality traits mentioned earlier. Try to cultivate them if you do not
possess any and sharpen the ones you already have. The quality of your performance would improve if you
follow the guidelines discussed here. You may go in for self-training or seek the help of experts.
Summary
To make a discussion purposeful, each member should stick to the topic. Avoid personal disrespect, listen carefully
and courteously and contribute when you can and keep your remarks as brief and clear as possible so that you can
avoid hasty conclusions and can reach a satisfactory decision. We turn, therefore, to the establishment of goals and
decision-making technique for small groups. The examiners generally assess the oral competence of a candidate in
terms of the following points: sound knowledge of the subject, the ability to define the problem, the ability to analyse
the issue, the ability to gather information, to show commitment, the ability to avoid interpersonal conflicts, the ability
to keep the discussion on track, clarity of expression, to accommodate others’ views, the ability to motivate participants
to discuss further and the ability to initiate the discussion when it is subsided. To evaluate a GD you can use the fol-
lowing Evaluation Form:
Evaluation Form for Group Discussion
Evaluation Knowledge The Abil- The Abil- The Ability The Ability The Abil- The Abil- The Ability to
Components of the ity to ity to to to Extend ity to ity to Initiate the
Candidate’s Topic Initiate the Communicate Lead the Co-opera- Keep the Moderate Discussion
Name 25% Discussion Effectively Discussion tion to Discussion the Discus- if it has
5% 20% 10% Other on sion Subsided 10%
Members Track 10% 10%
10%
Review Questions
1. What are the various types of group discussions?
2. Discuss the importance of a group discussion.
3. What is the role of the participants in a group discussion activity? Discuss.
4. What strategies would you like to use in a group discussion in order to make it effective?
5. What are the barriers to a group discussion? What are your suggestions to overcome them?
6. What suggestions would you like to give for effective participation in a group discussion?
7. Why do employers use a GD as one of the instruments for assessing the suitability of candidates for a job?
8. What are the various purposes for which a GD is held?
9. What is the use of non-verbal communication clues in a GD? Discuss.
10. In what ways is a GD different from debate?
Exercises
1. List five topics suitable for a group discussion. Submit them to the class activity. Test your knowledge and those
submitted by other members of the class. If required, revise your topics.
2. Listen to a television discussion program, analyse it and report it orally to your class. Did the discussion follow
the principles of a group discussion? If not, what are your suggestions?
3. Report a television discussion on a controversial question. Did the speakers present both the sides of the question
fairly? What evidence did they offer to support their opinions? What objections can you pose?
4. Divide the class into groups of six to eight members. Each group, under the direction of a leader, will select a topic
for discussion and phrase it properly. The discussion will be carried on simultaneously in separate rooms with the
instructor moving from one to another. After the designated time, the class will reassemble and the leader of each
group will report the problems faced in the discussion, how they were handled and where improvement was needed.
Note the improvements that you are required to make.
5. A few statements for a GD are given here. Formulate your views on each one of them and write what you would
like to say as a participant in each GD. Discuss with your peer group. Then show it to your communication teacher
for his/her comments, suggestions and guidelines.
(i) Vocational change in education
(ii) Higher education should be nationalised to make it more relevant to the fast growth of our industries
(iii) Television exercises are a baneful influence on all sections of our society and so all programmes should be
carefully censured
(iv) The policy of reservation in employment should be on the competence of the candidate
(v) Indian cinema is neither a source of healthy entertainment nor an instrument of social change
(vi) The present day policy of liberalisation of our economy should be changed as it is against our national
interests
(vii) The establishment of multinational companies in India has boosted the Indian economy
(viii) English should be one of the evaluation components along with other subjects in all the competitive exami-
nations in India
(ix) Brain drain is a myth
(x) Politics is no longer an instrument of public services; it has instead become a means of acquiring power and
wealth
(xi) Brain gain
Unit III
Study Skill
Chapter 8
Dictionary: Its Use

Know the various uses of a dictionary.
Be aware of the various methods for clarifying the meaning of a word.
Write compound words correctly.
Know the pronunciation of a word and its variant pronunciation.
Compare synonymic words and use them effectively.
Know the grammatical aspects of a word.
Identify idiomatic phrases, phrasal verbs, colloquial usage and informal usage.
Know prefixes and suffixes.
Know the universally accepted abbreviations.
INTRODUCTION
The dictionary is a great store-house of linguistic information. The study of vocabulary begins with a diction-
ary. A good dictionary is a compendium of words: recording spelling; noting variant spellings; pronuncia-
tion, variant pronunciation; parts of speech, etymology, meanings, synonyms and antonyms, grammatical
features, labels, abbreviation and/or other forms. It includes very often other information as well – lists of
abbreviations, lists of IPA symbols for English sounds, rules for punctuation and spelling, measurement
units, numbers and condensed geographical information. For writers, readers and learners, a dictionary is
an indispensable tool.
A dictionary lists the words of a language in an alphabetical order and gives information about their
meaning, their spelling, their pronunciation, their use, their history and so on. The degree of completeness
of this information depends on the size and purpose of the dictionary. All information in a good dictionary
is based on a study of usage. A dictionary reflects usage; it does not prescribe it. It is an authority only in
so far as it accurately reflects usage. Let us discuss the various uses of a dictionary.
THE MEANING OF A WORD

Strictly speaking, dictionaries do not define words. They record the meaning or meanings that actual usage,
past and present, have attached to the words. It uses several methods for clarifying the meaning of a word.
It uses phrases of definition, and it sometimes follows the definition with illustrative examples.
Exhibit 8.1 Sample Entry of the Word Diamond in the Dictionary
Source: A S Hornby, 1996. Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, Fifth Edition, Oxford University Press.
P.320.
Legend
1. Headword
2. Phonetic transcription
3, 17 Parts of speech
4,6 Noun, meaning one 1(a)
5,11,14,23,27 Noun Classification: U : Uncountable
C : Countable
7, 19,20 Usage
8. Example
9,15,18,29 Reference
10. Meaning of the reference word
11. Meaning
12. Abbreviation
Dictionary: Its Use 117
13. Another meaning

16. Third meaning
21. Illustration
22. Another meaning of V
25. Fourth meaning
27. Label
28. Meaning
THE SPELLING OF A WORD

If you do not know how to spell a word, you can always look it up in your dictionary. Dictionaries also in-
dicate various spellings of a word. Usually the first listing is more common than the second one. Generally,
choose the first listed variant unless there is a special reason for choosing the second. The spelling entry of
a word in the dictionary divides the word into syllables, thus guiding us how to separate it properly at the
end of lines. It also gives us the structure of compound words. With the help of a dictionary you can write
compound words and other words correctly. The details of word entry in the dictionary are given here.in
table 8.1.
Table 8.1 Word Entry in the Dictionary
S.No. Compound Words Examples

1. Compound words written as single word. Searchlight, airbus and airlines.
2. Compound words written as two words. Search warrant, window shade and air letter.
3. Hyphenated compound words. Search-party, window-pane and air-hostess.
4. Foreign words (that require in manuscript). Sine die and sine qua non.
5. Word is always or usually capitalised in a par- AIDS, RAC, NAAFI, BASIC MW (radio) medium wave
ticular meaning. (techn) Megawatt. August, AD, AC, F.
6. Variant spellings (some words have two spellings, enquire-inquire
both are accepted). towards-toward
acknowledgement-acknowledgment.
To write effectively and correctly, cultivate the habit of referring to a dictionary whenever you have any
doubt about a spelling.
THE PRONUNCIATION OF A WORD

Dictionaries indicate the pronunciation of words by spelling them again with special symbols and letters.
Explanations of the symbols are either at the bottom of the page on which the entry appears or in the prefa-
tory pages or both. Generally speaking, it gives the standard pronunciation. But the pronunciation of words
is influenced by the situation. In formal speech, syllables are likely to be more deliberately sounded than
in informal speech. Further, the pronunciation of a word is affected by its position in the sentence, by its
function and by the meaning it carries. The details are given in Table 8.2. Yet lexicographers have no choice
but to deal with each word as an individual entity. They record its formal or full pronunciation – what may
be referred to as a ‘platform’ pronunciation. Dictionaries do, however, attempt to show frequently occurring
variant pronunciations as they do variant spellings.
Table 8.2 Pronunciation of a Word
S.No. Word Position Pronounced as

1. and unaccented position / ‘n/ or / en’/
2. for unaccented position /f /
3. of unaccented position / V/
Table 8.3 Pronunciation Changes Meaning
S.No. Word Pronunciation Meaning

1. minute /minit/ (N) equal to 60 seconds
ma‹I’nju:t (adj) very small in size or amount
2. lead (n) /lI:d/ an example set by somebody’s behavior that others may copy
/ led / a chemical element
Table 8.4 Pronunciation Changes Part of Speech
S.No. Word Pronunciation

1. diffuse dI ‘fju:z (v)
dI ‘fju:s (adj)
2. object ‘@bdZIkt (n)
@b’dZekt (v)
SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS

Two words that have exactly the same meaning are not too common in the English language, but some words
may have approximately the same meaning or approximately the same meaning in certain uses. These are
called synonyms. An antonym is a word having approximately the opposite meaning. Some dictionaries enter
synonyms and antonyms of words and they also give comparisons of synonymic words. A set of synonymic
words are given as follows:
argument, row, quarrel, fight and altercation
choose, select, pick and opt for
Some dictionaries bring out differences of a set of synonymic words.
Table 8.5 Distinction in Meaning
NOTE: Shuffle, shamble, stagger, stumble, waddle, hobble and limp all describe the ways of
walking slowly and with difficulty. Shuffle suggests moving with small steps and without lifting
the feet off the ground completely: The queue of prisoners shuffled towards the door. Shamble
suggests fixed careless steps: The old man shambling along the road.
People stagger when they cannot balance well, for example, when carrying something heavy or
when they are drunk: They staggered into the airport with their heavy suitcases. They stumble
when they fall against things or cannot see where they are going: She stumbled across the
dark room and switched on the light. Waddle is used humorously to describe moving from
side to side like a duck while walking: She waddled around the apartment, heavily pregnant.
People or animals hobble when they cannot walk easily because they are in pain and they limp
if one of their legs is injured or stiff. I hobbled along the platform step by painful step. The
bird was limping, dragging its injured wing along the ground.
Source: A S Hornby, 1996. Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, Fifth Edition, Oxford University Press, P. 1095.
Dictionary gives synonyms. Sometimes it compares and contrasts synonyms.

It classifies the different meanings of a word and numbers them. If a word has special technical uses, it
labels these uses and explains them (See Table 3.1). Some dictionaries list the oldest meaning first; others
list the most commonly used meanings first. As a student, you must know what scheme a dictionary uses.
Choosing the appropriate meaning out of the many that are offered is not difficult if you read them all and
understand their order of arrangement as indicated in the prefatory pages of the dictionary.
GRAMMAR
Generally, dictionaries are helpful in several ways grammatically. Good dictionaries indicate what part of
speech each word is; or, if the word serves as more than one part of speech, dictionaries usually list each
possibility and give illustrative sentences for each. Dictionaries also list the principal parts of verbs, the plurals
of nouns and the comparative and superlative degrees of adjectives and adverbs; but only when these forms
are irregular or present spelling difficulties. For example, no plurals are given for pen and paper because it
is assumed that these words form their plural in the usual way. But after ‘index’ you will find two plurals,
namely indexes and indices; after ‘sheep’ you will find the information that the plural is unchanged; after
‘ox’ you will find that the plural is ‘oxen’. Similarly, no details are given after regular verbs, especially when
no special problems are involved; but note that ‘lie’ is followed by ‘lay’, ‘lain’ and ‘lying’ to show what
happens to the ending in the formation of the past tense, participle and the gerund.
Table 8.6 Grammatical Information
S.No. Word Grammatical Information

Parts of Speech
1. over Adverb
Preposition
Noun
over- Prefix
(Contd)
(Contd)
2. equal Adjective
Noun
Verb
Tense
3. lie (v) pt lay
pp lain
pres plying
Singular Plural
4. tooth teeth
5. life lives
6. Oasis Oases
7. spoonful spoonfuls
8. deer unchanged
Adjective Comparative and Superlative
9. good better and best
Idiomatic Phrases
The dictionary lists a large number of idiomatic phrases. Here are a few samples: ‘How do you do?’ ‘Explain
oneself’, ‘At somebody’s expense’, ‘Do’s and don’ts’, ‘In a hurry’ etc. It also gives phrasal verbs. Here are a
few examples: make out, make-up, set-up, set in, bring about, etc. (See chapter 6). It also gives prepositional
phrases like ‘refer to, fond of’ etc. (See chapter 5).
Labels
Dictionaries do not label words that belong to the general vocabulary. The absence of a label means that
the word is proper for formal and informal speaking and writing. Some words contain label/s. Generally,
you may notice two types of labels. The first one is a subject label. It indicates that the word belongs to a
special field. Here are some examples:
Word Subject
felony law
phonology linguistics
phylum biology
phrase grammar
prophylactic medical
Usage or status labels indicate that a word is restricted in some special way in its occurrence. The labels
obsolete and archaic indicate that the word is restricted in time. Obsolete means that the word has passed out
of use entirely. Archaic means that although the word has passed out of general use, it appears occasionally
or in special contexts. Colloquial, informal, slang derogative, rhetorical and other similar labels are level
or style labels. Dictionaries have their greatest variation both in the selection and the application of such
labels. Some examples are given here:
Table 8.7 Informal Words
shore swipe outfit

grouse grotty nightie
ad – Informal abbreviation for the word advertising
Slang is a very informal language mainly used in speaking and sometimes restricted to a particular group
of people. Here are some examples. The abbreviation of slang in dictionary is ‘sl’.
dope lolly the fuzz naff shit
Derogative expressions generally show that the user feels disapproval or scorn. The abbreviation used for
this word is ‘derog’. Some examples are given as follows:
rehash brat
pompous pedant
lax preen
sulk mulish
Rhetorical speech or writing is used in order to sound important, impressive or literary, sometimes in a
self-conscious or a pompous manner. The abbreviation of this word in the dictionary is ‘rhet’. The following
examples give an idea:
laud doughty
attire emolument
fount
Prefixes and Suffixes

Dictionaries give details of prefixes and suffixes, combining their forms and their meanings. Here are some
examples.
Table 8.8 Prefixes
Prefix Meaning
post- after
pre- before
sub- under, below
Table 8.9 Suffixes
Suffix Meaning
-ess female
-full full of
-able capable of
Table 8.10 Combining Forms
Form Prefix Meaning

mono- prefix one/single
auto- prefix self
ABBREVIATIONS
Dictionaries give universally accepted abbreviations. Some abbreviations are given in the following table:
Table 8.11 Abbreviations
S.No. Abbreviations Word

1. L lake (e.g. on a map)
large (in size) on clothing
symbol stands for Roman numeral 50
left
an L-driver
L-plate on motor cycle
Line
2. Lab Laboratory
3. A Ampere(s)
4. a/c Account (commerce)
Charge to (current)
a/c payee only on cheques
5. St. (written before the name of saint) Saint
6. Jan January
7. Tue/Tues Tuesday
8. Abb Abbreviation
9. T in every detail, exactly
Dictionary Abbreviations
Table 8.12 Abbreviations Used in Dictionary
Abbreviation Word
adj adjective
app appendix
approx approximately
(Contd)
(Contd)
Abbreviation Word
Brit British
def definite
eg for example
esp especially
indef indefinite
inf informal
int interjection
neg negative
n noun
pl plural
prep preposition
pref prefix
pron pronoun
sing singular
sl slang
so someone
sth something
sb somebody
suf suffix
usu usually
v verb
v (pt) past tense
v (pp) past participle
v (pres p) present participle
PHR v phrasal verb
DICTIONARY SYMBOLS
Symbols generally used in a dictionary are given in the following table:
Table 8.13 Dictionary Symbols and their Meanings
S.No. Symbol Meaning

1. Replaces the headword of an entry
2. Derivative section(s) of an entry
3. Compound(s) section of an entry
4. See…..
5. In large verb entries indicates a group of similar meaning
6. = Means the same as…
(Contd)
(Contd)
7. O Separates the example
8. Taboo
!
9. NOTE Note on usage
10. IDM Idiom(s) section of an entry.
USE OF A THESAURUS
Like a dictionary, a thesaurus is also useful for the learner to improve his/her vocabulary. You have already
learned how to use a dictionary. With that background, you must learn how to use a thesaurus. The word
thesaurus comes from a Greek word meaning treasure, treasury or storehouse. Hence, the word thesaurus
is used because it is a treasury or a storehouse of words. The main purpose of a thesaurus is to provide a
list of words which mean the same or almost the same. Generally, a thesaurus is like a dictionary in a single
alphabetical listing of main entry words. The common question is why we need one. There are so many
reasons for the need of thesaurus. Broadly, it is used if the original word:
is inappropriate in the context
is too formal or colloquial
is not precise in conveying the intended message
does not suit the tone of the piece of writing
is ambiguous
Whenever you want to avoid repetition, you prefer to use a synonymic word. In all of these contexts a
thesaurus is of an invaluable help to anyone interested in improving their command of the English language.
Hence, there is a need to know some of the principles of using a thesaurus.
The synonyms are arranged alphabetically under each main-entry word. Look at the example:
addiction, carving, dependence, enslavement…
If a word has distinctly separate meanings, separate numbered lists are given for the different
senses.
halt 1. be defective, falter, …
2. be unsure, boggle, …
To distinguish between different parts of speech, labels have been added as follows: n. (noun), v.
(verb), adj. (adjective), adv. (adverb), pron. (pronoun), conj. (conjuction), prep. (preposition) and
interj. (interjection).
If a headword has more than one meaning and can function as more than one part of speech, a new
part of speech function is shown by a large swung dash (~)
Example:
below adv. beneath, down, lower …… ~ prep.
Commonly used phrases appear as main entries; for instance, take in, take back etc., come after
take.
Labels have been abbreviated as in the dictionary. These are Sl. (Slang), inf. (informal) and Fig.
(Figurative).
If plural forms have distinctly separate meanings, such as provisions, they are entered according to
the alphabetical order, whereas other plural forms with a less distinct difference, such as extremities
are given as a separate sense under the singular form, using the word plural.
Summary
It will be clear from the above discussion that if you want to use your dictionary as a guide wisely and effectively you
will have to examine the discussion carefully. Once you go through the material thoroughly you can decide the purpose
for which you have to refer to a dictionary.
Review Questions
1. ‘A good dictionary is a compendium of words’. How do you justify this statement?
2. What are the various uses of a dictionary?
3. What are the various symbols you noticed in your dictionary? Illustrate them.
4. What are the various labels you noticed in your dictionary? Explain each by giving examples.
5. What is the orthography of the word ‘embarrass’?
Exercises
1. How many different meanings can you find for each of the following words? Refer to a dictionary.
light fast nice arm fellow
run fire fence homely file
2. Distinguish between the meanings of the words in each of the following groups. Refer to a dictionary.
ambitious aspiring enterprising
apt likely liable tactics
eminent celebrated
restive restless
voracious ravenous
common mutual
enormous immense
equanimity composure
deface disfigure
diplomatic politic tactful
3. With the help of a dictionary, find the suitable meanings of the words underlined.
(a) (i) The roof is supported by a wooden beam.
(ii) The beam of light is focused on the subject.
(b) (i) The current is very strong in this part of the river.
(ii) This use of the word is now quite current.
(c) (i) I’ve just finished reading this article.
(ii) How many articles are you leaving with me?
(iii) In the English language we have three kinds of articles.
(d) (i) Kavitha’s car is red and have two broad white bands on either side.
(ii) A band of robbers entered the cave.
(e) (i) Hyderabad is the capital of Andhra Pradesh.
(ii) One requires very little capital to set up a small scale business.
(iii) That is a capital idea.
(f) (i) When she sings there is never a false note.
(ii) Please note the address down.
(g) (i) He had never even opened the letter.

(ii) All even numbers are taken together as a group.
(h) (i) All his senses are active now.
(ii) In a broad sense, you are right.
(i) (i) The ship is traveling at thirty knots.
(ii) Make a knot at the end of the rope.
(iii) There is a knot on the branch of the tree.
(iv) There is a knot of people outside the factory gate.
4. Find the adjectives for the following words by referring to dictionary:
necessity health select
stability comprehend calculate
5. Find the verbs for the following words:
belief revival conversion
acceptable consumption appreciation
6. Derive as many words as you can from the following:
nationalise comprehend collect
manage compare administer
7. Form compound words for the following words with the help of a dictionary:
Example:
hand, handbook handball, handbill
over post sea
down ice fore
8. Using your dictionary, form three phrasal verbs for each of the following verbs:
bear put bring run
break set go call
9. Write five words in which a change of pronunciation brings a change in the part of speech.
10. Write five words in which a change of pronunciation brings a change of meaning.
11. Rewrite the following compounds, showing which of these should be written as they are, which hyphenated and
which as separate words. (Refer to a Dictionary.)
pen friend; self government; supermarket; easy going; C language
cost benefit analysis; on campus programme; lock up (N); antiinflation;
coeducation; pan Indian languages
12. Using your dictionary, give the preferred spelling for each word given here:
surprize travelled
enquire manoeuvre
turquois catalogue
barbeque judgement
queazy
13. Write the past tense and past participle of each of these verbs. Use a dictionary, if necessary.
lie weave
lay dive burst bite
dream hang wake
14. Write the comparative and superlative forms of each of the following words. Refer to a dictionary if necessary.
good terrible
bad subtle
15. From which language did each of the following words originally come?
chutney tycoon juggernaut
sherbet walrus
16. In which areas of the world would you be likely to hear the following words?
sari okra peon
rickshaw purdah yoga
sarong pundit
17. Write homophones for the following words:
new meat sight sea
know son right
18. Locate, with the help of your dictionary, the difference in stress in each of the following pairs of underlined
words:
(a) (i) I am not happy about his conduct.
(ii) He does not know how to conduct himself.
(b) (i) What is the object of his visit?
(ii) Of course, I do not object of his coming here.
(c) (i) The convict was released from the jail.
(ii) The judge made up his mind to convict the accused.
(d) (i) I am content with what I have.
(ii) How did your father react to the content of your letter?
(e) (i) What do you know about the project assigned to you?
(ii) This film projects an undesirable image of our society.
19. Mark the shift in stress in the following words:
(i) advertise
advertisement
(ii) psychology
psychological
(iii) photograph
photographer
(iv) narrate
narrative
(v) observe
observation
(vi) fundamental
fundamentality
20. Copy the following foreign words while underlining those that require italics and supplying accents where
needed.
resume cliche
bon voyage sine die
sine qua non crèche
21. Find at least five words where more than one pronunciation is listed in your dictionary without a change of
meaning. Notice where the accent is placed in each of the words.
22. Consult your dictionary for the following words and find out whether your dictionary lists the oldest or the most
common meanings first in its entries. Then, write down for each word:
(a) a syllable division
(b) the pronunciation
(c) the grammatical functions and forms
(d) each word’s meaning
(e) any special uses indicated by labels
(i) assassin
(ii) secretary
(iii) astrology
(iv) grammar
(v) depreciation
(vi) manifest
(vii) toxic
(viii) plain (adj)
(ix) ceremony
(x) steal
(xi) obelisk
23. Write the plural (or plurals) of each of the following words. Refer to a dictionary if necessary.
datum medium phenomenon

oasis ox genius
criterion crisis passer-by
focus radius scarf
funguses half halo
syllabus bath alumnus = alumni, alumna
24. Identify the specific feature in pronunciation of the following words:
scherzo schizoid schizophrenia lieutenant
Chapter 9
Prepositions and
Phrasal Verbs

Use language idiomatically.
Use language precisely and naturally.
Use the correct preposition after a verb, noun and an adjective depending on the meaning.
Identify the phrasal verbs.
Know the various types of phrasal verbs.
Use the phrasal verbs effectively.
Know the separable and inseparable phrasal verbs.
Know the formation of nouns.
Convey the message clearly.
INTRODUCTION
Non-native learners of language learn it through books and so find it difficult to use prepositions and phrasal
verbs. Native speakers of the English language, however, use prepositions and phrasal verbs naturally. When
a child is exposed to a native language, it registers unconsciously the language in its brain. When the need
arises, it uses language intuitively. Since you acquire English through books, you are not acquainted with
prepositions and phrasal verbs as its native speakers are. Thus, unfamiliarity is the root cause of the difficul-
ties we face when we use English. Therefore, it is imperative that you should learn prepositions and phrasal
verbs. The importance of using prepositions can be seen from the fact that in every competitive examination
there are certain questions regarding the prepositions which are invariably asked. Phrasal verbs do not exist
in most other languages. Wrong use of phrasal verbs effect the meaning of the sentence. Thus, this chapter
deals with prepositions and phrasal verbs.
PREPOSITIONS
A preposition is a word that shows the relationship between an object and some other words in the sentence.
A preposition has an object (except when it is part of a phrasal verb such as make out), which is usually a
noun or a pronoun.
For example:
Find a reference book from the library.
In this sentence, the word ‘from’ shows the relationship between two things – ‘book’ and ‘library’. Here
it is used as a preposition. This is a simple preposition. The preposition establishes a relationship such as
time, cause, manner, space or accompaniment between its object and another part of the sentence. The simple
prepositions are: at, on, in, through, to, by, down, out, for, with, between etc. Generally, prepositions follow
verbs, nouns and adjectives and remain separate as words. Sometimes, prepositions are prefixed with verbs,
nouns, adjectives and adverbs and form new words (see Chapter 11). Very rarely, some prepositions are
attached to adverbs and form new words (see Chapter 11).
There is another category of prepositions. Here, the preposition with its object (and any modifiers) is
called a ‘prepositional phrase.’ When a group of words is used with the force of a preposition it is called a
prepositional phrase. Here are some most commonly used phrasal prepositions.
according to except for in order to
apart from for the sake of in place of
along with in addition to in spite of
away from in case of instead of
because of in comparison to on account of
by means of in course of owing to
by way of in front of with reference to
due to in lieu of with respect to
These expressions are generally idiomatic expressions.
An idiom is an expression whose meaning is peculiar to the language or differs from the individual
meanings of its elements. By Idiomatic writing we mean writing that strikes the reader as natural, smooth
and unaffected in its meaning. In English, we use many idiomatic phrases that are justified by custom and
practice rather than by logic or grammar. An idiom may be sometimes irrational, untranslatable and even
ungrammatical. Generally, native users of the English language naturally speak and write idiomatically,
though all of us, sometimes, find it hard to use the right idiomatic prepositions. Choosing just the right idiom
is largely a matter of experience. Since idioms are created out of the day-to-day living of ordinary men and
women, they are in themselves alive, potent and racy. They are truly the heart of the language. You cannot
memorise all the idioms. Idiomatic speech or writing will come naturally to you if you have grown up with
the language; if you haven’t, you have something of a problem on your hands.
This section deals with prepositional phrases, relationship expressed by prepositions, verbs followed by
prepositions, nouns followed by prepositions, adjectives followed by prepositions and some specific use of
prepositions.
Relationship Expressed by Prepositions

It needs a lot of effort to use prepositions correctly. In mastering prepositions, you probably can’t avoid
memorisation. But you can help yourself by memorising related groups.
Prepositions and Phrasal Verbs 131
Prepositions express relationship of time, place, cause and purpose, measure and value, agency and in-
strumentality, possession, manner, inference and contrast. Some are given in the following tables:
Table 9.1 Relationship of Time
Preposition Context
after → after four in the evening
at → at 5 a.m.
before → before four in the evening
behind → behind time
by → by four o’ clock
during → during the office hours
for → for the two years, for the whole day
from → from 12 to 26 August
in → in the evening
in → in August, in 2007
on → on Sunday
since → since Monday
through → lasted through the day
throughout → throughout the month
till → wait till evening
to → five minutes to four
towards → towards night
until → until he arrives
with → with the rise of the sun
within → within three hours
Table 9.2 Relationship of Place
Preposition Context
about → about the place
across → ran across the road
against → hit against the wall
at → at Hyderabad
before → before the park
behind → behind the door
below → lies below the surface
beside → bank is beside the post office
between → rock is between those houses
by → stand by the side of post office
(Contd)
(Contd)
from → this place is far from this
in → in the campus
into → fell into the pond
near → near to my house
on → on the campus
over → over the bridge
round → round the trip
through → marched through the city
to → to the end of the street
towards → towards the campus
under → under the carpet
up → climbed up the hill
upon → upon the bed
within → within the house
without → without the open place
Table 9.3 Relationship of Cause and Purpose
Preposition Context
for → worked for charity; a nice place for picnic
from → suffering from fever
through → lost money through carelessness
with → I agree with you
Table 9.4 Relationship of Measure and Value
Preposition Context
at → at interest of five percent
by → by 2 inches
Table 9.5 Relationship of Agency and Instrumentality
Preposition Context
at → sell it at a good price
by → by post, cut it with a knife by Ravi
through → got the news through the friend
with → cut it with a knife
beat with a stick
Table 9.6 Relationship of Possession
Preposition Context
of → of all the skills
with → with fair complexion lot of money
Table 9.7 Relationship of Manner
Preposition Context
by → won attention by good manners
with → work with honesty
fight with courage
Table 9.8 Relationship of Inference
Preposition Context
from → skill comes from practice
Table 9.9 Relationship of Contrast
Preposition Context
after → after all the effort he lost it
for → for all his property he is not satisfied
with → I appreciate him with all his faults
IDIOMATIC COMBINATIONS
Idiomatic combinations of verbs followed by prepositions, nouns followed by prepositions and adjectives
followed by prepositions can be confusing for both native and non-native speakers of the English language.
If you are learning English as a second language, you are justified in stumbling over its prepositions because
their combinations are based on context. These combinations are given here in a tabular form.
Verbs Followed by Prepositions
Table 9.10 Prepositional Phrases – Verb
Verbs Preposition Object of the Prepositional Phrase

abide by abide by a decision
acquit of acquit of blame
(Contd)
(Contd)
aim at aim at something
accuse of accuse someone of a crime
allot to allot room to a student
argue for/against argue for or against a point
avail (oneself) of avail oneself of an offer
arrive at arrive at a decision
arrive in arrive in a country
attend to attend to a job
bear with bear with a man’s weakness
believe in believe in something
belong to belong to someone
boast of boast of an achievement
break into break into a house
break off break off in the middle
bring down bring down prices
bring out bring out a book
bring up bring up a child
call on call on a person (visit)
call to call to a person (shout)
call out call out (summon) a person
compensate for compensate someone for loss
confer with confer with a person about something
comply with comply with one’s respect
deal with deal with a person/subject
cooperate with cooperate with others
differ with differ with a person on a subject
dispose of dispose of a thing
dispense with dispense with a person’s service
encroach on encroach on other’s right
guess at guess at something
hint at hint at something
invite to invite someone to a function
listen to listen to a person
send for send for a doctor.
Nouns Followed by Prepositions
Table 9.11 Prepositional Phrases – Nouns
Noun Preposition Object of the Prepositional Phrase

access to access to a person
access to a place
(Contd)
(Contd)
acquaintance with acquaintance with a person
affection for affection for a person
agreement with agreement with someone
aptitude for aptitude for mathematics
appetite for appetite for food
approach to approach to a problem
basis for basis for something
bearing upon bearing upon some matter
cause for cause for something
comment on comment on a statement
cure for cure for a disease
effect of effect of medicine
faith in faith in a belief
fear of fear of something
interest in interest in music
lack of lack of money
opinion on opinion on something
payment for payment for cycle
prevention of prevention of disease
provision for provision for something
punishment for punishment for a crime
relief from relief from trouble
response to response to a letter
taste for taste for something
tolerance for tolerance for something
sympathy for sympathy for a cause
surprise at surprise at something
remedy for remedy for an illness
quarrel with quarrel with someone.
Adjectives Followed by Prepositions
Table 9.12 Prepositional Phrases – Adjectives
Adjective Preposition Object of the Prepositional Phrase

accused of accused of a crime
addicted to addicted to a bad habit
angry with angry with a person
at angry at his friend’s behaviour
annoyed with annoyed with one at his conduct
(Contd)
(Contd)
annoyed at annoyed at some one’s behaviour
anxious for/about anxious about something
appropriate to appropriate to an occasion
ashamed of ashamed of something
aware of aware of danger
blind to blind to someone’s fault
boastful of boastful of something
capable of capable of doing something
careful about careful about one’s health
careful with careful with one’s work
charged with charged with a crime
preferable to preferable to something else
proficient in proficient in something
popular with popular with people
relevant to relevant to subject
related to related to someone
responsible for responsible for something
rich in rich in something
satisfied with satisfied with one’s job
skilful in skilful in doing something
slow at slow at work
worthy of worthy of something
Specific Use of Prepositions

Some words like barring, concerning, considering, regarding, respecting and a few similar words which are
present participle of verbs are used as prepositions. The word ‘touching’ is a present participle of a verb, and
is used as an adjective and a preposition. Some words end with -ing but are not present participles of verbs.
For example, the word ‘during’, though it ends with –ing, is used as a preposition. The word ‘notwithstand-
ing’ is used as an adverb and a preposition. The word ‘pending’ is used as an adjective and a preposition.
There are several words in the English language that belong to more than one class. Some words are used
sometimes as adverbs and sometimes as prepositions. If the word governs a noun or pronoun it is a preposi-
tion, otherwise it is an adverb. Here are some examples.
Table 9.13 Preposition, Adverb
Preposition Adverb
1. after = next to/following after = next, later
He left after he completed his assignment. His professor enquired soon after.
2. on = touching the top = in action.
The book lies on the table. The light is on.
(Contd)
(Contd)
3. before = earlier (than) = in advance
I came day before yesterday. I could not come before.
4. in = in =
Is he in his chamber? Has he come in?
5. off = off =
The driver jumped off the car. The screw came off.
6. about = about =
Don’t loiter in the street. Go and run about.
7. over = over =
He rules over a vast empire. Take this parcel to the post-office.
8. since = since =
I have not opened the book since yesterday. I haven’t seen him since.
PHRASAL VERBS
One or two prepositions (often called particles) attach to a root verb and thus create a new verb with a
meaning that is different from that of the simple verb. The new verb thus formed is called a ‘phrasal verb’.
It is a unique feature of the English language. These are two-word or three-word verbs. For example, in the
expression ‘put up with’, the root verb is ‘put’. The meaning of the verb ‘put’ is ‘to place something in a
certain position’. But if two prepositions ‘up’ and ‘with’ are added to it, it means ‘to tolerate’. Here is an
example.
He could not put up with the insolence of his younger brother any more.
Similarly, the root verb ‘bring’ means to carry something but ‘bring up’ would mean ‘to raise some-
thing’. The following examples illustrate this point:
He brought up the matter in the senate.
She brought up five children to be good citizens of India.
Let us analyse another example. The root verb ‘keep’ means ‘to cause to remain in a certain posi-
tion’ but ‘keep on’ means ‘to continue’. Look at the following example:
He kept on saying that he was innocent.
Thus, prepositions, when attached to a root verb, change their meanings to a great extent.
According to A.C. Baugh, the development of Phrasal Verbs is an important characteristic feature of
modern idiomatic English. They are made up of a common verb combined with a preposition. One interest-
ing feature of such combinations is “the large number of figurative and idiomatic senses in which they have
come to be used.”
Many phrasal verbs are more common in speech than in a formal, academic or business writing. For
formal writing, we prefer to use ‘examine’ or ‘inspect’ instead of ‘look over’. Some of these phrasal verbs
may be separated or may not be separated by any other words within the sentence. This section mainly
focuses on: Separable phrasal verbs within a sentence, inseparable phrasal verbs within a sentence, some
verbs and their phrasal verbs, meanings and usage, some phrasal verbs having the same meaning, use of
phrasal verbs in conversation, and formation of nouns by adding a hyphen between them.
Separable Phrasal Verbs Generally, phrasal verbs that take direct objects may be separated by the object
itself. The preposition can come before or after the object.
Example:
Kavya looked a word up in the dictionary.
Revised: Kavya looked up a word in the dictionary.
If the direct object is a pronoun, the preposition must follow the object. The pronoun separates the verb
from the particle. Read the following examples:
Kavya looked it up in a dictionary
Teachers help them out.
The separable phrasal verbs are given here:
bring up give back make up throw out

call off hand in point out try on
call up hand out put away turn out
drop off help out put back turn down
fill out leave out put off turn on
fill up look over take out turn up
give away look up take over wrap up
Inseparable Phrasal Verbs Verbs and particles that may not be separated by any other words in a sentence.
These are given here:
break down give up play around stay away

catch on go out with run across stay up
come across go over run into take care of
get along grow up run out of turn out
get up keep on speak up turn up at
give in look into speak with work for
Examples:
Faulty: children grow quickly up.
Revised: children grow up quickly.
Phrasal Verbs: Their Meanings
Table 9.14 Phrasal Verbs and their Meanings
Root Verb Phrasal Verb Meaning Sentence

Egg Egg sb on (to do sth) To urge or strongly encourage I did not want to do this project but
sb to do sth my boss kept egging me on.
Peter Peter out To decrease or fade gradually The protest campaign soon petered
before coming to an end out for lack of support.
Verb: Get: Its Phrasal Verbs and Meanings
Table 9.15 Get: Its Phrasal Verbs and Meanings
Get about/around (to be able) to move from place to

(of news, a rumour, etc) to spread from person to
person; to circulate
to have too high an opinion of oneself
Get Get (something) across (to cause something) to be communicated or under-
(to somebody) stood
Get ahead (of somebody) to progress (beyond somebody)
Get along (user in the continuous tense) to leave a place
Get on
Get along with somebody; get a To have a comfortable or friendly relationship with
long (together) somebody; to get on with somebody
Get along with something get on
Get around get about
get about/around/round
Get around somebody get round somebody
Get around something get round something
Get at somebody (infml) (usually in the continuous tenses) to criticise
somebody repeatedly
Get at somebody/something to gain access to somebody/something
to reach somebody/something
Get at something to learn, discover or find out something
(informal) (no passive; used only in the continuous
tenses and USV in questions) to suggest something
directly; to imply something
Get away to have a holiday
Verb: Break
Its Phrasal Verbs and Meanings
1. Break away:
(a) go away suddenly or abruptly
(b) give up (habits, models of thought and belief)
Example:
The prisoners broke away from the guards.
2. Break down:
(a) overthrow by force, suppress
(b) get (a door, well etc.) down by battering it
(c) collapse
(d) become disabled or useless
(e) suffer from a physical and mental weakness
(f) divide, analyse, classify
Examples:
The bride broke down
He has broken down from over work.
3. Break forth: burst out (especially of anger, indignation)
4. Break in
(a) accustom somebody to a new routine
(b) enter a building by force
Example:
Burglars had broken in while we were away.
5. Break in (up) on: disturb and/or interrupt
Example:
Don’t break in on our conversation.
6. Break into:
(a) force one’s way into (a locked building)
(b) burst suddenly into
(c) change one’s method of movement suddenly
(d) take up, occupy, undesirably
Example:
Last night thieves broken into my house, when we went to a movie.
7. Break off:
(a) stop speaking
(b) separate
(c) end abruptly
(d) pause
(e) (something) off, cause to separate
Example:
Let’s break off for half an hour and have some tea.
He broke off in the middle of a sentence.
8. Break out:
(a) escape
(b) (of fire, war, rioting, violence) start suddenly, appear
(c) show sudden violence in speech or behaviour
Example:
Several prisoners broke out of the compound of the prison.
Chicken Gunia broke out in various parts of our country.
9. Break through:
(a) make away through (enclosure, obstacle)
(b) overcome
Example:
The sun broke through the clouds.
10. Break up:
(a) smash, demolish
(b) disperse, scatter, put to flight
(c) decompose, split
(d) (of school) separate at the end of term for holidays
(e) (of persons) become weak, show signs of age or ill-health
Examples:
Break up a word into syllables.
The police broke up the meeting of terrorists.
11. Break up with:
(a) end a friendship with
(b) give up, make an end of
Example:
I advised my friend to break up with old habits.
Verb: Call
1. Call at: visit
Example:
I called at my friend at the hotel.
2. Call by: visit a place or person briefly when passing
Example:
Could you call by later.
3. Call for:
(a) ask someone to give an explanation
(b) demand
Example:
The principal called my friend for an explanation.
4. Call something forth: to make something appear, be shown, bring something out
Example:
The manager’s speech called forth an angry response from the workers.
5. Call in: drop in, send for to offer service
Example:
The technician called in and repaired the defect of our TV set.
6. Call on: visit a person, ask some one to do something
Example:
The President of India called on the scientists to contribute their research to the development of
nation.
7. Call off: cancel something, abandon something
Example:
The union leaders called off the strike.
8. Call out: call someone
Example:
She called out her son.
9. Call up: Summon for a military service, telephone somebody, bring back to memory.
Example:
The government called up the young men to join the army.
I called up my friend yesterday.
Verb: Do
1. Something/anything/nothing so as to refer to actions
Example:
Is Kavitha doing anything tomorrow evening?
2. To act or to behave
Example:
Why cannot you do that work?
3. To work at or perform an activity or a task.
Example:
I am doing research on the analysis of a word.
4. To do the housework; cleaning, washing, arranging, mending, ironing, shopping etc.
Example:
I do all my house work on Sundays.
Rachna does some writing in her spare time.
5. To learn or to study
Example:
She did Ph.D. at Birla Institute of Technology and Science.
6. To find an answer to something
Example:
Can you do crosswords?
Phrasal Verbs of ‘Do’
1. Do away with something: to stop doing or to cause something to end, to abolish
Example:
We must do away with the dowry system in Indian marriages.
2. Do away with oneself/somebody: to kill oneself/somebody
Example:
Many have tried to do away with her.
3. Do somebody/something down: to speak of somebody/something in a critical unkind way
4. Do for somebody: to clean somebody’s house
5. Do for somebody/something: (Use passive) to ruin, destroy or kill somebody/something
Example:
Unless the government provides more subsidies, the steel industry is done for.
6. Do for something: (used in questions with what) to manage to obtain
Example:
What do you do for fuel during the winter?
7. Do something for somebody/something: to improve the appearance of somebody/something
8. Do somebody/oneself in: to kill somebody/oneself to make somebody very tired.
9. Do something / in: to injure a part of the body
10. Do something out: to clean the room
11. Do somebody out of something: to prevent somebody from having something they ought to have
especially in an unfair or dishonest way.
12. Do somebody over: to attack and beat somebody severely
13. Do something over: to clean or decorate something again
14. Do something to something: (especially in questions with what) to cause something to happen to
somebody/something
15. Do up: to be fastened
16. Do oneself up: to make oneself more attractive
17. Do something up: fasten a coat, skirt etc.
18. Do with something: (used with can and to express a need or desire for something) do something with
somebody/something
19. Do without: manage in the absence of
Example:
I can do without comforts.
Verb: Run
1. Run across: meet or find by chance
Example:
I ran across one of old friends at the market.
2. Run after: try to catch
Example:
The dog was running after a cat.
3. Run (up) against:. run across or be counter to
Example:
This runs against my interest.
4. Run away: leave, try to escape
Example:
The dacoits run away before the police arrived.
5. Run away with: use up or elope; Carry off or steal; get a clear win over competitors; accept (an idea)
hasty: Come to an unfounded conclusion;
Go at a speed too high for control
Examples:
He run away with butler’s youngest daughter.
The maid ran away with my jewels.
The girl from Pilani run away with the first prize.
6. Run back over something: Look back in the mind or review the past events
7. Run something back: Rewind (film, tape, after it has been viewed)
8. Run down: Stop functioning or exhausted
Example:
The battery of my cell has rundown because it needs recharging.
9. Run somebody/something down: (especially of a vehicle): hit somebody/something or to criticise
somebody/something in an unkind way
Example:
The cyclist was run down by a big lorry.
He is always running down his wife’s cooking in public.
10. Run somebody in: arrest and take to a police station
Example:
The drunken man was run in for public disturbance.
11. Run something in: to prepare the engine of a new car for normal use by driving slowly and carefully
Example:
He is still running in his new car and does not exceed 30 miles an hour.
12. Run into somebody: meet unexpectedly
Example:
I was really delighted when I ran into my old friend in a hotel at Jaipur.
13. Run into something: collide with
Examples:
The bus got out of control and ran into a wall.
To experience difficulties/problems
To reach a specific level.
14. Run off: escape, go with or to flow away
Examples:
The man ran off with my luggage.
Her scolding run off him like water.
15. Run on: continue without break in the same line or to talk continuously
Example:
He will run on for an hour on that topic, if you do not stop him.
16. Run out: (of a period of time) come to end or exhausted
Example:
When does the lease of the house run out?
17. Run round: run over (of thought, of feeling and memories)
18. Run through something: use up (fortune etc.) by foolish and reckless spending or to examine
quickly
Example:
He soon ran through the money which he received from his parents.
19. Run to something: reach
20. Run up : gather speed by running
21. Run something up : (a) raise, hoist
22. Run up against something:
23. Run up to: amount, extend to
24. Run (up) on something: (a) of thoughts
Example:
His thoughts are always running on food.
Verb Set
1. Set about something: Start doing something or start take steps towards
Example:
I must set about my packing.
2. Set about somebody: attack
Example:
They set about each other fiercely, began to exchange blows.
3. Set something about: spread (rumors)
Example:
Who set it about that he is resigning?
4. Set somebody against somebody: cause him to complete with struggle against somebody.
5. Set one thing against another: regard it as compensation for or for balancing another
6. Set something apart/aside: put on one side for future use; disregard; (legal) reject and set a claim
aside
7. Set something back: move back; set back the hands of a clock
Example:
The house set back its years.
8. Set somebody/something back: hinder or reverse the progress of or cost
Example:
All our efforts at reform have taken a set back.
9. Set something down: put down, set down a load or to put down on paper
10. Set somebody down: (of a vehicle)
Example:
The bus stopped to set down an old lady.
11. Set somebody/oneself down as: explain or describe as
Example:
How should I set myself down in the hotel register? As a Journalist or as an author?
12. Set something down to something: attribute something to, say something is the result of
Example:
Set one’s success down to hard work.
13. Set forth: begin a journey
14. Set something forth: (formal) make known, declare
Example:
Set forth one’s political views.
15. Set in: start and seem likely to continue or (of tides, winds) begin to flow
Example:
The rainy season has set in.
16. Set off: start (a journey; race etc.)
Example:
They have set off on a journey round the world.
17. Set something off: explode a mine, fire work or mark off or make more striking by comparison or set
off against losses
Example:
This gold frame sets off your oil painting very well.
Set off a clause by a comma.
18. Set somebody off: (doing something) cause to start
Example:
Don’t set him off talking on his pet subjects.
19. Set on: (formal) go forward, advance to the attack
20. Set on somebody: attack
Example:
She was set on by a street dog.
21. Set out: begin (a journey, venture)
Example:
They set out at dawn.
22. Set out to do something: have something as an aim or intention

Example:
He set out to break the record for swimming.
23. Set something out: declare, make known or put on display, or a show or plant out.
Example:
The women set out her handicrafts in Shilpa Ram exhibition.
24. Set somebody over somebody: put him in control or command
25. Set to: begin doing something
Example:
As soon as the food was brought in the children set to eat and did not stop eating until there was
nothing left.
26. Set somebody up:
Example:
His family helped to set him up in business when he was just twenty.
Phrasal Verbs: Having Nearly the Same Meaning Sometimes some Phrasal Verbs express nearly the
same meaning. We can, however, notice subtle differences in the interpretation of the meaning. The mean-
ing of one phrasal verb is always different from that of the others in some way or the other. To explain this
process, let us take an example. The following four Phrasal Verbs are nearly the same in meaning but they
cannot be substituted for each other in all contexts.
Fade away
Die away
Die down
Peter out
Taper off
All of them approximately mean ‘to lose strength gradually’, but we cannot substitute one for the other.
We can say:
‘The noise of the train faded away in the distance’ But we cannot say: ‘The noise of the train petered
out.’
Similarly we can say:
The strike soon petered out. But we cannot say: “The strike faded away.”
Here is another set of phrasal verbs which have more or less similar meaning:
Push through
Put through
Carry through
All these Phrasal Verbs mean ‘to implement’. ‘But we cannot substitute one for the other.’ We can say:
‘We can carry through a promise.’ But we cannot say:
“We can push through a promise.”
Here is another set of phrasal verbs, which have the same meaning – ‘to continue’. We cannot, however,
replace one phrasal verb for another.
Keep on
Go on
Carry on
Rumble on
We can say: ‘The war rumbled on.’ But we cannot say: ‘The war kept on.’
We can say: ‘He carried on the business.’ But we cannot say: ‘He rumbled on the business’.
Pharsal Verbs in Oral Communication Another interesting feature is that the phrasal verbs are exten-
sively used in oral communication. Usually these verb-particle combinations convey meanings with force
and emphasis. Some phrasal verbs used in contextualised conversations are given here.
Conversation I
Table 9.16 Phrasal Verb: ‘Put off’
A : What happened?
B : Nothing.
A : Something put you off?
B : Nothing has put me off.
A : You are contradicting yourself.
B : (angrily) All right! I am put off. So What?
A : Well . . .
B : Can’t we discuss something else?
A : And that’s what I was going to say. Let’s put the matter off and discuss something else.
Conversation II
Table 9.17 Phrasal Verb: ‘Drop in’
A : Why don’t you drop in sometime? Are you too busy?

B : I dropped in on Sunday but you were out.
A : I am sorry. If you don’t mind drop in some other time.
B : Well, I’ll try.
A : Did you hear anything from Aneel?
B : I met him yesterday and he said that he had dropped in on Thursday but could not see
you.
A : (Amazed) Well It seems every one is dropping in when I’m out.
Conversation III
Table 9.18 Phrasal Verb: ‘Break out’
A : The whole country is in a chaotic situation.

B : Why? What happened?
A : In one state, violence has broken out, while in another state an epidemic has broken out,
and near by the worker’s colony a fire has broken out.
B : Oh! That is bad. By the way, I remember the situation when it broke out.
A : Oh! Let’s stop this discussion. Let’s go for a walk.
Conversation IV
Table 9.19 Phrasal Verb: ‘Break Down’
A : Can you come quickly? Everyone is in a state of panic.

B : What is wrong?
A : Oh! Everything has broken down. The computer has broken down; the xerox machine has
broken down. Even the typewriter has broken down. Oh! You will have to come by climb-
ing the stairs.
B : What happened to the lift?
A : Yea! I am afraid, it has broken down too.
Formation of Nouns
It is interesting to note that when a particle is attached to a verb, it forms a phrasal verb. It functions as a
noun if there is a hyphen between the root verb and the particle. Some examples are given here.
Table 9.20 Phrasal Verbs and Nouns
Root Verb Particle Phrasal Verb Nouns

check in check in check-in
check out check out check-out
follow up follow up follow-up
set up set up set-up
Summary
Prepositional phrase requires a particular preposition after a given verb, noun or adjective according to the meaning
intended. You cannot memorise all these prepositional phrases. There is no short cut to learn these prepositional phrases.
It needs continuous effort and practice. If you have grown with the language you can acquire prepositional phrases
naturally. Your continuous reading skill also contributes to your learning of prepositional phrases.
Usually, the verb combination conveys a force or a shade of the meaning that could not be otherwise expressed. The
verbs such as: back, blow, bring, break, call, come, fall, get, give, go, hold, lay, make, put, pull, pick, set, run, take, turn,
do etc., enter into several combinations with several distinct meanings or uses. This development of language is going
on actively. It shows no tendency to lose its vitality.
Review Questions
1. What is a preposition? Explain it.
2. What is a prepositional phrase? Discuss.
3. Can you explain the prepositions ‘on’, ‘in’, ‘at’, ‘by’ with the reference to time?
4. Can you give 10 verbs that take the preposition ‘to’?

5. Write at least 10 nouns that take the preposition ‘for’?
6. Write at least 10 adjectives that take the preposition ‘in’?
7. What are phrasal verbs? Explain.
8. Take at least five phrasal verbs not discussed here and explain it with examples.
9. Can you identify some separable and inseparable phrasal verbs other than those discussed here?
Exercises
1. Supply the idiomatic preposition in the space indicated by parentheses in each of the following:
(i) When she smiles, who can be angry ( ______ ) her?
(ii) I must differ ( _____ ) you in my interpretation of this poem.
(iii) It is obvious that the mother was concerned ( ______ ) our safety.
(iv) Surely he will profit ( _______) the advice.
(v) I agreed _______ her proposal, which had been adapted from the one I had made previously.
(vi) He is not capable _______ budgeting his own income.
(vii) Mr. Ravi said he was angry _______ him because his actions did not conform _______ those of a gentle-
man.
(viii) They did not comply _______ his request.
(ix) Children are fond _______ sweets.
2. Point out and correct the errors in the prepositional phrases in the following sentences:
(i) He was acquitted from the charges of nepotism.
(ii) There is no substitute to victory.
(iii) She is adept about misinterpreting whatever you say.
(iv) The new refrigerator is much superior than the old one.
(v) Mr. Ravi is angry with her rude behaviour.
(vi) He was driving in full speed.
(vii) He is looking out for a job.
(viii) The secret in success lies in hard work.
(ix) Do not rely with him.
(x) There are exceptions about most rules.
3. Here are some prepositional phrases. Refer to a dictionary and write the meaning of each one. Use them in
sentences so as to bring out their meaning.
enter into enter on enter upon
free from free of
join in join to join with
live at live in live on
necessity for necessity of
need for need of
object to
oblivious of
overcome by overcome with
parallel between parallel to parallel with
preferable to
reason about reason with
variance with
vary from vary in vary with
communication with communication to
4. Some prepositions can be used to express the relationship of place, time, cause and purpose. List five such
prepositions and bring out the differences.
5. Complete the sentences by providing the correct form of the verbs given here:
set done go run doing run
put bring called ran
(i) His father ____ him up in business when he was very young.
(ii) When the rescue teams returned they were completely _____ in.
(iii) He finally _____ in for the job he was telling me about.
(iv) I wish you could find another word which would ________ out your meaning clearly.
(v) If there isn’t enough food to _____ around, we’ll do without?
(vi) Don’t _______ away with the idea that he favors you just because he gave you more marks.
(vii) Was he ________ down by his boss for his misbehaviour?
(viii) I was really delighted when I _________ into my old teacher in a canteen at Jaipur.
(ix) We are _____ up the house for the Christmas party.
(x) After reaching the summit, we found that our food supply had ____ out.
6. Complete the following sentences by providing the correct adverbial particles from those given here:
(1) for (3) in (5) down (7) up
(2) forth (4) to (6) in (8) against
(i) The Government called ____ all the reserves to meet the threatened invasion.
(ii) The rebellion was finally put ______.
(iii) The children set _____ and soon polished off all the dinner.
(iv) It is my own brother, who is running ______ me for the office of the President.
(v) How will you do _______ water, while you are crossing the desert?
(vi) Go to your dentist before decay of the teeth sets _____.
(vii) Why don’t you run ____ and see your ailing friend immediately?
(viii) Is this condition set ______ in the agreement?
7. Replace the underlined word or expression by an appropriate phrasal verb with the help of root verb given:
Run.
(i) The bus got out of control and collided the wall.
(ii) Soon his plan experienced numerous problems.
(iii) If the land is cropped but not manured, it will soon become waste.
(iv) We exhausted the eatables very quickly in the party.
(v) The police were able to arrest the terrorists after a long search.
(vi) Yesterday, I met unexpectedly Kavya at the cafeteria after a long separation.
(vii) Since we are tired with work, let us take some rest.
(viii) Let us review the details of our program again to find out if something is missing.
(ix) The manager has escaped with a large amount of cash from bank.
(x) My friend soon ruined his property because of gambling.
8. Fill in each blank with an appropriate adverbial particle in the following sentences.
(i) A selfish politician will not hesitate to run ______ his own for his personal gain.
(ii) Her book has run ______ six editions.
(iii) His thoughts were always running ______ the past.
(iv) It was my surprise when I run ______ my old friend in a crowded street in Delhi.
(v) We ran ______ the thief and succeeded in catching him in ten minutes.
(vi) The dacoits ran ______ before the police arrived.
(vii) I will run ______ over the procedure again.
(viii) His health run ______ these days because of over work.
(ix) He runs ______ every good looking girl in the village.
(x) His mind is always running ______ a life of power and glory.
9. Replace the underlined word or expression by appropriate phrasal verbs with the help of root verb given:
Put
(i) They tried to save some money for their old age.
(ii) The meeting was postponed until the following day.
(iii) The rebellion was suppressed by the army.
(iv) He refused to tolerate laziness on the part of his students.
(v) I’m afraid if modesty is not real, it is assumed for the occasion.
10. Fill in the blank with an appropriate adverbial particle in each of the following sentences:
(i) He was very much put ____________ by the news.
(ii) We can put you ____________ for the weekend.
(iii) The bus stopped to put ____________ passengers.
(iv) Why should all the blame be put ____________ her?
(v) The fireman soon put ____________ the fire.
(i) They are getting _______________ with their smuggling activities.
(ii) I got __________________ my tension and worry on hearing of the safe arrival of my brother.
(iii) She is getting ____ well with her friends.
(iv) They make all possible efforts to get ____ the danger.
(v) They wanted to get ____ the imprisonment.
12. Replace the underlined word or expression by appropriate phrasal verbs with the help of root verb given:
Get
(i) They tried to escape from the police lock-up.
(ii) She recovered from her difficulties and she was now a happy mother of two children.
(iii) I have been progressing with my research work.
(iv) It is very difficult to convince him because he has no common sense.
(v) They completed the construction of the hospital building.
(i) The horse was done _________________ after the race.
(ii) This room needs doing _________________ immediately.
(iii) We cannot do _________________ the services of a secretary.
(iv) This house needs to be done _________________ and repainted.
(v) The dining room needs doing _________________ with flowers.
(vi) He goes _________________ with a nice group of boys.
(vii) I check the spelling as I go ____________ the manuscript.
(viii) They went _________________ and did not return.
(ix) What time does the school go _________________.
(x) Are you going _________________ for the three legged race?
(xi) Can’t you break _________________ from old habits?
(xii) The car broken _________________ and stopped because of a mechanical fault.
(xiii) Burglars had broken _________________ while we were away.
(xiv) He abruptly broke _________________ in the middle of a sentence.
(xv) The sun break _________________ the clouds.
(xvi) I must set _________________ my packing.
(xvii) We must set him _________________ as either a fool or a knave.
(xviii) The rainy season has set _________________ early this year.
(xix). They set _________________ at dawn.
(xx) He sets _________________ his ideas clearly in this essay.
14. In the following sentences replace the underlined word or expression by the suitable phrasal verb of the root
given in the brackets. Write the answer in the space provided for each question.
(i) If there is something that I can never tolerate, it is the corruption rampant in this society. (do) [ __ ]
(ii) I wonder what caused the sudden change in her condition.(bring) [ __ ]

(iii) You must submit your claim to the company for damages. (put) [ __ ]
(iv) It is very difficult to find out the person who spread the news that the Chief Minister is resigning. (set)
[ __ ]
(v) As the Director was out of station, the meeting was postponed. (put) [ __ ]
(vi) The whole building was blown up in flames after the powerful explosion. (go) [ __ ]
(vii) Let us disregard our personal feelings about this matter and try to solve it objectively. (set) [ __ ]
(viii) It has become a habit of the officer to severely criticise his subordinates in front of others. (do) [ __ ]
(ix) The announcement of a ten-percent raise in the salary of employees resulted in an applause from all sections
of the employees. (call) [ __ ]
(x) It was my surprise when I met by chance my old friend in a crowded street in Hyderabad. (run) [ __ ]
15. Bring out the difference in the meaning between the Phrasal Verbs in each of the following pairs by giving
suitable examples in the form of sentences.
(i) set out and bring out
(ii) call for and call forth
(iii) put back and put out
(iv) do out and do with
(v) go through and live through
(vi) set out and set up
16. Identify any phrasal verbs in the following sentences and indicate whether each is separable (s) or inseparable
(I). Then fill in the blank with the correct option for placing nouns or pronouns with verbs and particles.
(i) Indian film makers have always been eager to _____ to the public.
(a) Point out their influence
(b) Point their influence out
(c) Either a or b. ( ____;____.)
(ii) Some movies aroused such strong responses that theater owners were obliged to ________.
(a) Throw out boisterous spectators.
(b) Throw boisterous spectators out.
(c) Either a or b. ( ______; ______ )
(iii) Everyone agrees that cinema producers will ______, if only because it can fill up theaters.
(a) Keep on creating controversies.
(b) Keep creating controversy on.
(c) Either a or b. ( _____; ______ )
Chapter 10
Vocabulary Extension

Identify the finer shades of meaning with accuracy and precision.
Reduce possible errors of spellings and usage.
Learn the usage of words.
Differentiate between synonymic words.
Know the principles for the formation of antonyms.
Know the word formation methods.
Analyse the word in terms of prefix and suffix to infer the meaning of the word.
INTRODUCTION
In the modern age of rapid advancement in technology and globalisation of business, a need for a common
language is being increasingly felt. Generally, professionals use English as a common language. Therefore,
it is necessary to understand and have knowledge of English. The basic requirement for this is to acquire
a vocabulary and to learn grammatical rules. Hence, developing a wide vocabulary is an important aspect
of language study.
A good vocabulary is the result of years of serious reading, of listening to intelligent talk and of seeking
to speak and write forcefully, clearly and precisely. All this does not mean that the devices and methods of
vocabulary expansion are useless. It does, however, mean that acquiring a good vocabulary is indispensable
for acquiring a good education. The number of words we learn and are able to use will continue to be im-
portant throughout your life. Having a good vocabulary will certainly help you to succeed in your student
life and at the workplace.
At a workplace, there is a need to communicate effectively with the people around. If you have a good
vocabulary your communication will be effective. As you understand, vocabulary extension means adding
words to one’s stock of existing vocabulary or in other words, increasing one’s own word power. The most
important fact is, however, that your general knowledge or your knowledge of your specific field cannot
be impressive unless you have a considerable stock of words at your command. If you wish to convey the
finer shades of meaning with accuracy and precision it is necessary to be a master of vocabulary. There are
no short cuts to improve your vocabulary. It is not a very tough process, provided you read extensively and
get acquainted with different words and their meanings.
Extending your vocabulary helps you to differentiate between the words conveying different shades of
meaning as well as the meanings of seemingly similar words. It improves your reading skill and comprehen-
sion skill. One obvious method is to read extensively and intelligently, making use of an up-to-date dictionary
to clarify the meanings of words with which you may not be familiar. Vocabulary extension reduces possible
errors of spelling and usage. Your knowledge in vocabulary fairly reflects your interests and abilities. By
extensive reading you can grasp a word and its meaning and at the same time can learn the usage of the
word from the context in which it is used. We generally notice that vocabulary exercises usually form part
of comprehension questions in which you are required to show that you are acquainted with the meanings
of words taken from the passage by giving synonyms, antonyms or explanations. In addition to this, most
of the English language papers contain separate vocabulary questions which may be framed in a variety of
ways. To help you improve your vocabulary, a variety of exercises are given at the end of this chapter. It is
expected that if you work on these exercises you would definitely improve your word power.
In this chapter, we shall discuss some methods of improving vocabulary. These are: context clues, word
analysis, semantic changes, word-formation methods, synonyms, antonyms, one-word substitution and sum-
mary.
CONTEXT CLUES
Generally we encounter words in isolation or in context. Initially, the words in isolation, we note down the
word and its meaning and start learning it, till it registers in our brain. Once we learn it, we can improve
our vocabulary by participating in crossword puzzles and other word games. At a later stage, most of the
time a word that we read or hear is closely related with other words in the context in a phrase, a clause,
a sentence or a paragraph. The context helps you to make its meaning clear. Context clues may be of two
types: situational context and verbal context.
Situational Context
A situation itself often provides clues to the meaning of a word in a sentence. Some words have the same
spellings but have different meanings (see Annexure D). Some other words have different spellings but the
sound is the same (see Annexure D). These words are called homophones. In an oral presentation these
homophones create problems. In these situations, it is sometimes difficult to infer the meaning. Here, the
situation provides clues which often help you in deciding between two very different meanings of the same
pronunciation. For example, if you are reading about an argument, the word ‘retort’ is likely to mean a
‘ready and effective reply’. In a description of scientific experiment on the other hand, the word ‘retort’
would probably mean ‘a vessel used for distilling liquids’.
Verbal Context
The words that surround a particular word in a phrase, a clause, a sentence or a paragraph are called verbal
context of the word. Consider this sentence, for example:
Although Rachana continued to predict success, her parents were really not sanguine about her
chances.
Vocabulary Extension 155
If you are not sure of the meaning of the word ‘sanguine’, the rest of the sentence provides some important
clues. In this sentence both the statements are contradictory. After reading these contradictory statements
you may reasonably infer that ‘sanguine’ must mean hopeful. Sometimes, of course, this inference may lead
you into guessing incorrectly but most of the time you will be right.
A sentence may provide clues to the meaning of a word in many ways. Broadly speaking, there are five
kinds of verbal clues that are particularly helpful to infer the meaning of an unknown word. These are dis-
cussed here.
Using Familiar Word with Similar Meaning Some writers use a familiar word along with an unfamiliar
word to enrich the meaning. The following sentence illustrates the point:
The loud raucous laughter of the team irritated the captain.
In this sentence the unfamiliar word is ‘raucous’ and the familiar word is ‘loud’.
Even if you do not know the meaning of the word ‘raucous’ you can guess the meaning because you
know the meaning of the word ‘loud’. Hence, you can guess the meaning of the word as ‘rough voice’ or
hoarse.
Using Unfamiliar Word in Contrast Meaning Some writers use an unfamiliar word against a familiar
word. It often provides clues to infer the meaning of the unfamiliar word. In such contexts you can really
assume that the unfamiliar word is more or less opposite to the familiar word. The following sentence
demonstrates the point:
Kavitha’s point of view did not vitiate the argument but strengthened it.
In this sentence, the word ‘vitiate’ is an unfamiliar word. It is contrasted with the word ‘strengthened’.
Hence, you can reasonably infer that the word ‘vitiate’ means ‘weakened’. The sentence linker ‘but’ also
indicates that these two points are contrasting ideas. The feature of contrasting is signaled by such words as
‘but’, ‘although’ and ‘however’. In addition to contrasting words you will find other clues in the sentence
that confirm your guess.
Using Synonyms and Antonyms Sometimes the use of synonyms and antonyms in the sentence signal
the meaning. Generally, the connective ‘or’ is used to connect contrasting ideas. You cannot, however, always
assume that the connective ‘or’ signals the contrast. Sometimes two antonyms are joined and contrasted by
using the connective ‘or’. Look at the following sentence:
Rich or poor the people resented the high rising of land values in Hyderabad.
In this sentence, antonyms are useful to infer the meaning of the word ‘resented’. Here, the word ‘resented’
means ‘aggrieved by’. The other clue which helps you to infer the meaning is the phrase ‘high-rising’. In
another instance, however, two synonyms are joined by the connective ‘or’ and no contrast is indicated.
Consider the following example:
No one thought her behaviour as servile or subservient.
In this example the words ‘servile’ and ‘subservient’ mean basically the same thing. The word ‘servile’
means ‘slavish’ and ‘subservient’ means overly submissive.
Using the Definition of a Word Generally, writers provide the definition for the key word so that it
helps the reader to understand the message. Writers introduce the definition with an expression such as ‘in
other words’, that is, or ‘it means’. The definitions or an explanation in the following example is in bold
faced type and the words defined are underlined:
Example:
A word is often defined as a synonym – that is a word of similar meaning.
Using Dictionary If the context does not provide sufficient information to get the meaning of an unfa-
miliar word, refer to a dictionary. It gives the complete information of the word. The context is important
here as well. Some words have a number of different meanings. To choose the suitable meaning, you will
have to consider the context in which it occurred. With the help of a dictionary you will know the differ-
ent meanings of a word, its pronunciation, its derivations and its related forms. This process will help you
remember the word.
WORD ANALYSIS
Word analysis will enrich your vocabulary power. The general knowledge of the way the English words
form helps you to infer the meaning of the word. This knowledge cannot, however, always help you. Word
analysis helps you to understand the peculiarities of spellings of English words and the connection between
related forms of a particular word. Also, word analysis helps to analyse a word carefully in terms of various
components. In reading, you pass very quickly over words, hardly noticing more than their general shape.
This works well for words you know very well, but close examination is called for the unfamiliar words.
Word analysis helps you to interpret the meaning. So, let us know what a word is?
The moment we ask for a definition of a word, we face difficulties. Let us ask a question, “What is a
word?” Is sea-green one word or two? Does ‘sea horse’ consist of two words? Is ‘seaboard’ a single word?
If the word ‘know’ is a single word, ‘Is ‘unknowingly’ also a single word? Or, are we to explain ‘know’ in
‘unknowingly’ as a word within a word? There is no satisfactory answer to any of these questions in traditional
treatment of the subject. In order to overcome such problems we have to analyse the word linguistically.
Linguists introduced the unit ‘morpheme’ which is smaller than a word. English has many words based on
a common root form, to which different affixes are attached. Hence, it is imperative to learn some terms
such as morpheme, affixes and word roots.
Morpheme
A unit smaller than a word is a morpheme. A morpheme is a minimal meaningful unit in the grammatical
system of a language. Morphemes like ‘know, happy, play’ etc., can stand on their own as independent words.
Such morphemes are called ‘free morphemes’, on the other hand, morphemes ‘like un–, –ing, dis–, –ed, –ly,
–es’ etc. cannot stand on their own as independent words. They are always attached to a free morpheme.
We can say “He is happy” but we cannot say “He is un–”. Morphemes such as un–, –ing, dis–, –ed, –ly,
–es etc. are called bound morphemes. Thus, in the word ‘unhappy’, ‘happy’ is a free morpheme because it
can stand on its own as a word. On the other hand, there is no word like ‘–un’. It cannot stand on its own.
Hence, ‘un–’ is a bound morpheme.
Affixes
Bound morphemes such as, –es, –ed, –ly, –ing, –ly, –ex, un–, de–, dis–, etc. are called ‘affixes’. The form
to which an affix is attached is called a ‘stem’. A stem may also consist of a number of morphemes. In the
word ‘unknowingly’ for example, the affix ‘un–’ is attached to the word ‘knowingly’. In its turn, ‘knowingly’
consists of the stem ‘knowing’ and the affix ‘–ly’. The stem ‘knowing’ consists of the stem ‘know’ and the
affix ‘–ing’. Here the stem ‘know’ cannot be split further in terms of morphemes. Such a term which can-
not be split any further in terms of morphemes is called a ‘root’. A ‘root’ is the choice of a word the part
to which an affix is attached. If you remove the affixes of the given word, you will get a root. Roots have
a specific and a definite meaning other than the affixes.
This discussion can be represented by using a tree diagram as given here.
Figure 10.1 Affixes
Affixes are broadly classified as prefixes and suffixes in the English language. Let us consider the following
groups of words:
Table 10.1 Affixes
Group – A Group – B
uneasy easily
dislike liked
irregular regularly
immobile mobility
coming
illegal legally
unhappy happily
Notice that the affixes in Group A: un–, dis–, ir–, im–, il– are attached at the beginning of the word. On the
other hand, the affixes in Group B: –ly, –ed, –ty, –ing, are attached at the end of the word.
Affixes which are attached at the beginning of the word (as in group-A) are called prefixes. Those which
are attached at the end of a word (as in the group-B) are called suffixes. Thus in Group-A un–, dis–, ir–,
im–, il– are prefixes. In Group-B –ly, –ed, –ing, –ity are suffixes. Notice the spelling of the word after add-
ing the affixes. Also note that, when cited in isolation, a prefix is written with a hyphen after it, and a suffix
with a hyphen before it. This is demonstrated in the following table.
Table 10.2 Prefixes and Suffixes
Prefixes Suffixes
un– –tion
dis– –ing
de– –ly
im– –ity
ir– –es
il– –ed
In another dimension affixes are classified as ‘inflectional’ affixes and ‘derivational’ affixes. Inflectional affixes
change the form of a word. Talk, talks, talked and talking are different forms of the same word and therefore –s, –ed, and
–ing are inflectional affixes or simply ‘inflections’. Such inflectional changes made in the form of a word
serve to indicate grammatical relations such as number, gender, tense etc.
Derivation is a process of word formation. While inflectional affixes change the form of a word, derivational
affixes create new ones. Thus ‘nice’ and ‘nicely’ are two different words and therefore –ly is a derivational
affix.
‘Like’ and ‘liked’ are different forms of the same word and hence ‘–ed’ is an inflection. ‘Like’ and ‘dis-
like’ are different words and therefore ‘dis–’ is a derivation. A sample of inflectional affixes in English is
given in Table 10.3 here.
Table 10.3 Inflectional Affixes
Verb Noun Adjectives

Word Inflection Word Inflection Word Inflection
writes –s boys –s shorter –er
written –en boy’s –s braver –r
witting –ing wisest –st
walked –ed classes –es tallest –est
In English, inflectional affixes are usually suffixes. Derivational affixes may be either prefixes or suffixes.
The following tree diagram summarises the whole discussion:
Figure 10.2 Morpheme Analysis

Originally individual words, prefixes and suffixes are a group of letters attached to words or word roots to
create new words. These word additions account for much of the flexibility in English.
Many different cultures and different languages have contributed to the growth of the English vocabulary.
This feature is one of its strength. Word origin also gives you some idea about the meaning of a word. For
a second language learner, however, it is difficult to find the etymology of the word and then based on it
infer the meaning.
The following table shows some typical combinations of prefixes, suffixes and roots:
Table 10.4 Combination of Affixes and Roots
Prefix Root Suffix Example

un– happy –ness unhappiness
inter– nation –al international
dis– honest –y dishonesty
de– human –ize dehumanization
Prefixes
English has borrowed words from many languages. For example: words like pundit, loot, ghat, ghee are
from Indian languages. It has borrowed not only independent words, but also a number of word parts from
other languages and are used as affixes and roots. Some of the affixes and roots in English are from different
languages. For example, in the word ‘lathicharge’, ‘lathi’ is an Indian word and ‘charge’ is an English word.
In the word ‘burning ghat’, the word ‘burning’ is from English and ‘ghat’ is from the Indian language. The
word ‘prefix’ demonstrates its own meaning. It is made up of ‘prefix’ ‘pre–’ and a root ‘–fix’ and means
literally ‘faster before’. It is abbreviated as ‘pref’. Its meaning is a letter or group of letters added to the
front of a word to change its meaning. Prefixes generally modify and extend meanings. Recognising com-
mon prefixes can often help you decipher the meaning of words. Even if the words are unfamiliar, knowing
the meaning of a prefix may give you clue to the meaning of the words.
Prefixes are given here in three categories: prefixes of negation or opposition, prefixes of quantity and
prefixes of time and space.
Table 10.5 Prefixes of Negation or Opposition
Prefix Meaning Examples

a–, an– without, not a historical, apart
anti– against antibody, antisocial, anti-aircraft, anti-hero
contra– against contradistinction, contravene
de– from, take away from defrost, decentralisation
dis– apart, away, reversal disappear, dishonest
il–, im–, in–, ir– not illegal, immature, indistinct irreverent
mal– wrong malevolent, malpractice
mis– wrong, bad misapply, misdirect, misconduct
non– not non entity, non sense
un– not unable, unbreakable
Table 10.6 Prefixes of Quantity

bi– two bipolar, bilateral
milli– thousand millimeter, milligram
mono– one, single monotone, monologue
multi– having many of multicoloured, multifaceted
omni– all omnipresent, omnipotent
oct(o)– having eight of something octagon, octopus
poly– many polyglot, polygon
semi– half semicolon, semiconductor
tri– three tripod, trimester
uni– one unidirectional, univocal
Table 10.7 Prefixes of Time and Space

ante– before antedate
co– together co author, co operatively
ex– former ex-president, ex-convict
hyper– more, more than hyper sonic, hyper sensitive
hyp (o)– under, beneath, less than hypodermic
in–, im– in, on intake, imprint
to put somebody something into a inflame, imperil
certain state or condition
inter– between intervene, international
intra– on the inside within intravenous, international
mega– enlarge, large megabyte, megawatt
micro– tiny micrometer, microscopic
neo– recent, modern neolithic, neologism
off– at a distance from offstage, offload, offshore, off-peak
post– after postwar, postscript, post-date
pre– before prepublication, prehistory
pro– before, onward pro-government
re– again, back re-create, restate, replace
sub– under, beneath subhuman, submarine, subway
super– over, above superimpose, superstructure, superhuman
trans– across, over, beyond transport, transition
ultra– extremely, excessively ultra-modern, ultra-conservative
As a second language learner it is enough if you know the various prefixes. Prefixes have broad and general
meanings. They indicate opposition, quantity, time and space. In general, knowledge of prefixes will help
you to infer the meaning of the words and also spelling of those words.
Suffixes
Suffixes which are attached at the end of words and word roots modify and extend meanings, by altering
the grammatical function or a part of speech of the original word. There are two kinds of suffixes: those that
provide a grammatical signal of some kind but do not greatly utter the basic meaning of the word are called
‘grammatical suffixes’. The word endings of ‘–es, –s, –ed, –ing, –er, –est’ are suffixes of this kind. By add-
ing these suffixes we indicate something about number, tense and quality but we do not change the essential
meaning of the word. These are inflectional suffixes. This is best illustrated in the following tables:
Table 10.8 Grammatical Suffixes: Tense
Root word Suffix Verb form Tense

walk –s walks present
–ed walked past
–ing walking participle
bring (irregular verb) –s brings present
brought past
bringing participle
Table 10.9 Grammatical Suffixes: Adjectives
Root word Suffix Adjective form Category

big –er bigger comparative degree
–est biggest superlative degree
heavy –ex heavier comparative degree
–est heaviest superlative degree
beautiful –more more beautiful comparative degree
–most most beautiful superlative degree
Table 10.10 Grammatical Suffixes: Number
Root word Number Suffix Resulted word Number

book singular –s books plural
–es
thief singular –s thieves plural
man singular men plural
These grammatical suffixes are important in grammar but not in vocabulary extension. This analysis helps
you use the word which is grammatically correct.
The second kinds of suffixes are those that, by being added, create new words. We are more concerned
with the second kind of suffixes to improve our vocabulary. For example, by adding suffix ‘–ful’ to the word
‘thank’, we get another word ‘thankful’. The word ‘thank’ is a verb, and ‘thankful’ is an adjective. Sometimes,
addition of different suffixes converts the same word into various classes. This is clearly demonstrated in
the following table:
Table 10.11 Derivational Suffixes
Root word Part of speech Suffix Meaning of suffix Newly formed word Parts of speech
thank verb –full full of something thankful adjective
–less without thankless adverb
child noun –like similar to child like adjective
–less having to childless adjective
like verb –en cause to be liken verb
preposition –wise in the manner or direction of likewise adjective
adjective –ly having the qualities of likely adjective
–hood the state of, condition of being likelihood noun
something
–ness state of being likeness noun
free adjective –dom an action of or state of freedom noun
create verb –or one who creates creator noun
noun –ive having the nature of creative adjective
adverb –ly in the specified manner creatively adverb
adjective –ity having the nature of creativity adjective
These words change their meaning and class after the addition of suffixes. Hence they enrich the vocabulary.
Hence we can categorise suffixes as noun suffixes, verb suffixes, adjective suffixes and adverb suffixes. The
following tables illustrate these categories.
Table 10.12 Noun Suffixes
Suffix Meaning Examples

–acy, –cy state or quality of being accuracy, supremacy
–al a process or state of refusal, recital
–ance, –ence the state or quality of constancy, complacency, presidency
–ator a person or thing that performs the creator, percolator
specified action
–ary concerned with commentary
–ate a specified status or function doctorate, electorate
–dom a place or state of being freedom
–ee a person affected by an action employee, payee
–eer a person concerned with auctioneer, mountaineer
–er, –or one who does computer, philosopher, actor, governor
–ery a place something is made or happens bakery, brewery
(Contd)
(Contd)
–ry the art of or practice of the state cookery, pottery, snobbery, bravery, rivalry
or character of
–ess female lioness, actress
–ette small kitchenette, cigarette
–hood the state of, condition of being some- likelihood, childhood
thing
–ism doctrine or belief characteristic of liberalism, criticism
–ist a person believing or practicing atheist, journalist
a person concerned with physicist, violinist
a person who does the specified action dramatist, publicist
–ity quality of opacity, veracity
–ment condition of argument, payment
–ness state of being watchfulness, cleanliness
–ship position held fellowship, professorship
–ion, –ation, –ition, the action or condition of confession, hesitation competition, transition
–sion, –tion, –xion
–y, –ey the action or process of the quality of inquiry, expiry, icy, sticky
Table 10.13 Verb Suffixes

–ate cause to be concentrate, regulate
–en cause to be or become blacken, liken, sudden
–ify, –fy make or cause to be unify, terrify, amplify, purify
–ize, –ise cause to become civilize, hospitalise
Table 10.14 Adjective Suffixes

–able, –ible capable of being assumable, edible
–al pertaining to regional, political, verbal
–ate full of or showing a specified affectionate, passionate
quality
–ative doing or, tending to do illustrative, imitative, talkative
something
–en made of golden, wooden
–ary concerned with planetary, reactionary, budgetary
–er comparison softer, heavier, faster
–esque style or manner of picturesque, statuesque
(Contd)
(Contd)
–est forming superlative degrees widest, biggest
–ful having a notable quality colourful, sorrowful
–ic pertaining to poetic
–ious, –ous of or characterised by famous, nutritious
–ish having the quality of prudish, clownish
–ive having the nature of festive, creative, massive, descriptive
–less without endless, senseless
–ly having the qualities of occur- cowardly, scholarly, daily
ring at intervals of
Table 10.15 Adverb Suffixes

–ately showing a specified quality affectionately
–atively doing or tending to do quantitatively
–ally of or concerning magically, sensationally
–ly in the specified manner occurring at intervals happily, stupidly, hourly
Since the English language has been exposed to so many different languages the influences which form
the pattern of adding suffixes to form related words is often inconsistent. This inconsistence reflects in vari-
ous ways. Let us analyse some of the examples here. Things made of ‘wood’ are ‘wooden’ and ‘gold’ are
‘golden’ but things made of ‘silver are’ not ‘silveren’, and ‘stone’ are not ‘stonen’. We do have some more
irregularities. Let us take ‘–tion’ words. They have different endings in different words.
Words ending with ‘–ate’ usually have a related ending –ation. Look at the following examples:
educate → education
suffocate → suffocation
Words ending with ‘–sume’ take the sound ‘p’ when ‘–tion’ is added to them.
consume + –tion → consumption
assume + –tion → assumption
resume + –tion → resumption
presume + –tion → presumption
Words ending with ‘–ibe’ also take the sound ‘p’ when ‘–ion’ is added to them.
describe + –ion → description
prescribe + –ion → prescription
Conversely, there are many other –tion words which combine in a different way:
deduce + –ion → deduction
introduce + –ion → introduction
destroy + – ion → destruction
We have some confusion in the singular and plural number as well. Words ending in –s or –es are not always
plural words. The common examples for these are:
grits
phonetics
debris
We have some regular patterns as in the following examples:
differ → difference → differentiate
exist → existence → existentiate
We have many other examples that are not so systematic. This irregularity is one reason why it is so
important to learn related forms of new words that you can add to your vocabulary. You cannot derive the
noun form of ‘reject’ (rejection) by knowing the noun form of ‘accept’ as ‘acceptance’. You have to learn it
separately. In a sense, you do not really know a word until you know its important related forms.
Combining Forms: There are some forms which are used as combining forms. Linguistically, these forms
are bound forms. They appear generally, but not always as prefixes or suffixes.
Table 10.16 Combining Forms
Combining form Meaning Examples

1. anthropo– man anthropology
2. arch– rule archbishop
3. auto– self automobile, automatic, autography
4. bene– well beneficial
5. eu– well eulogy
6 graphic– writing graphic, biography
–graphy
7. hetero– other, different heterogeneous
8. homo– the same homophone, homogeneous
9. eco– of or relation to ecology or the ecology, eco-friendly, ecosystem
environment
10. –log, –logue word or speech monologue, dialogue
–logy i. a subject of study sociology, theology, zoology
ii. a characteristic of speech trilogy, phraseology
or writing
11. magni– great magnificent
12. mal– bad maladjustment
13. mono– one, single monotone
14. multi– many multimedia
15. macro– large macroeconomics
16. micro– very small microchip, microbiology
17. neo– new neo-classic
18. omni– all omnibus
19. phono– sound phonograph, phonology
20. poly– many polygamy, polyglot
21. pseudo– false pseudonym
22. semi– half semi-formal, semi-final
Word Roots
As the name suggests, a root is a word to which other words are attached; usually through the addition of
prefixes or suffixes. We cannot divide the root further. From the Latin root ‘–dic–’ or ‘–dict–’ which means
‘speak’ for instance, grows a whole range of words in English such as contradict, dictate, dictator, diction,
edict, predict, dictaphone and others. From the Greek root ‘–chron–’ which means ‘time’ we get the words
chronic, chronicle, chronometer, chronology and synchronise and so on. Some Latin (L) and Greek (G)
roots are given in Table 10.17. Recognising them will help you recognise the words and their meanings. It
would help you enrich your vocabulary.
Table 10.17 Word Roots
Root Origin Meaning Examples

–audi Latin to hear audience, audio
–bene– Latin good, well benevolent, benefit
–bio– Greek life biography, biosphere
–duc(t)– Latin to lead or, to make ductile, reproduce
–gen– Greek race, kind genealogy, gene
–geo– Greek earth geography, geometry
–graph– Greek to write graphic, photography
–jur–, –jus– Latin law justice, jurisdiction
–log(o)– Greek word, thought biology, logical
–luc– Latin light lucid, translucent
–manu– Latin hand manufacture, manual
–mit–, –mis– Latin to send permit, transmission
–path– Greek feel, suffer empathy, pathetic
–phil– Greek love philosopher, bibliophile
–photo– Greek light photography, telephoto
–port– Latin to carry transport, portable
psych– Greek soul psychology, psychopath
–scrib, –script– Latin to write inscribe, manuscript
–sent, –sens– Latin to feel sensation, resent
–tete– Greek far away telegraph, telepathy
–tend– Latin to stretch extend, tendency
–terr– Latin earth inter, territorial
–vac– Latin empty vacuole, evacuation
–vid––vis– Latin to see video, envision, visit
Prefixes, suffixes and combined forms have broad general meanings that remain essentially the same in dif-
ferent words. Learning and knowing the way in which prefixes, suffixes and roots combine to form words
provide insights into the history of English words and into their meanings. This word analysis can help you
infer the meaning of unfamiliar words. However, it is unwise to depend entirely on word analysis for clues
to infer the meaning of a word. It is not always easy to tell whether a particular group of letters is really a
prefix or a suffix. The ‘–er’ in a word ‘taller’ is a suffix, but the ‘–er’ in the word ‘corner’ is not a suffix.
The ‘–s’ in the word ‘pens’ is a suffix, but the ‘–s’ in ‘debris’ is not a suffix. The ‘un–’ is a prefix in the
word ‘unhappy’ but the ‘un–’ is not a prefix in the word ‘undulating’ or ‘understand’. Word analysis can
often help you to make a plausible guess at what a word may mean, but it can rarely be absolutely depended
upon. It would be misleading to suggest that the original meanings of the parts are always acutely reflected
in a modern world.
SEMANTIC CHANGES
It is a well-known fact that words gradually change their meanings. This change in meaning is called a
semantic change. It contributes to the extension of the vocabulary. It is an extremely common phenomenon
in any language. Words undergo change is a fact readily perceived and can be illustrated from any period of
the language. Differences of meaning are more readily perceived when they affect current usage. It should
be clearly recognised, however, that this tendency is universal in its application and is not confined to one
period. It is found at work in every language and at all times. This is one of the obvious reasons that word
analysis does not always work as a way of finding the meaning of a word.
There are several methods in which words change their meaning. Among the more common of these are
extension of a meaning and narrowing of a meaning. By extension of a meaning it is meant the widening of
a word’s signification until it covers much more than the idea originally conveyed. This tendency is called
generalisation. The word ‘great’, for example ‘large in size’ is the opposite of ‘small’. Today, however, it
has so many other meanings.
The opposite tendency is that sometimes a word that has had a general meaning comes to have a specific
meaning. A classic example of this is the word ‘doctor’. It meant ‘a learned man’ but now it is restricted to
a particular profession. The word ‘starve’ once meant ‘to die’. It later took on the special meaning of ‘to
die from lack of food’.
Since there are so many situations involving a semantic change, careful use of context clues or a steady
use of a dictionary is likely to give a more accurate sense of meanings.
WORD-FORMATION METHODS
In terms of the morphological structure of words, there are two methods of word formation—affixation and
compounding.
Affixation: When an affix is attached to a stem to form a new word it is called affixation. Your vocabulary
can be considerably increased by this process. We have already discussed affixes in terms of prefixes and
suffixes, combining forms and word roots. We add prefixes or suffixes or sometimes both the prefix and the
suffix to make a new word. For example, the verb ‘forgive’ may be turned into an adjective ‘unforgivable’
by adding the prefix ‘un–’ and the suffix ‘–able’. The noun ‘throne’ may be turned into the verb ‘enthrone’
by simply adding the prefix ‘en–’.
In a similar way, a verb or an adjective can be turned into a noun by the addition of suffixes such as –al,
–ure, –ery, –ance, –ment, –ity, –ion, –age, –th, –ing, –er, –ant, –ee, –ness, –or, –ive.
Table 10.18 Verb Turned into Noun
Verb Noun
use usage
waste wastage
survive survival
verb verbal
depart departure
flatter flattery
pay payee
employ employee
deposit depositor
deposition
deposit
suffer sufferance
observe observant
observance
accept acceptance
suspend suspender
permit permission
obsess obsession
suffocate suffocation
feel feeling
develop development
equip equipment
paint painter
grow growth
secure security
involve involvement
Table 10.19 Adjective Turned into Noun (–ion, –ness, –ty, –ity, –ence, –tion)
Adjective Noun
extensive extension
absolete absolescence
constructive construction
null nullity
good goodness
verbose verbosity
cruel cruelty
mental mentality
wealthy wealth
convoluted convolution
It is also possible to form verbs from nouns and adjectives by adding the prefixes ‘be–’ and ‘en–’ and then
the suffix ‘–en’.
Table 10.20 Nouns Turned into Verbs (en–, be–)
Noun Verb
joy enjoy
danger endanger
head behead
case encase
tomb entomb
throne enthrone
Table 10.21 Adjectives Turned into Verbs (with –be, en–, and –en)
Adjective Verb
rich enrich
loose loosen
sure ensure
soft soften
black blacken
short shorten
sad sadden
It is possible to form adjectives from nouns by adding the suffixes – y, – ly, – ish, – al, –ful, – some, –less,
–able, – ous, –en, – ing and – ed.
Table 10.22 Adjectives Formed from Nouns (–ful, –some, –less, –able, –ous, –en, – y, – ly,
– ish, – al, –ed)
Noun Adjective
milk milky
dirt dirty
scholar scholarly
man manly
coward cowardly
child childish
fool foolish
magic magical
verb verbal
(Contd)
(Contd)
dust dusty
hope hopeful
care careful
play playful
trouble troublesome
venture venturesome
sense senseless
shame shameless
care careless
break breakable
laugh laughable
pardon pardonable
equity equitable
courage courageous
glory glorious
envy envious
gold golden
silk silken
gift gifted
bias biased
enterprise enterprising
beam beaming
Adjectives may also be formed from verbs by adding the suffixes –en, –ed, –ing, –ent and –able.
Table 10.23 Adjectives Formed from Verbs (–ible, –less, –en, –ed, –ing, –ent, and –able)
Verb Adjective
broke broken
close closed
walk walking
depend dependent
laugh laughable
entertain entertaining
verse versed
break breakable
tire tireless
cease ceaseless
talk talkative
verify verifiable
suffice sufficient
suggest suggestible
vary varied
confuse confused
It is also possible to form adverbs from nouns by adding the prefix en–to nouns.
Table 10.24 Nouns Turned into Adverbs
Noun Adverb
suite ensuite
Table 10.25 Adjectives Formed from Adjectives
Adjectives Adjectives
black blackish
white whitish
whole wholesome
three threefold
tragic tragical
sick sickly
Table 10.26 Prepositions Prefixed with Verbs
Prepositions Verb Formation of New Words

out bid outbid
do outdo
flank outflank
class outclass
over come overcome
look overlook
flow overflow
do overdo
under go undergo
take undertake
up hold uphold
root uproot
with hold withhold
stand withstand
Table 10.27 Prepositions Prefixed with Nouns
Prepositions Nouns Formation of New Words

out break outbreak
look outlook
over coat overcoat
work overwork
view overview
night overnight
up markets upmarket
Table 10.28 Prepositions Prefixed with Adjectives
Prepositions Adjectives Formation of New Words

over fed overfed
due overdue
exposed overexposed
growing overgrowing
Table 10.29 Prepositions Prefixed with Adverbs
Prepositions Adverb Formation of New Words

over much overmuch
Very rarely are some prepositions attached to adverbs and form new words.
Table 10.30 Prepositions Suffixed with Adverbs
Adverb Prepositions Formation of New Words

after thereafter
there upon thereupon
by thereby
from therefrom
in therein
of thereof
on thereon
to thereto
with therewith
(Contd)
(Contd)
here after hereafter
by hereby
in herein
upon hereupon
with herewith
where fore wherefore
in wherein
on whereon
of whereof
by whereby
upon whereupon
ever wherever
Compounding: When two or more stems are combined to form a new word it is called compounding. The
second word of a compound may follow the first after a space or it may be linked more closely to it with a
hyphen or it may be written as a single word with no space or hyphen.
Table 10.31 Compound Words with a Space
Stem Stem Compound Word

body language body language
open book open book
book club book club
elevator operator elevator operator
Table 10.32 Compound Words with a Hyphen
Stem/Root Stem/Root Compound Word

sea green sea-green
high pitch high-pitch
walking stick walking-stick
self sufficient self-sufficient
Table 10.33 Compound Words with no Hyphen or Space
Stem/Root Stem/Root Compound Word

board room boardroom
boat man boatman
book seller bookseller
mad man madman
The analysis of compound words is given in the following Figure 10.3.
Figure 10.3 Analysis of Compound Word
Figure 10.4 Analysis of Compound Word
SYNONYMS
Word derivation by affixes, semantic change, word formation methods and other processes keep going on all
the time, making English rich in vocabulary and synonyms. Words having a similar meaning are known as
synonyms. It has been suggested that true or total synonyms are mutually interchangeable in all situations.
We can say a ‘hard task’ or a ‘difficult task’ because the words ‘hard’ and ‘difficult’ are synonyms. But there
is a strong notion that there are no total synonyms; in this sense, this would indeed seem to be a corollary
of the belief that no two words have exactly the same meaning. In this context it is worth remembering Dr.
Johnson’s words. Dr. Johnson once remarked that ‘words’ are seldom exactly synonyms. In contemporary
linguistics it has become almost axiomatic that complete synonyms do not exist. Generally, each linguistic
form has a constant and a specific meaning. If the forms are phonemically different, we suppose that their
meanings are also different. We suppose, in short, that there are no actual synonyms. While there is of course
a great deal of truth in these statements, it would be wrong to deny the possibility of complete synonyms.
One can occasionally find words which are for all intents and purposes interchangeable; it has been sug-
gested for example, that ‘almost’ and ‘nearly’ are such integral synonyms.
When we see different words we instinctively assume there must also be some difference in meaning and
in the vast majority of cases there is in fact a distinction even though it may be difficult to formulate at first.
You cannot substitute one word for another without affecting the meaning of a statement in some way. The
words ‘poor’ and ‘impoverished’ for example, may be classified as synonyms but whereas the connotation
of ‘poor’ is ‘lacking material possession’, ‘impoverished’ is derived from ‘impoverish’ which signifies that
some one has been made poor.
It would be useful if you have some skill of identifying suitable synonyms. It may be identified in a
number of ways as you will notice from the following methods.
Using Difference between Synonymic Pairs

It is often said that there are very few pairs in the English language that are interchangeable since there
are usually slight differences between synonyms. It is an interesting observation to identify the differences
between synonymic pairs. When you use synonyms in your documentation you can exercise this feature.
The following analysis will give you some idea of this feature:
One term is more general than another: refuse – reject
One term sometimes is more learned than another: edifice – building
One term is more informal than another: smidgen – particle
One term is more emotive than another: reject – decline
One term is more polite than another: decease – death
One term is more literary than another: passed away – death
One term is more colloquial than another: blow up – inflate
One of the terms belongs to child’s talk: mom, mummy-mother
Using Substitution of Words

The best method for the elimination of synonyms is substitution. It is one of the fundamental procedures
to select a suitable synonymic word. It reveals at once and whether and how far they are interchangeable
depending on the context. This method helps to enrich your vocabulary.
Using Context
Your ability to use synonymic words in the most accurate way can also be tested in a particular method.
Select synonyms in such a way as to clearly indicate the subtle difference between them. This type of a
synonym may be interchanged in some contexts but not in others. The words ‘broad’ and ‘wide’ are syn-
onyms in some of their uses. For example, ‘broad area’ of a word is the same thing at its ‘wide area’. In
other contexts, only one of the two terms can be used. We can say:
Five foot wide but not five foot broad
a broad accent but not a wide accent
a broad outline of the proposal but not a wide outline of the proposal
You can sometimes use parts of speech to differentiate synonymic words. If, for example, you are given
the words ‘decline’ and ‘reject’. Both these words belong as a verb and also a noun. The meaning of these
two words as verbs is so similar that one maybe substituted for another. The following sentences demonstrate
the point:
1. I invited her to join us, but she _________ my invitation. (declined/rejected)
2. He __________ to comment on the project. (declined/rejected)
In both these sentences the words ‘decline’ and ‘reject’ could be interchangeable. Both these words are
used as verbs which means ‘refuse’ though with a slight difference. We can use both these words as nouns
as well. If, for example, you use these two words as nouns they cannot be replaced one for the other.
Examples:
1. The number of robberies in this area is on the decline.
In this sentence, the word ‘decline’ is a noun. It cannot be replaced by the word ‘reject’. The word
‘decline’ as a noun it means ‘gradual or continuous fall’.
2. The ‘rejects’ are sold off cheaply in the market.
In this sentence the word ‘rejects’ is a noun and it means ‘spoiled or damaged goods’. Hence, in this
context, it cannot be replaced by its synonymic word ‘decline’.
Finding Antonyms
One can also distinguish between synonyms by finding their antonyms. The word ‘deep’ is more or less
synonymous with the word ‘profound’ when it means ‘sympathy’ but not when it is opposed to ‘shallow’.
Examples:
We can say deep/profound sympathy.
We can say deep water but not profound water.
The workmen dug a very deep trench for the new water-pipe.
In this sentence we cannot replace the word ‘deep’ by ‘profound’. For example, the word ‘decline’ is more
or less synonymous with the word ‘reject’ when it means the opposite of ‘accept’, but not when it is op-
posed to ‘rise’.
Arranging Synonyms in a Series

Yet another way of differentiating between synonymous is to arrange them into a series where their distinc-
tive meanings and overtones stand out by contrast. Here are some examples:
1. quick, swift, fast, nimble, fleet, rapid, speedy
2. browse, skip, study, peruse, read
3. friendly, sympathetic, generous, vivacious, modest, talented, conventional.
4. crept, crawled, strolled, sidled, inched, drifted, flitted
5. prowl, skulk, lurk, slink, sneak, sidle, creep, tiptoe.
ANTONYMS
Antonyms are words which have opposite meanings. They can be either totally different words like ‘nig-
gardly’ and ‘generous’ or may be formed by adding a prefix to the same word as in the case of ‘maculate’
and ‘immaculate’.
The antonyms of adjectives, nouns and verbs are often formed by adding a negative prefix. Some nega-
tive prefixes are un–, in–, il–, im–, ir–, non–, mis– and dis–. It is not possible to predict if a specific prefix
is affixed to a particular word to make it antonym. You must learn the correct form.
For the formation of antonyms by the use of negative prefixes, the following principles may be fol-
lowed:
(i) The prefix ‘un–’ meaning ‘not’ is attached to a large number of adjectives and past participles used as
adjectives.
Word Opposite Word Opposite

happy unhappy dramatic undramatic
even uneven usual unusual
steady unsteady equal unequal
systematic unsystematic trained untrained
controllable uncontrollable polished unpolished
(ii) The prefix ‘un–’ is also used with certain verbs to indicate opposite actions.

pack unpack fasten unfasten
done undone tie untie
do undo cover uncover
lock unlock
load unload
(iii) The prefix ‘un–’ is also attached to past participle form of verb and used as adjective and gives op-
posite meaning.
Verb Past Participle Adjective
employed unemployed
educated uneducated
explored unexplored
expurgated unexpurgated
divided undivided
(iv) The prefix ‘non–’ is used to mean not connected. It is prefixed to a word with a hyphen.
Word Opposite
technical non-technical
scientific non-scientific
vegetarian non-vegetarian
christian non-christian
profit non-profit
There is a difference between ‘non–’ and ‘un–’ as a negative prefix. The following examples illustrate
the difference clearly. The word ‘non-scientific’ means not connected with science at all whereas
‘unscientific’ means not justified as scientific.
(v) Many adjectives take the prefix ‘in–’ instead of ‘un–’ to form opposites.
Word Opposite
secure insecure
adequate inadequate
complete incomplete
dependent independent
organic inorganic
distinct indistinct
sufficient insufficient
(vi) The prefixes ‘il–’, ‘im–’, ‘ir–’ are used instead of ‘in–’ to form opposites of certain words.
il– is used before the word starting with the letter ‘l’.
im– is used before the word starting with the letter ‘b’, ‘m’, or ‘p’.
ir– is used before the word starting with the letter ‘r’.

legible illegible personal impersonal
logical illogical rational irrational
mobile immobile regular irregular
maculate immaculate correct incorrect
practical impractical
(vii) The prefix ‘un–’ is used with words ending in ‘–able’, while ‘in–’ is used with those ending in
–‘ible’.

able unable visible invisible
avoidable unavoidable corruptible incorruptible
breakable unbreakable
touchable untouchable
(viii) The prefix ‘dis–’ is usually used with verbs to indicate ‘opposite feeling’ or ‘opposite action’.

like dislike please displease
approve disapprove connect disconnect
continue discontinue satisfied dissatisfied
(ix) The prefix ‘mis–’ is used with verbs of skill when something is ‘badly’, ‘wrongly’ or ‘incorrectly’
done.
Word Opposite
use misuse
understand misunderstand
spell misspell
pronounce mispronounce
The prefix ‘un–’ gives a negative meaning. This does not mean that words starting with ‘un–’ will always
give negative meaning.
Word Opposite
understand until
undulating unstinting
undue undermine
unite
ONE WORD SUBSTITUTION

Substitution of Single Word in Place of Word Groups
Sometimes we use many words to convey an idea. If we have the competence of using a suitable vocabulary
then we can replace many words by a single word which conveys the same meaning (see annexure B).
In this type of exercise, you are given a sentence which contains a group of words. You can replace these
words by a single word which conveys the same meaning.
Look at the following sentences:
1. This machine works by itself.
Revised: This machine works automatically.
2. We have a (an) place where bees are kept on our farm.
Revised: We have an apiary on our farm.
Summary
Splendid insights on how to improve a vocabulary provide necessary guidelines for the ever-changing challenges that we
meet at the workplace. Acquiring vocabulary is a device to acquire communication skill. If you are good with vocabulary
you will be able to express effectively. Vocabulary extension helps you to differentiate the nuances of the meanings of
words. Anatole France has rightly pointed out “word carpentary is like any other kind of carpentary – you must join your
sentences smoothly”. One word or phrase substitutions, synonyms and antonyms, word formation methods and word
analysis greatly contribute to the improvement of your vocabulary. Vocabulary extension improves reading comprehen-
sion, speaking, listening, and writing skills (LSRW). It reduces spelling and usage errors.
Review Questions
1. What is a synonym? How do you identify a synonym word?
2. Can you replace one synonym by another?
If ‘yes’, give reasons.
If ‘no’, give reasons.
3. List prefixes which form antonyms after adding to a word.
4. By adding prefixes and suffixes and sometimes both to the root word we can make a new word. Discuss.
5. What is a prefix? List various prefixes by giving examples.
6. What is a suffix? List various suffixes by giving examples.
7. Discuss word analysis in detail.
8. What are the word-formation methods? Discuss in detail with examples.
Exercises
1. Compose separate sentences containing the following pairs of similar words in such a way so as to give a clear
indication of the slight difference in their meanings.
1. a) unique b) unusual
2. a) wages b) salary
3. a) work b) toil
4. a) ask b) beg
5. a) tour b) voyage
6. a) antique b) old
2. Indicate the distinction in meaning among the words in each of the following groups:
(i) quality property character attribute
(ii) neglect omit disregard ignore overlook
(iii) costly expensive valuable precious priceless
(iv) calm tranquil serene placid peaceful
(v) eager avid keen anxious
(vi) read browse skim scan peruse
(vii) mournful doleful sorrowful lugubrious grievous sad
(viii) rude rough uncouth insolent impudent churlish
(ix) walk limp stamp pad shamble
(x) silly ridiculous ludicrous preposterous absurd
(xi) unoccupied vacant vacuous void empty
(xii) abnormal odd eccentric singular anomalous
3. What are the differences in meaning in each of the following groups of words?
(i) adapt adept adopt
(ii) alley ally alloy allay
(iii) allude elude
(iv) anecdote antidote
(v) elicit illicit
(vi) concede recede
(vii) evade pervade
(viii) envelope envelop
4. Write words indicating the ‘act of’, ‘state of’ and the ‘quality of’ from the following words:
deny rebel advance discover
promote calculate disappear tense
5. Write five adjectives ending with –ed.
6. Write nouns indicating ‘doer’ from the following words;
preach profit save promote
advise sail disturb chemistry
7. Write verbs indicating ‘to make’ or ‘to perform the act of’ from the following nouns and adjectives:
captive custom character signal
modern beauty vacant code
8. Write the adjectives of the following words by adding a suffix:
humour talk cynic
irony speed graph
rest study
9. Form nouns from the following words:
grow decide wise collate intervene convene
guide enjoy generous demur prescribe stultify
enter close verify disburse proscribe intercede
10. Write verbs from the following words:
joy rich summary discussion
origin ripe liquid situation
title able head specialist
11. Write adjectives from the following words:

hair learn diagnose live
critic run dance replace
commerce consist fall mist
12. Give the opposites of the following words without adding a prefix:
present mend adore
noise release amicable
harmless eminent defend
freedom result charge
poison wild throw
fail accept dull
13. Write five adjectives ending with –ing.
14. Rewrite the following sentences changing the words in bold faced to a negative form with the use of the proper
prefixes:
1. My friend is a vegetarian.
2. The lorries were loaded at 8 a.m.
3. Is your friend a christian?
4. The writing is very distinct.
5. The battery has been connected.
15. Complete the following sentences by filling in the blank spaces with the correct form of the word given in brackets
after each sentence:
1. We waited till the –––– of the train. (depart)
2. Ravi does not pay –––––. (attend)
3. Let us have no ––––– please. (argue)
4. We have food in ––––. (abound)
5. My sister is quite a –––– lady. (please)
16. Form as many adjectives as possible from the following nouns. For example:
pity piteous, pitiable, pitiful, pitiless
Street a clean street, a dirty street, a wide street, a narrow street, a crooked street
lie, news, novel, progress, incident, room, love, time, head
17. Make as many adjectives as possible by using the preposition ‘Over’ as a base word.
18. Make as many adjectives as possible by using the adverb ‘Out’ as a base word.
19. Give the meanings of the suffixes and the prefixes in the following words. If the word does not contain a prefix or
a suffix indicate that as well.
misdirect repeat grizzled
understanding recreation
re-creation
preview undulating
20. Give five examples of adjectives formed from nouns by the addition of suffixes –en, –ish, –less and explain the
meaning of the suffixes.
21. Find three synonyms for each of the following words. Discuss the difference between your synonyms.
walk sick lax
22. Bring out the differences between the following pairs of synonyms:
(i) vapid, inane
(ii) reverent, pious
(iii) donation, gift
(iv) broad, wide
23. Write four words that contain each of the following prefixes:
im–, post–, pro–, mis–, re–, sub–, trains–, ultra–
24. Divide the following words as prefixes, suffixes and roots. Write a brief definition for each. Explain how the parts
produce the total meaning.
(i) intelligible (ii) judicious
(iii) incapable (iv) deduce (v) vociferous
25. Divide the following words into prefix and root and write them separately. Then give the meaning of the term prefix
and explain the connection between the meaning of the prefix and the present meaning of the word.
(i) impolite (ii) subordinate (iii) hypodermic
26. In each of the following sentences one word is underlined. Write that word in your notebook and write a short
definition based on the clues you find in the context. You may check your definition with a dictionary later.
(i) Since, Kavya, the Managing Director, could not attend the meeting herself, she has send a surrogate.
(ii) Subterranean temperatures are frequently higher than those above the surface of the earth.
(iii) In earlier times if a doctor found a successful cure he often regarded it as a trade secret and refused to divulge
it to others.
(iv) The salutary effect of the new drug was shown by the rapid improvement in the patient’s condition.
(v) The method of reasoning from the particular to the general inductive method has played an important note
in science since the time of Francis Bacon.
(vi) Although the risks were great, the unsatisfied employees met and formed a cabal against their manager.
27. Try to figure out the meaning of each of the following words with the help of roots discussed in this chapter. Write
a potential definition for each one, and then compare you dictionary’s definition with yours.
(i) terrestrial (iv) pathogenic
(ii) beneficent (v) praphology
(iii) audiology
28. Identify the suffixes in the following words:
(i) redden (iv) fanciful
(ii) merciless (v) barreness
(iii) liquefy (vi) satirist
29. Analyse the words in terms of prefix, suffix and root and then identify the meaning of each of the following words.
Write the meaning of each one and then compare your dictionary’s definition with yours.
(i) subterranean (v) monograph
(ii) inaudible (vi) neologism
(iii) superscript (vii) apathetic
(iv) unstinting (vii) stinting
Chapter 11
Effective Use of Words

Use words effectively.
Express an idea clearly.
Guess the meaning of the sentence by word order.
Identify vague words and write specific words.
Identify redundancy and write crisp sentences.
Use a concrete word in place of an abstract word.
Avoid clichés.
Use plain and simple words.
INTRODUCTION
Language is the most remarkable and intricate invention of humanity. It is a powerful and important device for
communication. A systematic description of the way a language works is grammar. A grammarian describes
the kinds of individual words that occur in a language, the form they take and the ways speakers and writers
put them together in meaningful combinations. If a grammarian’s description is good, these generalisations
help us understand and guide us in using a language more meaningfully and more efficiently. Language is
composed of individual words and of grammatical devices. They are put together into larger meaningful
combinations to convey the message effectively. To achieve this, we should pay attention to effective use of
words. It mainly covers: word order and effective use of words.
WORD ORDER
In English, the meaning of the sentence is determined to a large extent by word order. If we know, for
example, that modifying words and word groups in English are tied to the words they modify mostly by
position, we are likely to be more careful in our writing. We can avoid writing ambiguous sentences.
Let us analyse the following example:
Blue sky
Sky blue
If you analyse both these expressions, they mean different things. In the first expression, ‘blue’ modifies
the ‘sky’ while in the second, the ‘sky’ modifies ‘blue’. We can see the principle in action in the sentence.
Let us look at the following sentences:
The client called the lawyer a liar.
The lawyer called the client a liar.
The functional words, sometimes called grammatical words, are words such as: for, the, in, these, need-
less, later, furthermore, but, in fact, etc.
The main use of these words is to express relationships among other words. For example, compare the
following sentences:
The cook prepared a rich dinner.
The cook prepared the rich a dinner.
The word order in a sentence and the use of functional words to establish the relationship of words in a
sentence are important devices to communicate effectively.
Clarity of expression can be achieved by placing the word in a right place. To write effective sentences,
keep the ideas together that are closely related. To show relations among words we rely heavily upon a
word order. Just as a word order is the principal means by which we keep our subject-verb-object relations
clear, so it is also the principal grammatical means by which we keep many of our modifiers attached to the
words they modify. We have to be especially careful in using phrases and clauses that modify nouns, since
they normally attach to the nearest noun preceding them. Here we will discuss the position of certain words
in a sentence.
Subject-Verb-Object
Keep the relation of subject-verb-object very clear. Subject and verb; verb and object; and different parts of
the subjects should not be separated by long phrases.
Example:
Wrong: My Professor has praised my book as well as my students.
Revised: My Professor as well as my students have praised my book.
In this sentence two parts of the subject are separated: It will be effective if you bring them together.
Wrong: My friend, after an hour’s search, found the purse.
(subject and verb separated).
Revision: My friend found the purse after an hour’s search.
Position of the Preposition

A preposition is placed before a noun or pronoun to show its relation to some other word in the sentence.
Sometimes, it is placed after the word which it governs.
The preposition is always placed at the end of the sentence when its object is the relative pronoun
‘that’.
Examples:
Here is the pen that you are looking for.
This is the book that I am very fond of.
The preposition is usually placed at the end when its object is an interrogative pronoun.
Effective Use of Words 185
Examples:
What are you looking for?
Whom are you thinking of?
Position of Some Correlative Conjunctions

When the correlatives such as either-or, neither-nor, both-and, not only-but also are used, you must see that
they are placed immediately before the words which they are to relate.
Examples:
Wrong: Neither he would sing nor allow us to sing.
Revised: He would neither sing nor allow us to sing.
Wrong: He both won a medal and a scholarship.
Revised: He won both a medal and a scholarship.
Position of Modifiers or Adverbs

Adverbs should be placed as near as possible to the verbs they modify.
When the verb is intransitive, place the adverb immediately after it.
Examples:
Kavitha walks gracefully.
Kavya works hard.
They walk fast.
She speaks fluently.
When the verb is transitive with an object following, place the adverb immediately after object.
Examples:
He drew the picture nicely.
He entered the marks carefully.
He gave his reply immediately.
Adverbs of time like always, before, never, often, seldom, ever, rarely, sometimes, frequently, generally
and occasionally are placed before the verb.
Examples:
Kavitha never admitted her fault.
We always try to help him.
I sometimes feel like resigning this job.
He seldom comes to see him.
Nothing ever seems to change in this village.
When the verb consists of an auxiliary and a principal verb, the modifying adverb is placed between the
two; if there are two auxiliaries, the adverb is placed between them.
Examples:
Kavitha has always wanted to write a novel.
I should never have thought it possible.
I have not had time to look into the matter.
An adverb is placed before an adjective or another adverb which it modifies.
Examples:
He is a very competent person.
You are absolutely right.
He is rather a careless fellow.

The adverb enough comes after the adjective which it modifies.
Examples:
Rachana was foolish enough to believe her.
The Indian army is strong enough to defend the country.
She is rich enough to buy the car.
Kalpana is clever enough to understand the problem.
The adverbs only, alone, merely, almost, just and even should be placed immediately before the word
which it modifies. According to the change in the position of these adverbs, the meaning of the sentence
also changes.
Examples:
Only Kavitha helped me to buy the house.
(Only Kavitha and no one else helped me).
Kavitha only helped me to buy the house.
(Kavitha helped to buy the house, but she didn’t actually buy it for me)
Kavitha helped only me to buy the house.
(She helped me, but did not help any one else).
Kavitha helped me only to buy the house.
(She helped me to buy the house but not to do anything else).
Kavitha helped me to buy only the house.
(She helped me to buy the house, but not to buy anything else).
Adverbs must be placed before the auxiliaries like ‘have to’ and ‘used to’.
Examples:
I often have to attend communication skill classes.
Kavitha always used to sit in the garden.
I never used to visit temples.
Adverbs of place may be placed after the verb or object.
Examples:
She went there.
I searched everywhere for my book.
If more adverbs are used, the order of adverbs is: (1) adverbs of manner, (2) adverbs of place and
(3) adverbs of time.
Examples:
Rachana enjoyed well at the picnic yesterday.
I met Shanti at the theatre yesterday evening.
I expressed my feelings very clearly at the function yesterday.
When the adverbs never, hardly, scarcely, rarely and seldom are put at the beginning of a sentence, the
order of the subject and the verb is inverted, and an auxiliary is used.
Never have I seen such a horrible accident.
Seldom, did our teacher come late to class.
WORD: ITS MEANING

Generally half of our problems when we read, write and speak are because of the peculiar features of words.
The way we use words creates the other half of our problems. The common notion is that the meaning of
the word depends on not what we say about it, but what we do with it. If a word always stood for only
one thing or one idea, communication would be simple indeed. But words have a habit of acquiring many
meanings. The noun ‘board’ for example, may mean a ‘thin plank’, ‘a tablet’, ‘a table’ – food served on
it, persons sitting at the council – table, and various other meanings. Normally, only one of these fit into
a given context, but occasionally there may be some confusion in people’s minds. So when we use these
words, we have to provide a clear context. Otherwise we may be talking about one thing and our listeners
may be thinking another. People use words in a multitude of ways. Some people use words to reveal their
thoughts. Others use them to conceal their thoughts.
People may differ in their understanding of words, depending on differences in their background, their
training, their attitude, their temperament, their perception and so on. The meaning changes under the stress
of emotion or under the stress of work, or under the stress of social problems, or under the stress of sci-
ence and technology developments or under the stress of psychological problems. For example, the word
‘bureaucracy’ means one thing to members of a political party when it is used in the office and another
thing when it is used out of office. So, provide a clear context for key words in your message that may be
understood in more than one sense. In some words, a lot of importance is involved when people use terms
such as ‘radicals’, ‘liberals’, ‘realistic’ etc. Here the writer should pin them down and tell his readers exactly
in what sense he is using them. Failure to do that results in confusion and a communication gap.
Words used in exact sense should be checked and restudied with the help of a good dictionary. The fol-
lowing examples can illustrate this point:
Examples:
Proper study method will insure (not induce) good grades in college.
The diagram depicting our family descent is often compared (not referred) to a tree.
Use Simple and Plain Words Simple and plain words are usually familiar and short and communicate the
message directly and clearly to the reader. They arrest the attention of the readers. Effective writing does not
mean to exhibit your vocabulary but successfully and clearly you communicate your message to your readers.
Sometimes, instead of simple words we use complex and vague words which obscure the meaning.
Vagueness and wordiness are sometimes indistinguishable, as in the following examples. Some writers
use more words than are necessary to convey their meaning. The use of unnecessary words lends a hand to
obscure the meaning. A key word in a sentence is buried in the middle of surrounding words. These words
are usually ‘helper verbs’ or ‘unneeded prepositions’. For example, in the phrase “with the exception of”,
the key word ‘except’ is buried behind the unneeded words ‘with’, ‘the’, ‘-tion’ and ‘of’. Once we prune
away these unneeded words, the key word ‘except’ is left, making the sentence easily comprehendible. Words
ending -ion, -tion, -tian, -ance, -age, -ancy, -ency, -ent, -ence and -ology are generally noun phrases sur-
rounded by many unnecessary words. To shorten these types of sentences, identify the legitimate verb hiding
in the words, trim the ending and remove the unnecessary words and use the remaining verb in another form.
Using simple and plain words and identifying the verb and trimming it shortens the sentences add impact
to message. Words such as deal, factor, point of view, majority, proposition, in the line of thinking etc.,
are vague words.
Look at the following Examples:
From the point of view of economy of operation, the small car is superior to a big car.
Revised: A small car is more economical to operate than a big car.
Let us first find out what his idea is.
Revised: First let us find out what his idea is. (or decision or suggestion or opinion).
Table 11.1 Avoid Vague Words
Vague Words
a great deal
in the line of
point of view
majority
proposition
Table 11.2 Unnecessary Words and their Concise Version
Unnecessary Words Concise Version

make an amendment to amend
make an adjustment of adjust
thanking you in advance thank you
at a later moment later
for the purpose of discussion discuss
arrive at an agreement agree
Avoid Adverb and Adjective Clutter Generally, adjectives and adverbs that modify nouns and verbs tend
to be vague and subjective. They usually convey the judgement, opinion or impression of the writer. These
adjectives and adverbs are words of opinion. whereas an effective communication should sound objective
and not opinionated. If you want to use adjectives and adverbs for emphasis, use them sparingly and make
sure they perform the function you want them to do.
Examples:
‘This Journal is completely worthless.’
In this sentence, the adverb ‘completely’ adds emphasis to the message.
‘The new machine will probably more easy to operate.’
In this sentence, the adverb ‘probably’ indicates opinion. It weakens the message.
‘This room is big enough to accommodate my students.’
In this sentence, the adjective ‘big’ gives the meaning vaguely. It expresses an opinion and an impression
but not exact idea.
‘This room is big enough to accommodate sixty students.’
In this sentence, the adjective ‘big’ adds emphasis.
If you have a specific purpose for the use of adjectives and adverbs use them. Otherwise avoid adjectives
and adverbs and develop the habit of writing with nouns and verbs. Nouns and verbs are the most concrete
words in any message. Verbs are especially powerful since they carry the action of the sentence.
Eliminate Redundancy Eliminate the words that add nothing to the meaning of a sentence. The use of
several words where a single exact one word will suffice is wordiness. It has been called by many names
– verbosity, pleonasm, redundancy, prolixity, diffuseness, circumlocution and periphrasis to name some. To
achieve the goal of effective writing, you must ask yourself whether every word you write is contributing
to the meaning of the sentence. Analyse words in a sentence and then eliminate the unnecessary words
but retain the words necessary not only for the adequate expression of the idea, but also for the effective
communication of the idea to the reader.
Remember that simple, direct expressions are always the best and that all unnecessary words, phrases
and expressions should be ruthlessly excised. Let us analyse the following sentence:
The cricket captain, who is a Russian player, played his last game today.
In this sentence, the words ‘who is’ and ‘player’ are redundant words.
Revised: The cricket captain, a Russian, ‘played his last game today.’
Sometimes, it is difficult to recognise the redundant words in sentences. Analyse words in a sentence and
check that every word is contributing to the message of the sentence. If you find any word which is not
contributing to the meaning of the sentence, eliminate it. For instance, let us take words ‘discuss about’. To
discuss means ‘to talk about’; when you add the word ‘about’, it will become redundant.
So eliminate the word ‘about’. Sometimes paired, nouns and adjectives express the same idea and create
the problem of redundancy.
Check your own redundancy in the following tables:
Table 11.3 Paired Nouns and Adjectives Expressing the Same Idea
Abroad and foreign countries In this day and age

a distance of 4 km Period of time
Absolutely complete Point in time
Big in size Point of view
Black in colour Small in size
Bright in appearance Separate and distinct
Circle in shape Summer months
During the month of July Subject matter
Facts and figures Ultimate end
Final result Ways and means
Few in number
First and foremost
Goals and objectives
Here in this country
Table 11.4 Verbs Add-On
Add together Joined together

Add up Open up
Attach together Plan ahead
Balance against each other Repeat again
Consolidated together Refer back to
Cancel out Send out
(Contd)
(Contd)
Circulate around Still continue
Continue on Still remain
Continue to remain Start out
Connect together Still persist
Combined together Squandering recklessly
Cooperated together Try out
Completely finished
Come to a decision
Distribute out
Finish up
Finish off
First began
Gathered together
Grouped together
Loiter about
Trim Padding Words Sometimes writers use a long and a large number of unnecessary words to impress
their readers. Some writers have the habit of writing long sentences by inserting irrelevant words. When
unnecessary words are added to make a speech or an article longer is called padding. Prepositions, adverbs
and adverbial phrases are particularly apt to creep into sentences where they are not needed and they are
added to pad a speech or an article.
Example:
If you are not sure how to spell ‘recommendation’ run a spell-check to verify it.
In this sentence, the last part of the sentence is redundant and it is only padding the sentence. Trimming
redundancies and word padding will make your writing emphatic and crisp.
Revised: If you are not sure how to spell ‘recommendation’, run a spell check.
Hence, word padding also clutters and dilutes messages. Let us examine the following table which con-
tains adverb and preposition padding. Recognition of padding words itself gives solution in stripping them
from your writing.
Table 11.5 Adverb and Preposition Padding and their Revisions
Padding Words Revised Words

according to our records we find
after this is accomplished then
a large number of many
along the lines of like, as
after this has been done then
after this has been accomplished then
at all times always
at an early date soon
(Contd)
(Contd)
at a later date later
at the present time now
at this precise moment in time now
at this point in time now
a sufficient number of enough
by means of by
by reason of the fact that because
by the same token similarly
duly noted noted
during the time that while
for the reason that since, because
for the purpose of for
for ever always
if at all possible if possible
if it is assumed that if
if it should turn out that if
in most cases usually
in all cases always, all
in all other cases otherwise
inasmuch as as
in conjunction with with
in connection with about
in order to to
in order that to
in the nature of like
in the event that if
in the amount of for
in the vicinity of near
in the very near future soon
in a satisfactory manner satisfactory
in view of the foregoing circumstances because
it is apparent therefore that so
it may well be that perhaps, may be
it would thus appear that apparently, probably
it would seem that it seems
of a confidential nature confidentially
on account of the fact that since, because
on a regular basis regularly
on two separate occasions twice
with reference to about
(Contd)
(Contd)
with regard to about
with the result that so
with the exception of except
with a view towards to
whether or not whether
until such time as until, when
Trim Word Clusters Some writers put some words together as clusters. All these words convey the same
meaning. These word clusters are also redundant words. For effective writing, trim these word clusters. This
kind of redundancy in a document is like stuttering in a speech. Both detract the ideas you are presenting.
In the following table, word clusters of redundant ideas are given.
Table 11.6 Redundant Ideas
adequate enough
advance planning
advance warning
alternate choice
any and all
basic essentials
basic fundamentals
close proximity
close together
completely surrounded
conclusive proof
consensus of opinion
current status
desirable benefits
different varieties
disappear from sight
early beginnings
empty space
end result
equally as effective as
equally as well
exactly alike
few and far between
final completion
final outcome
following after
foreign imports
frank and honest exchange
free gift
future plans
(Contd)
(Contd)
future to come
group meeting
habitual custom
honest truth
important essentials
in actual fact
in two equal halves
joint partnership
main essentials
necessary requisite
new breakthrough
past experience
past history
precisely correct
previous history
puzzling in nature
regular monthly meetings
revert back
separate entities
serious crisis
surrounding circumstances
symptoms indicative of
true facts
Repeat the Same Word for Emphasis Repetition of a word, a phrase or an expression for emphasis
attracts the attention of the reader. It emphasises and reinforces the point. It is a tried and true device for se-
curing attention of the reader. It is perhaps especially appropriate in persuasion and oration. The effectiveness
of a sentence or of a series of sentences may be strengthened by repeating the same form of construction.
The famous selection from Winston Churchill clearly illustrates this point:
“We shall go on to the end, we shall fight in France, we shall fight on the seas and oceans, we shall
fight with growing confidence and growing strength in the air, we shall defend our island, whatever
the cost may be, we shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight
in the fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills; we shall never surrender, and even if, which
I do not for a moment believe, this island or a large part of it were subjugated and starving, then our
Empire beyond the seas, armed and guarded by the British Fleet, would carry on the struggle, until
in God’s good time, the New World, with all its power and might, steps forth to the rescue and the
liberation of the old.”
—Winston Churchill, Blood, Sweat and Tears.
Effective repetition is an effective way of securing emphasis.
A word carelessly repeated weakens the effectiveness of a sentence. Careless repetition is frequently as-
sociated with wordiness. This may be corrected by using synonyms, by using pronouns or by completely
rewriting the sentences. Awkward repetition makes a sentence wordy.
Example:
I have been asked to write on a subject that has been the subject of controversy among sports commenta-
tors for years. That subject as you have probably guessed is none other than the question of which is most
interesting, basketball or football.
Revised: I have been asked to write which is more interesting to watch-basketball or football.
Avoid repetition of words with the same meaning. We can replace two or more synonymic words by a
single precise word. For example, in the phrase ‘basic fundamentals’ both mean the same. It is an unneces-
sary repetition. We can retain either one of them. Be careful to avoid unnecessarily long form of words.
Table 11.7 Long Words and their Revisions
Long Word Revised Word

Irregardless Regardless
Preventative Preventive
Truthfulness and virtuousness Truth and virtue
Summarisation Summary
Preeminent Eminent
Example:
In the summarisation Dr. Rao spoke of the need for a larger library.
Revised: In summary, Dr. Rao spoke of the need for a larger library.
Use Concrete and Specific Words Word meaning varies from person to person as style differs from
person to person. The interpretation of abstract words and phrases depends on your reader’s purpose and
their experience, frame of reference.
Use of concrete and specific words instead of abstract and general ones brings preciseness to writing.
General words specify classes or groups; specific words name the individual objects, actions or qualities
which compose the group. The terms are to some extent relative - ‘furniture’ is a class of things; a ‘chair’ is
more specific than furniture, more general than an arm chair. The verb ‘walk’ is general; limp, hop, hobble,
waddle, tramp, yomp, plod, footslog, stomp, stamp padding shuffle stump and stalk are all a more specific
way of moving. The adjective ‘large’ is general; when you try to make it more specific, you find that dif-
ferent varieties of largeness are associated with different nouns.
A concrete noun names something that can be perceived through any of the senses of the general idea.
Abstract words name ideas or qualities and are more or less detached from any particular thing bearing those
qualities such as beauty, truth, devotion, civilisation, democracy, administration, discrimination, inconsistency,
loyalty etc. Note how difficult it is to visualise what each of these words stands for. Abstract words cover
broad meanings – concepts or ideas. Words that are exact or specific are concrete; those that are vague and
general are abstract. General and abstract words are not completely unacceptable words; they are necessary
for the expression of abstract qualities and general ideas.
AVOID CLICHÉS
A cliché is an expression that has been worn out by constant use, as ‘budding geniuses, ‘busy as a bee’, ‘clear
as crystal’ etc. We cannot avoid trite expression entirely, for they sometimes describe a situation accurately.
But writers who burden their language with clichés run the risk of being regarded as trite thinkers. Watch
for trite words and phrases in your writing. Whenever you discover any, replace them with new, original
ways of expressing yourself.
Table 11.8 Clichés
aching void
goes without saying
in all its glory
in the last analysis
irony of fate
drastic action
by leaps and bounds
cheered to the echo
better half
better late than never
ardent admirers
Summary
Effective use of words does not mean displaying your vocabulary but requiring a specific knowledge of the vocabulary.
For effective writing, prefer word order because change of word order brings a change of meaning. Identify and dig the
buried word and prune away the unneeded words to shorten the sentences. Avoid opinionated adjective and adverb clutters
to present the information clearly. Redundancy in writing is like stuttering in a speech; both detract the ideas you are
presenting. Needless repetition has no place in effective writing. Eliminate padding words to shorten the sentences and
to bring clarity in expression. Trim the word clusters since they convey the same meaning. To emphasise and reinforce
the point, repetition of words is effective. Misplaced words or phrases obscure the meaning. Word choice and placement
of qualifying words or phrases as close to the words they describe as possible bring a clarity to your expression and
determine the reader’s pace as they go through your material.
Review Questions
1. How does word order brings a change of meaning? Illustrate your answer with examples.
2. “The common notion is that the meaning of a word depends on not what we say about it, but what we do with it”.
Justify the statement.
3. How do you prove that the use of adverbs and adjectives tend to be vague and subjective?
4. What is redundancy? What measures do you take to avoid redundancy and make your writing effective?
5. What is meant by padding words? How do you justify that the use of padding words dilutes the message?
6. Can you differentiate between word clusters from the repetition of the word?
7. What is a cliché? Give examples.
Exercises
1. Eliminate unnecessary words from the following sentences and rewrite them so as to make it simple and
specific.
(i) I want you to take into consideration the following points.

(ii) He is interested in an occupation in the line of law.
(iii) Anita is attractive in appearance, but she is a rather selfish person.
(iv) In order to solve their curiosity, they must read the story to the end.
(v) The image of a company largely depends on its performance.
(vi) Ensure the identification of physical limitations.
(vii) Lumbering is placed in upper ten industries in India from the stand point of importance.
2. Find a single synonym to express the meaning of the following pair.
real and true

plays and poems
live and regard
costly and dear
flat and even
conscientious and honest
amazed and surprised
severe and strict
proud and vain
3. Eliminate all redundancy or tautologies from the following sentences:
(i) This book is designed to transmit to you the basic fundamentals of good English.
(ii) The analysis was thoroughly and wholly complete.
(iii) Her temperament and personality are not very pleasant.
(iv) One of the first assignments in English was to write an autobiography of self.
(v) He woke up at 6 a.m. this morning.
(vi) Teachers should provide several examples to illustrate the grammatical rules they are trying to teach.
(vii) The basic fundamental essentials of a college education are simply and briefly these.
(viii) It was consensus of opinion among the students that grades should be abandoned.
(ix) In good writing there is always a great deal of sincerity in the writer’s use of words and phrases.
(x) All the requirements of frank and honest candor made his speech popular.
Chapter 12
Effective Sentences

Identify the principles for writing effective sentences.
Identify the awkward sentences and revise them.
Write and revise sentences to bring unity and coherence in the thought process.
Identify the problems of coordination and subordination of sentence construction.
Write grammatically parallel sentences.
Emphasise on the main points.
INTRODUCTION
A sentence is a basic unit of language, a communication in words having at its core at least one indepen-
dent verb with its subject. It is a relatively complete unit, grammatically correct unit; structurally it must be
independent, capable of standing independently. A sentence may be grammatically correct, logically clear
and yet not be effective. Effective sentences do more than just observe the requirements of grammar and the
conventions of usage. Fundamentally, sentence construction reflects the thinking of the writer. They not only
give information, communicate facts and ideas but also bring together a number of facts and ideas with unity
and coherence to the more complex units of thought. A skillful writer incorporates all these features in the
basic principle of the sentence – Subject + Verb + Object. The basic pattern of the sentence is indispensable
to the functional parts of the sentence. Along with this pattern, we also use modifiers that enrich ideas with
interest, vitality and meaning. Skillful use of sentences together in carefully thought out sequence allows us
to express even more acutely the meanings we have in mind.
Unity, coherence and emphasis are the essential terms when we discuss sentence effectiveness. The rules
of an effective sentence – writing on the succeeding pages are based on these principles. The rules will
often guide you where your sentences go wrong. These principles give you a direction to avoid weak and
ineffective sentences but also guide you to construct strong and effective ones. Only through controlling
subordination, coordination, parallelism and sentence variety can we construct effective sentences that are
unified, coherent and emphatic. Effectiveness is not merely a mechanical device achieved by avoiding certain
errors. It is an active welding of our thoughts to the means that we have for expressing it. There is no way
of divorcing a sentence from the idea it expresses. The two go hand in hand. To write an effective sentence
a four stepped process is necessary.
Effective Sentence = Drafting + Analysing + Revising + Producing
Hence, rethink on the written sentence and use wisely the means the language offers for presenting it clearly
to the reader.
UNITY OF THE SENTENCES

The unity of a sentence is based on its structure. It is also based on its thought and content. There are no
hard-and-fast rules that maintain the unity of the sentence. The sentence, however, is not a formula or an
unchangeable pattern. An orderly arrangement of facts, ideas flowing into other facts or ideas and logical
progression of thought help to achieve unity and are an aid to coherence. Coherence generally depends on
a good organisation – arranging your topics and ideas in the proper sequence and linking them by logical
transitions. Thus, the sequence of elements and logical progression are especially important in organising a
sentence because they help to move the idea in a definite direction towards accomplishing its purpose.
To get unity and coherence, construct your sentence with the ideas that are closely related. Let us consider
the following:
This essay is interesting and informative, but its sentence construction is lengthy. And also it is difficult
to understand.
The first sentence of these two sentences mentions two positive points and one negative point. The second
sentence gives a negative point. If you think that these two sentences are desirable, sentence unity would be
maintained by writing all the positive points in one sentence and the negative points in the other as given
here.
Revised: This essay is interesting and informative. But its sentence construction is lengthy and difficult to
understand.
A sentence must be coherent such that the relationship of each part to every other part must be clear. In
a coherent sentence, the reader has no difficulty moving from part to part and understanding the writer’s
thought.
COORDINATION AND SUBORDINATION

Coordination and Subordination are the devices by which the writer gives different degrees of emphasis to
the different parts of his sentence. An effective sentence brings together several ideas. These ideas relate to
one another through either coordination or subordination of words. Larger constructions joined by and, but,
or and other co-ordination of words are said to be grammatically coordinated words, phrases, clauses and
whole sentences which in turn may have the same construction as well as coordinated constructions which
are grammatically coordinated are usually coordinate in meaning as well. Modifying words, phrases and
clauses, on the other hand, are grammatically subordinate. The principle illustrates that the ideas which seem
logically of equal value in meaning to be placed in coordinate grammatical form and ideas which seem to
be of a lesser importance are to be placed in a subordinate grammatical form.
Effective Sentences 199
Some sentences have two or three main ideas. These ideas are coordinate ideas. Some sentences have one
main idea which is dominant. These sentences may have supporting ideas as well. These supporting ideas
are naturally the less important ideas and so these are subordinate ideas. A majority of sentences combine
one or more ideas of equal rank with a variety of lesser ideas. Generally, effective writing requires all these
forms. Effective writing, therefore, requires the proper use of coordination and subordination. Hence, major
and minor ideas can be marshaled into clear and coherent units of thought.
While combining the clauses, if you convert one of the main clauses as a subordinate clause, the mean-
ing changes. There will be a difference in its emphasis. In many situations, the determining factor of which
ideas are to be placed in a main clause and which ideas are to be placed in a subordinate clause depends
entirely on context.
Example:
1. While Indira Gandhi was still the Prime Minister, she was shot. (Here, the writer emphasises the as-
sassination itself.)
2. When she was shot, Indira Gandhi was still the Prime Minister.
In this context, the writer makes the fact more prominent that she was still the Prime Minister.
While analysing these two sentences, there is no way of determining, aside from the context, as to
which of these versions is better.
Use Coordinate Conjunctions to Join Coordinate Ideas

Coordinate conjunctions should be used to join only words and ideas that are logically coordinate. Let us
analyse coordinate conjunctions:
1. When you add one statement to another, use the following coordinate conjunctions:
Table 12.1 Coordinate Conjunctions to Join Statements
S.No. Used to Join Statements

1. and
2. not only…. but also….
3. as well as
4. both… and….
2. When contrasting statements have to be joined together use the following coordinate conjunctions:
Table 12.2 Coordinate Conjunctions to Join Contrasting Statements
S.No. Used to Join Contrasting Statement

1. but
2. yet
3. whereas
4. nevertheless
5. while
6. though … yet
3. When two alternative facts or statements have to be joined together, use the following coordinate
conjunctions:
Table 12.3 Coordinate Conjunctions to Join Alternative Statements
S.No Used to Join Alternative Statements

1. or
2. either … or
3. nor
4. neither … nor
5. otherwise
6. else
7. still
8. neither
4. When you have to make an inference from another statement use the following coordinate conjunc-
tions:
Table 12.4 Coordinate Conjunctions to Join Inference with Another Statement
S.No Used to Join Inference with Another Statement

1. for
2. so
Avoid Using Coordinate Conjunction to Join Subordinate Ideas

Coordinating conjunctions should be used to join only words and ideas that are logically coordinate. If you
use them to join a logically subordinate idea to a main clause, the resulting sentence will be inexact, inef-
fective and poorly unified.
Examples:
1. Sometimes violent dust storms arose and then the workers sought shelter in the nearby buildings.
Revised: When violent dust storms arose, the workers sought shelter in the nearby buildings.
OR
Revised: Since the violent dust storms arose, the workers sought shelter in the nearby buildings.
2. My mother Mrs. Rao was an English Language Skills course-instructor and moved to Hyderabad from
Pilani in 1998.
Revised: My mother, Mrs. Rao, an English Language Skills course-instructor, moved to Hyderabad
from Pilani in 1998.
OR
Revised: My mother Mrs. Rao, who moved to Hyderabad from Pilani in 1998, was an English Lan-
guage Skills course-instructor.
Notice that in each of the above examples, there is more than one possible revision. In the first example,
the alternate revision indicates different kinds of relations between the subordinate and the main clause.
In the second sentence, the alternate revisions subordinate different information. All these revisions
bring more exact and unified relation to each other.
Avoid Unrelated Ideas

Sentence unity may be destroyed by the inclusion of words, phrases or clauses that have no direct bearing
on the main idea of the sentence. Proper subordination solves this problem.
Example:
1. My uncle, short temper and of breath, ninety-years-old at this time and weighing two hundred pounds,
swore angrily at the tramp.
(Hint: The swearing may be related to “temper” but not clearly to his weight and his age.)
Revision: My uncle, a short-tempered man, swore angrily at the tramp.
Avoid Overloading a Sentence

If you overload a sentence with too many details it destroys the clarity of expression. It also obscures its
unity. If the details are important, you can write them in separate sentences. If you think they are unimport-
ant, they may be omitted.
Example:
Military training teaches a person to stand up straight and walk with head up; this helps in future life be-
cause it becomes a habit and so many people have the bad habit of walking stooped and this leads to poor
health and poor appearance.
We can split the above sentence into three simple sentences as given here.
Revised
1. Military training teaches a person to stand erect and walk with his head up.
2. Good posture becomes habitual. (in the original sentence the words “This” and “it” meant posture
according to the author.)
3. It leads directly to better health and better appearance.
Use Subordinate Conjunctions

If the clause cannot stand by itself and it depends for its meaning on the other clause it is called a subordi-
nate clause. A conjunction that joins together clauses of unequal rank is called a subordinating conjunction.
A subordinating conjunction connects a noun clause or an adverb clause to some other clauses. Subordinate
conjunctions are not used to connect adjective clauses. The adjective clauses are joined to other clauses by
Relative Pronouns or Relative Adverbs.
Table 12.5 Subordinating Conjunctions
S.No. Subordinating Conjunctions Introduces Adverb Clauses

1. Since, before, after, as, when, whenever, till, one’s, now that, Adverb clause of time
as soon as, while.
2. Where, wherever, everywhere Adverb clause of place
3. As, as if, as though, in that, if Adverb clause of manner
4. Because, since, inasmuch as, that, insofar as Adverb clause of cause
5. That, in order that, so that, and lest Adverb clause of purpose
(Contd)
(Contd)
6. So that, so…that, such … that Adverb clause of Result or Con-
sequence
7. If, unless, whether, provided, that, and so long as Adverb clause of condition
8. Though, although, event if, even though, while, whereas Adverb clause of concession
9. How much, how little, how many?, as, as…as, so…as, than Adverb clause of Degree or Com-
parison.
These subordinate conjunctions are useful to connect subordinate ideas with coordinate ideas. Subordina-
tion of the sentence elements is a device which may be used to correct two types of sentence faults.
(i) Subordinating minor ideas or facts to main points or ideas.
(ii) Putting minor ideas or facts into a succession of short, choppy sentences.
Keep Minor Ideas in Subordinate Construction

Too much coordination is a sign of ineffectiveness; in thinking as well as in writing. Generally, all ideas or
facts are not of the same importance. Some are main ideas, while others are supporting ideas. Identification
of main ideas and supporting ideas helps you to write an effective sentence. Thus, using the subordinate
conjunctions puts them in the subordinate clause so that the meaning of the sentence will be clear to the
reader.
Example:
The opening to the fire place was covered by a grating and this was made of iron, and it was very
heavy.
Revised: The opening to the fire place was covered by a very heavy iron grating.
Avoid Putting the Main Idea of a Sentence in a Subordinate Construction

Depending on the context, we decide which idea to be placed in the main clause and which to be placed
in the subordinate clause. However, if you subordinate the idea what we would normally expect to be the
main idea, it is usually called “upside-down subordination”. So, upside-down subordination places the main
thought in the weaker position and the secondary thought in the stronger position in a sentence. Excessive
subordination is another type which creates confusion. It is often called “overlapping” or “tandem” subor-
dination. It usually leads to awkward sentences. It is best to avoid them.
Examples:
1. One day I was playing in the garden, when I saw a snake near the corral.
Revised: One day, as I was playing in the garden, I saw a snake near the corral.
2. The boat slipped out of the harbour, when suddenly I realised I was on my way to India.
Revised: As the boat slipped out of the harbour, I suddenly realised I was on my way to India.
EMPHASIS IN THE SENTENCE

The word “emphasis” may be understood in more than one sense. A speaker may emphasise words by using
stress on a word or words especially in order to make the meaning clear or to show importance. A writer
may emphasise words by indicating that they may be printed in italics, bold face or capitals. Generally, a
speaker uses this device of emphasis. Some writers also use these devices. But that is not the only sense in
which we use the word here. By “emphasis” we mean a rhetorical device that shows the relative importance
or prominence of ideas in a sentence or a paragraph. Emphasising the relatively important word or words
are a device for writing effective sentences. Various devices of structure may be used to show the relative
importance of ideas in a sentence. The principle used to show the relative importance of ideas in a sentence
is known as “emphasis”.
Some of these devices of ‘emphasis’ will be discussed with other qualities of effective writing in Chapter
19.
The meticulous use of coordination and subordination all contribute to this end, helping to emphasise
major ideas in relation to minor ideas. We can also use effectively the emphasis by the position of the sen-
tence elements and by repeated words, expressions and ideas.
It may be helpful to restate here the various devices we use by which the relative importance of ideas
can be shown.
Table 12.6 Emphasis Devices
S.No.
1. Repeat key words.
2. Place important words in prominent positions.
3. Place an important idea by itself in a short sentence.
4. Change the usual order of a sentence.
5. Give the important idea a fuller treatment.
6. Use periodic structure occasionally.
7. Use parallel structure.
8. Use active voice if the doer of action is important.
9. Use passive voice if you want to suppress the doer of action.
10. Place the important idea in the main clause of a complex sentence.
11. Place the main clause in the beginning of a sentence.
You can indicate the relative importance of ideas by placing them in important positions. The most
important positions in the sentence are the beginning and the end. Attention and emphasis gaining ideas
are placed either at the beginning or at the end of sentences. The less important details, modifiers and the
transitional phrases should be placed within the sentence.
No one can consistently follow this device. It is not practical as well. Many sentences are so short that
the reader can comprehend them as units. In many others, the word order is determined by the nature of the
English language. For example, we write:
1. This book is very useful.
2. They have three children.
3. I take English language skills classes.
In sentences like these the question of emphatic position cannot arise.
Whenever possible without sacrificing clarity, coherence, directness, conciseness and preciseness, place
explanatory phrases or minor details within the sentence.
Here are some examples:
1. The history of English vocabulary is the history of English civilisation, in many ways.
Suggested Revision: The history of English vocabulary is, in many ways, is the history of English
civilisation.
2. Oral presentation skill should be taught in freshman English, I think.

Suggested Revision: Oral presentation skills, I think, should be taught in freshman English.
USE PERIODIC SENTENCES

Use periodic sentences occasionally for emphasis. A periodic sentence contains the main idea at the end
of the sentence. Your reader is forced to wait for the main idea until he has comprehended the subordinate
details upon which the main idea is based. A skillful periodic sentence is therefore dramatic; it creates
emphasis and suspense.
Notice here how effective the periodic sentence is:
1. He will be a good physician, if enthusiasm is a guarantee of success.
Periodic: If enthusiasm is a guarantee of success, he will be a good physician.
Remember that an occasional use of periodic sentence is emphatic. Be careful, however, not to use the
periodic sentence frequently. Sometimes too much suspense also creates a problem. A periodic sentence is
effective only when used judiciously – when the subject matter warrants it.
EFFECTIVE REPETITION OF WORDS AND IDEAS

Use effective repetition of words, phrases and ideas to achieve emphasis. Words or ideas may be repeated
to improve the clarity and to link sentences together in a paragraph (see chapter 19).
Active or Passive Voice

Communication will be effective only if the relationship of a verb to its subject is clear. ‘Voice’ refers to the
relationship of a verb to its subject. In an active voice, the subject of the sentence does the action whereas
in passive voice, the subject of the sentence receives the action. (In an active voice, the subject is the agent
of the action. Hence, communication is direct in such sentences.)
In choosing which voice to use, be guided by whether you want to emphasise the doer or the receiver of
the action.
Active voice: The instructor explained the Technical communication to the students.
Passive voice: Students were explained the Technical communication by the instructor.
The first sentence emphasises the doer of action while the second sentence emphasises on the receiver.
Do not, however, think that the active voice is always more effective. Even though less emphatic, the passive
voice has legitimate uses. The principal situations in which it is most natural and useful are:
1. When the subject is not known.
The sales volume has been increased.
In this sentence, the writer does not know who increased the sales volume.
2. To emphasise the receiver of action.
When the receiver of the action is more important than the doer of the action, we use passive
voice.
The flyover was completed in March.
In such a sentence, we have little interest in who completed the flyover.
3. To soften commands.
Passive voice: The course should be revised.
Active voice: Revise the course.
4. To sound more courteous.

Passive voice: Columns 6 and 4 were added incorrectly.
Active voice: You failed to add columns 6 and 4 correctly.
5. To sound less accusatory.
Passive voice: I have not been informed.
Active voice: None of you have informed me yet.
Thus, the ability to use passive voice, then adds flexibility to your writing and you should use it when
appropriate. Unless you have one of these specific reasons for using the passive voice, prefer active voice
to make your writing direct, clear and concise.
Dangling Constructions
A dangling construction is a phrase or clause that modifies nothing in the sentence. Sometimes, it seems
to modify a word to which it is not logically related. A dangling construction is most often the result of a
slovenly way of writing or thinking. Instead of dangling, it actually attaches itself too easily to the wrong
word. Hence, it creates confusion and sometimes humour. It calls attention to itself and gives a meaning
different from the intended meaning of the sentence. It is also known as “misrelated modifier”.
Here are some examples of danglers:
1. While going to the college, the purse got lost.
Revised: While I was going to the college, the purse got lost.
OR
Revised: While going to the college, I lost my purse.
2. Driving along the Hi-tech city on the way to my home, the Shilparamam could be seen.
Revised: Driving along the Hi-tech city on the way to my home, we saw the Shilparamam.
In each of these sentences, the phrase dangles because it is not attached where it should be or is misrelated
because it attaches itself where it should not. Each sentence is ineffective in these two sentences.
A dangler may be corrected in two ways: (i) by making the modifier apply clearly to the word it modifies
or (ii) by expanding the dangling phrase into a subordinate clause.
Before we illustrate the various types of ‘dangling’ or ‘misrelated’ modifiers, let us consider some special
situations.
Usually, an absolute phrase does not dangle. In an absolute phrase, the word that the participle attaches
itself to is in the phrase itself.
Examples:
1. The guests having arrived, my parents went to the door to invite them.
2. The semester work being over, the students went home for vacation.
In some sentences, certain idiomatic phrases are acceptable. Especially, the phrases that express a general
action and those that serve as directive and transitional links, are always acceptable. These phrases are
“Looking at it from another point of view”, “generally speaking”, ‘broadly speaking’, ‘taking everything
into consideration’, ‘providing that’, ‘failing……,’ and such similar phrases.
Examples:
1. Broadly speaking the words are classified into two categories namely, content words and structural
words.
2. We shall now discuss the objectionable verbal phrases. As a general principle, objectionable verbal
phrases and awkward dangling modifiers should be avoided.
Avoid Dangling Participle A participle does not make any assertion but it does imply the doer of the
action. The participle should be related to the subject of the main clause as shown in the following examples.
Failure to identify this doer of action creates to a misleading of the semantic aspect of the sentence.
1. Dangling: Driving through the hills, several tigers were seen.
(The participle driving modifies nothing, although it seems to modify tigers, to which it is not logically
related).
Revised: Driving through the hills, we saw several tigers. (Driving clearly modifies ‘we’, the subject
of the main clause).
OR
Revised: When we drove through the hills, we saw several tigers.
(The modifying phrase is expanded into a subordinate clause).
2. Dangling: Driving my car, a thief chased me.
(Driving modifies nothing; it cannot logically modify a thief).
Revised: Driving my car, I was chased by a thief. (Driving clearly modifies ‘I’, the subject of the main
clause).
OR
Revised: While I was driving my car, a thief chased me.
(The modifying phrase is expanded into a subordinate clause.)
Avoid Dangling Gerunds A gerund is a word ending with ‘–ing’ and has the force of a noun and a
verb. It is also known as a verbal noun. Like the participle, the gerund implies the doer of action. You must
identify the doer of action clearly in order to avoid confusion in the meaning.
Dangling: After explaining the concept in the class, students began to apply the concept.
Revised: After explaining the concept in the class, I noticed that students began to apply the concept. (Clearly
refers to ‘I’, the subject of the main clause.)
Dangling: Before exploring the forest, our water supply was replenished. (Exploring cannot logically refer
to supply, the subject of the main clause.)
Revised: Before exploring the forest, we replenished our water supply. (Exploring refers to ‘we’, the subject
of the main clause.)
Avoid Dangling Infinitives A word which is not limited by the person or number of the subject is known
as an “infinitive”. It is used without any change, whatever is the subject of the sentence.
Examples:
Dangling: To write effectively, practice is necessary.
(‘To write’ cannot logically refer to ‘practice’, the subject of the main clause).
Revised: To write effectively, one must practice. (‘To write’ logically refers to one, the subject of the main
clause).
OR
Revised: If one wishes to write effectively, one (he or she) must practice.
Avoid Dangling Elliptical Clauses In an elliptical clause, the subject is implied or understood rather
than stated. The clause dangles if its implied subject is not the same as the subject of the main clause. To
write effectively, eliminate the dangling elliptical clause by (i) making the dangling clause agree with the
subject of the main clause or (ii) supplying the omitted subject or verb.
Examples:
1. When nine years of age, my father took the family to America.
(Who was nine years of age?).
Revised: When I was nine-years-old, my father took the family to America.
2. When a baby, my grandmother, gave me a silver cup.
Revised: When a baby, I was given a silver cup by my grandmother.
Here, the subject of the main clause agrees with the implied subject of the elliptical clause.
OR
Revised: When I was a baby, my grandmother gave me a silver cup.
Here, the omitted subject and verb are supplied in the elliptical clause.
PARALLEL STRUCTURES
Express parallel ideas in a parallel form. Parallel structures put parallel ideas into the same kinds of gram-
matical constructions. When you have two or more similar ideas to express, try to use a ‘parallel structure’;
that is use of the same grammatical pattern. If one idea in a sentence is expressed by a phrase, other similar
ideas should also be expressed by phrases. If one idea is expressed by an infinitive, a gerund or a clause, other
similar ideas should be expressed by the same grammatical constructions. Parallelism helps make sentences
grammatically clear and easy to understand. It is also an important technique for organising sentences or
groups of sentences, so as to emphasise the close relation in thought. Thus, similar ideas or elements in a
sentence should be phrased in a similar structural or grammatical form.
For example, when we are trying to get our ideas together which are necessary for good writing, we write
the first draft as given here.
Logical thinking is necessary for good writing. Good writers also have to organise their ideas coherently.
And finally, anyone who wants to write effectively must express his ideas clearly and directly.
If we look at these sentences closely, we can understand that thinking, organising and expressing are
the main related points we are talking about. Parallel grammatical structure can help us bring these ideas
together. It brings unity and coherence of thought process.
Compare the following single sentences with our original three sentences:
Revised: Thinking logically, organising ideas coherently and expressing ideas clearly and directly are the
three requirements of a good writing.
OR
Revised: Logical thought, coherent organisation and clear and direct expression are the important ingredients
of a good writing.
OR
Revised: Anyone who wishes to write well must learn to think logically, to organise ideas coherently and
to express them clearly and directly.
The judicious use of parallelism can be an aid to write effective sentences.
Avoid Faulty Parallelism with “and who,” “and which”

“And which”, “and who” clauses in a sentence should have a preceding “which” or “who” clause. So, do
not use an “and who” or an “and which” clause in a sentence unless you have already used a parallel ‘who’
or ‘which’ clause.
Look at the following examples:

1. We met Madhavi, a brilliant mathematician and who is also an excellent pianist.
Revised: We met Madhavi, who is a brilliant mathematician and who is also an excellent pianist.
OR
Revised: We met Madhavi, who is both a brilliant mathematician and an excellent pianist.
2. He is a man of wide experience and who is also very popular among students.
Suggested Revision: He is a man of wide experience and of great popularity among students.
3. I am interested in business communication, because it is a new field and which offers interesting op-
portunities to develop communication skill.
Revised: I am interested in business communication which is a new field and which offers interesting
opportunities to develop communication skills.
Use Parallel Construction after Correlatives

Some of the correlatives are not only – but also; either-or; neither-nor; both-and; whether-or. Parallel forms
may be used with these correlative conjunctions. Care should be taken in placing these correlatives so that
the intended meaning of the sentence is not obscured. Here are some examples:
1. Anitha not only has been outstanding in athletics, but also in her studies.
(A verb made parallel with a preposition).
Revised: Anitha has been outstanding not only in athletics, but also in her studies. (two parallel
phrases)
2. Ravi neither would play nor allow us to play.
Revised: Ravi would neither play nor allow us to play.
3. Anitha both won a medal and a scholarship.
Revised: Anitha won both a medal and a scholarship.
4. Not only we discussed with the instructor, but also with the principal.
Revised: We have discussed this/that not only with instructor, but also with the principal.
When the correlatives ‘whether-or’ are used, ‘or’ is often followed by ‘not’. In such sentences of course,
a parallel construction is unnecessary.
Example:
I wondered whether he would or not.
Summary
Long sentences, misplaced words, confused construction of sentences makes the reader decode the structure of sentences
and decode words rather than understand your ideas. Framing a sentence without the attention to unity and coherence,
natural emphasis, proper placement of phrases and clauses may mislead your readers about your intended message and
its implication.
Basically two factors determine how precise, simple and easy or how difficult, confused and convoluted your writ-
ing is to read. They are: (i) complexity of your words and (ii) complexity of your sentences. A sentence should be as
long or as short as necessary to serve your purpose. But sentence length, emphasising technique and the pattern set the
reader’s pace through your information. Clear writing always demands clear thinking. Charity in expression rather than
gobbledy gook is a true mark of your writing. Your aim must be to make your writing easy and not difficult to read.
Where you place a word in a sentence, where you place a clause in a sentence, where you place an idea in a sentence
and where you place a sentence in a paragraph controls the reader’s attention and guides the readers what they “pick
up on”.
In summary when you are writing, consider the readability. Use suitable words, phrases or clauses and join them
logically to indicate their relationship with each other. Place key ideas in the proper place. Place modifiers as close as
possible to the noun or the pronoun they describe. Use a consistent view point. The best way to check your sentence is
to ask a question to yourself: Is it clear to others?
Review Questions
1. What is unity and coherence in a sentence? Explain with examples.
2. What is coordination and subordination of ideas? Why do you use them?
3. Explain coordinate and subordinate conjunctions with examples.
4. What is meant by emphasis in the sentence? Discuss with examples.
5. Discuss dangling constructions in detail.
6. What is meant by parallel grammatical structure?
7. “A sentence may be grammatically correct, logically clear and yet not be effective.” Discuss.
8. What guidelines can you give for writing effective sentences?
Exercises
I. Revise and rewrite the following sentences as per instructions.
Reorganise and rewrite the following sentences. Discard details that are not related to.
1. I closed my eyes, trying to visualise a familiar scene, just as I had once seen a man do in a TV, and when I opened
my eyes everything snapped into place because I recognised a familiar tree through the falling snow.
2. Military science teaches common courtesies, not only to your superior officers but to everyone to whom courtesy
is due; for instance, when you enter office, or the courtesies you should use when you are using fire arms while
hunting or shooting in the presence of another person.
3. Grasshoppers for instance, have a keen sense of hearing, and this is centered in their front knees.
4. In the second semester of my graduation, the teacher thought that we needed more practice in acquiring English
language skills, which was the same course we had the previous semester, but in my senior year we did not have
any English course but instead spent two semesters studying Business Communication and Report Writing.
In each of the following sentences change one of the main clauses to a subordinate clause:
5. My new boss started his career as an office boy, and he believes in hard work. (use an adjective clause).
6. It was evening and he didn’t type the letter. (use an adverb clause).
7. Hard work makes up for the lack of education. It is his firm belief. (use noun clause).
8. Anitha is a Professor. She lives in Hyderabad. It is a green city.(use a noun clause or a phrase in opposition).
9. I started to type the first letter; this should have been the easiest part of my work. (use an adjective clause with
which).
10. I have some letters. I must type them today. (use infinitive).
11. ‘Business Communication and Report Writing’ is a best-selling book. You must read it. (use an adjective clause).
12. You finish writing the letter. I shall wait for you. (use an adverb clause).
Subordinate what seems to be of secondary importance, and divide if you cannot subordinate.
13. When I was a little girl, I did not care for movies, but as I grew into high school age I began to go every week and
now that I am out of high-school. I do not go so often and I am more particular about the quality of the movies
that I see.
14. The humming bird is small and frail, but it travels vast distances.
15. There are many kinds of birds that winter in our backyard, and among them is the Peacock.
16. Her teacher in English Language Skills, had impressed upon her the importance of three virtues, these were: neat-
ness, speed and efficiency.
Point out the misplaced element in each of the following sentences. Correct each sentence to make it more effec-
tive. Do not use punctuation as a means of correcting an error.
17. There is a telephone at the end of the counter which is constantly in use.
18. Because we covered more ground with a tractor in six days we finished ploughing the field.
19. Their activity and progress in recent years have surprised the world.
20. Ten years ago, girls used to come to school where I was Principal without any stockings on.
21. Wood can be kept for a long time without danger of rotting in the woodshed or the basement.
22. Freshman English courses are taught by instructors who are required to have at least a master’s degree in most
colleges.
23. The explorers had, after many adventures and much suffering, reached the headwaters of the Krishna River. (Verb:
‘had reached’ separated by long phrase)
24. Every girl was really sorry to have the trip end for more reasons than one.
25. A crowd gathers to sorrowfully gaze upon the destruction of the magnificent structure.
26. Justice Anil, in a brilliantly written interpretation of the Tenth Amendment, dissented. (Subject and verb split by a
long phrase)
Using the principle of “emphasis by position”, improve the following sentences:
27. Sometimes incorrect spelling and unconventional punctuation distract a reader from otherwise a good writing.
28. The results of the flood were disastrous by and large.
29. Duty is what we expect from others, as someone has said.
30. Research results prove that smoking seriously impairs the health, in many cases.
31. The lawyer shirked his responsibility and the Judge was biased, it seems to me.
32. The sky was clear, the sun was shining, it was a good day for picnic, in my opinion.
Change the following sentences to periodic sentences:
33. Stop talking if you have nothing more to say.
34. The catalytic agents of college life are athletics, forensics, musical organisations, journalism, parties, and dances.
35. The sun’s heat rays pass light through the air at the top of a mountain because the air at such altitudes is very
thin.
36. He started a new business and earned enormously after his business failed.
37. Your research paper will be accepted, after you have finished typing it, the footnotes and bibliography are in proper
order.
38. This doctor insisted that he takes a vacation after he suffered a severe depression.
Improve the following sentences by changing them from passive to active:
39. Many agonising minutes are spent by the student in deciding on a subject for a speech.
40. With his help the mistake was soon corrected by us.
41. But his suggestion was received by me with disdain.
42. My courses were not given much thought by me.
In each of the following sentences, specify the type of illogical shift that you find in tense, voice, subject, number
or person. Then make the necessary corrections.
43. We swept the room carefully, and the furniture and shelves were also dusted.
44. You must make yourself interesting to the group that listens to you and are constantly trying to detect your mis-
takes.
45. I had no money was the reason I did not buy it.
Eliminate the dangling participial phrases.
46. Driving through Rajasthan desert, several restaurants on the roadside were seen.
47. Visiting Hyderabad for the first time, the tankbund was truly impressive.
48. Being made of glass, I handled the tabletop carefully.
49. Being a foreigner, his ignorance of local customs made him feel helpless.
50. Driving home, the road seemed endless.

51. Leaving proper margin on each side, the report should be neatly written.
Eliminate the dangling gerund phrases.
52. By checking the answer sheet, my errors became clear to me.
53. Upon opening the closet door, the boxes on the shelf tumbled down.
54. Before transferring to the new college, his mother took him to meet his future classmates.
55. Upon asking him to explain, he told me that he was born and brought up in Hyderabad.
56. While preparing for my class, the power went off.
57. After moving to Hyderabad, her health improved.
Eliminate the dangling infinitives.
58. To examine the brakes, the wheel must be removed.
59. To impress a prospective employer, a neat appearance is essential.
60. To plan a school program, career goals must be kept in mind.
61. To succeed as a speaker, prepare thoroughly.
62. To be extra safe, the lock on the new apartment door was changed.
63. To enjoy outdoor sports, proper clothing must be worn.
Eliminate the dangling elliptical clauses.
64. While driving on the flyover, the car skidded.
65. If highly polished, you may slip on the floor.
66. My bicycle tire went flat while hurrying to the cardiologist.
67. If lost, we shall pay a reward for the ring.
68. If well oiled, I find my motorcycle easier to handle.
69. His arm got hurt, while driving the car.
70. While on tour of European countries, my purse was stolen.
In the following sentences, identify the parts that should be expressed in parallel form:
71. Sororities teach a girl to be a lady and courteous.
72. Few of the leaders anticipated the bitterness of the strike or how long it would last.
73. He is a man of wide experience and who is also popular with the students.
74. My work at the office consists of typing addresses and to answer the telephone.
75. His students are still in dilemma whether his advice was meant to be taken seriously or if he was merely joking.
76. We try to teach them how to get along with people, table manners, good habits, and how to get the most from
life.
77. I like to swim, playing cricket and riding.
78. The baby was tired, irritable and needed sleep.
79. The short story was exciting, powerful and could not be easily understood.
80. To be a good teacher, one must have patience, liking to help others, and to show an infinite capacity for learning.
Chapter 13
Learning Spellings

Write spellings correctly.
Know different spellings for the same sound.
Remove confusion in spellings.
Know the variant spellings.
Develop self-confidence about your ability to spell accurately.
INTRODUCTION
Learning spelling of the English words is a cumbrous activity. An ability to spell correctly is an invaluable
skill. In the English language the lack of correlation between the spelling and the pronunciation of a word
is a well-known fact. It baffles and confuses the learner. The non-native language learner finds difficulty in
the pronunciation of the same sequence of letters in different ways. This disparity between the spelling and
the pronunciation can be best illustrated in the following:
cough bough through
dough slough thorough
rough fought
There is no blinking at the fact that the spelling of English words is now one of our major problems.
Basically, the English language inherited many of its troubles because it borrowed words from different
languages or even from different dialects of English. Printed word remains the same even if it is sent from
one part of the world to another but the pronunciation of that word is affected by the regional differences
and it keeps on changing with the passing of time. To perpetuate our troubles, the English language does
not have enough letters in its alphabet for the number of vowel sounds and consonant sounds. Some letters
will always have to stand for several different sounds. For example, the letter ‘X’ stands for different sounds
such as:
Learning Spellings 213
/gz/ as in examination /z/ as in xerox

/gZ/ as is luxuriant /kS/ as in luxury
/ks/ as in fax
As an effective learner, you must learn when to double a consonant as in ‘accommodation’; when to write
‘-ie-’ as in ‘thief’ or ‘ei’ as in ‘receive’; when to use ‘-able’ as in ‘readable’ or ‘-ible’ as in ‘edible’.
The other common causes of spelling mistakes are the omission of a letter or a syllable and an addition
of an extra syllable. A student who pronounces and spells the word ‘probably’ as though it was ‘probaly’ has
made the mistake of omitting a syllable. If you spell ‘lightning’ as though it was ‘lightening’ you have made
the mistake of addition. Analysing words in terms of prefixes, suffixes, stems and roots helps the learner
to acquire spellings correctly while a study of word derivations helps a little as well. Dividing words into
syllables will help you pronounce and spell a word correctly. Any scheme that makes the learner focus on
the letters of a word helps him.
Another feature is that there are a large number of words in English in which certain letters are silent.
The reasons for this are of a complex nature. The consonant sound /b/ in words like comb and debt, for
example, is silent in pronouncing the words through assimilating to neighbouring sounds. In some words,
the consonant letter ‘p’ is silent in words like psychology, pseudonym etc. In certain other words, due to
etymological reasons, some sounds are silent as ‘t’ is in silent, in satchel, etc. In some other words, additional
sounds are inserted in the pronunciation but in spelling that sound is dropped. For example in the word
‘schizophrenia’ the letter ‘t’ is inserted and it is pronounced as /skIts@'frI:nI@/. In the word ‘lieutenant’ the
letter ‘f’ is inserted in pronunciation. This feature creates another problem in the learning of spellings.
Systematic study of words in spelling lists, daily spelling drills and keeping a record of misspelled words
all help to a great extent. The spelling list does contain many of the words usually misspelled and helps the
learner to acquire quickly. Spelling rules help too, in that they introduce some system into the seemingly
hopeless snarl of English spelling. After studying the spelling rules and the exceptions to the rules, different
letters stand for the same sound; may we assume that there is one correct spelling for each word? To our
surprise, the answer is obviously ‘No’. There are some words in English that have two acceptable spell-
ings which are known as ‘variant spellings’. There are some other words in English which have British
and American spelling variations.
This chapter deals with spelling rules and spelling variants.
SPELLING RULES
The following spelling rules will help you to remember the spellings of words:
1. A word ending in silent -e generally drops the -e before a suffix beginning with a vowel letter.
admire + ation = admiration
admire + able = admirable
advise + ory = advisory
allure + ing = alluring
arrange + ing = arranging
arrive + ing = arriving
behave + iour = behaviour
believe + ing = believing
care + ing = caring
come + ing = coming
deplore + able = deplorable
desire + able = desirable
desire + ous = desirous

explore + ation = exploration
fame + ous = famous
fertile + ity = fertility
imagine + ary = imaginary
imagine + able = imaginable
love + able = lovable
lose + ing = losing
move + able = movable
realize + ing = realizing
2. Retain the silent ‘-e’ in words ending in ‘-ce’ or ‘-ge’ when a suffix other than beginning with ‘e’ or
-i- is added to them.
advantage + ous = advantageous
change + able = changeable
charge + able = chargeable
courage + ous = courageous
manage + able = manageable
notice + able = noticeable
outrage + ous = outrageous
peace + able = peaceable
replace + able = replaceable
service + able = serviceable
trace + able = traceable
3. Retain the ‘-e’ before a suffix beginning with a consonant letter.
arrange + ment = arrangement
base + ment = basement
care + ful = careful
force + ful = forceful
grate + ful = grateful
hate + ful = hateful
judge + ment = judgement
like + ness = likeness
move + ment = movement
nine + ty = ninety
replace + ment = replacement
sincere + ly = sincerely
Note: A number of commonly used words are exceptions to this rule.
judge + ment = judgment (in legal use)
acknowledge + ment = acknowledgment
true + ly = truly
due + ly = duly
argue + ment = argument
4. When adding a suffix beginning with a vowel to the word ending in ‘-ee’ retain two letters.
agree + ing = agreeing
agree + able = agreeable
free + ing = freeing
see + ing = seeing
5. If a word ends in ‘-ie’ change the ‘-ie’ to ‘y’ before adding the suffix ‘-ing’.
lie + ing = lying
tie + ing = tying
die + ing = dying
vie + ing = vying
6. If a word ends with a ‘-y’ preceded by a consonant, change the ‘y’ to ‘i’ before adding a suffix.
Exception: If the suffix begins with ‘i’ do not change the ‘y’ to ‘i’.
study + es = studies
rely + able = reliable
dry + s = dries
deny + al = denial
easy + ly = easily
ordinary + ly = ordinarily
happy + ness = happiness
heavy + ness = heaviness
ready + ly = readily
Exceptions:
deny + ing = denying
dry + ing = drying
remedy + ing = remedying
supply + ing = supplying
7. If a word ends with a ‘-y’, preceded by a vowel, retain the ‘-y’ when adding a suffix.
buy + ing = buying
delay + ed = delayed
employ + ed = employed
journey + ed = journeyed
Exceptions:
day daily pay paid
lay laid say said
8. A monosyllabic word containing one vowel ends in ‘ck’ but not on ‘c’.
back luck chick pick check
9. A monosyllabic word with two vowel letters does not end in ‘ck’ but requires a ‘k’ alone.
look speak leak freak
10. A monosyllabic word with one vowel does not end with the following single consonants: f, l, z.
Examples:
bull, buzz, staff, spill, tuff, tall
11. A monosyllabic word with two vowels never ends in a double ‘-ill’.
Examples:
peal, stool
12. The letters ‘ei’ are used in words immediately after the letter ‘c’.
Examples:
conceive ceiling receive receipt
conceit perceive
Exemption: financier
13. The letters ‘ei’ are also used in words in which ‘ei’ has the sound of /eI/ as in ‘make’, ‘late’ etc.
Examples:
freight weight neighbour veil reign vein
14. The letters ‘ei’ are also used if it has the sound of /aI/
Examples:
height steight queiss stein
Exceptions: fiery, hierarchy, hieroglyphic ‘ei’ is also used in the following special words:
codeine leisure sheik protein
caffeine neither either seize
15. Otherwise ‘ei’ is used as -ie
believe grief thief
brief friend
16. When a monosyllabic word ending with a single consonant is preceded by a single vowel, then double
the final consonant if the suffix being added to it begins with a vowel.
stop + ed = stopped
lag + ing = lagging
get + ing = getting
brag + ing = bragging
cut + ing = cutting
din + ing = dinning
flag + ed = flagged
plan + ing = planning
rob + ed = robbed
drop + ed = dropped
drip + ed = dripped
swim + ing = swimming
man + ish = mannish
17. When a suffix beginning with a consonant is added to a monosyllabic word ending in a consonant, do
not double the final consonant.
allot + ment = allotment
brief + ly = briefly
equip + ment = equipment
hot + ly = hotly
soft + ly = softly
18. If a word ends with a consonant in which the vowel is preceded by ‘qu’, the final consonant is doubled
when all other conditions are satisfied.
quit + ing = quitting
quiz + es = quizzes
equip + ed = equipped
equip + ing = equipping
19. If a multi-syllable word is accented on the last syllable and ends with a single consonant, double the
final consonant if the suffix that begins with a vowel is added to it.
allot + ed = allotted
begin + er = beginner
disbar + ed = disbarred
rebel + ion = rebellion
recur + ing = recurring
20. If a word ends in two consonants or one consonant preceded by two vowel letters or one vowel letter
or the accent is not on the last syllable, do not double the consonant before adding the suffix.
(i) Words ending in two consonants:
concern + ed = concerned
gold + en = golden
rent + ing = renting
return + ing = returning
start + ed = started
Words with a single consonant preceding two vowels:
contain + er = container
exclaim + ed = exclaimed
feed + ing = feeding
need + ed = needed
read + ing = reading
retail + ing = retailing
wait + ing = waiting
wood + en = wooden
Words ending with a single consonant preceded by a single vowel:
bonus + es = bonuses
differ + ent = different
deposit + ed = deposited
timid + ity = timidity
Note: A number of words of this type have an equally acceptable alternate spelling in which
the final consonant is doubled.
cancel + ed = canceled or cancelled
benefit + ing = benefiting or benefitted
total + ed = totaled or totalled
Words with accent not on the last syllable:
confer + ed = conferred
offer + ed = offered
prefer + ed = preferred
refer + ed = referred
21. When a suffix ‘-ly’ is added to a word ending with ‘-ll’ drop one ‘-l’. However, when adding suffixes
‘-less’ or ‘-like’ to a word ending in ‘-ll’, retain ‘-ll’ and insert a hyphen before the suffix.
bell + like = bell-like
full + ly = fully
frill + ly = frilly
shell + less = shell-less
22. In a multi-syllable word ending in ‘l’ and preceded by a single vowel, double the ‘l’, if a suffix begin-
ning with a vowel is added to it.
marvel + ous = marvellous
pedal + ed = pedalled
repel + ant = repellant
travel + er = traveller
23. Word endings of -sede, -ceed, -cede
(i) Only one word in the language ends in ‘-sede’: supersede
Three words end in -ceed
exceed proceed succeed
All other words end in ‘-cede’
accede precede concede recede
intercede secede
24. Word ending of -ify, -efy
Only four words end in -efy
Liquefy, putrefy, rarefy, stupefy
A natural and common ending is ‘-ify’
25. By adding ‘s’ to nouns we can form the plural form.
girl + s = girls pen + s = pens
boy + s = boys paper + s = papers
26. The plural of some nouns is formed by adding ‘–es’. The ‘e’ represents the extra sound heard when
–s is added to words ending in ‘–s’, ‘–sh’, ‘–ch’, and ‘–x’.
bus + es = buses box + es = boxes
bench + es = benches dress + es = dresses
bush + es = bushes
27. The plural of the nouns ending in ‘–y’ preceded by a consonant is formed by changing ‘y’ to ‘i’ and
adding ‘–es’.
fly + es = flies lady + es = ladies
enemy + es = enemies salary + es = salaries
copy + es = copies story + es = stories
fairy + es = fairies
28. The plural of the nouns ending in ‘–y’ preceded by a vowel is formed by adding ‘–s’.
donkey + s = donkeys chimney + s = chimneys
key + s = keys storey + s = storeys
monkey + s = monkeys Journey + s = Journeys

destroy + s = destroys alley +s = alleys
valley + s = valleys delay + s = delays
enjoy + s = enjoys
29. The plural of most nouns ending in ‘f’ or ‘ff’ or ‘oof’ is formed by adding ‘–s’.
roof + s = roofs cliff + s = cliffs
proof + s = proofs chief + s = chiefs
30. The plural of some nouns ending in ‘f’ or ‘fe’ is formed by changing ‘f ‘ to ‘v’ and adding ‘–s’ or
‘–es’
calf + es = calves loaf + es = loaves
knife + es = knives leaf + es = leaves
Exception: warf + es = warves or warfs
31. The plural of nouns ending in ‘–o’ preceded by a vowel is formed by adding ‘s’.
radio + s = radios
32. The plural of nouns ending in ‘o’ preceded by a consonant is formed by adding either ‘–s’, or ‘–es’.
alto + s = altos echo + s = echos
hero + es = heroes tomato + es = tomatoes
mosquito + es = mosquitoes molto + es = moltoes
potato + es = potatoes
Exceptions: Words of Italian origin ending in ‘o’ that refer to music form the plural by adding ‘–s’.
piano + s = pianos soprano + s = sopranos
solo + s = solos
33. The plural of a few nouns is formed by irregular methods.
child children tooth teeth
goose geese mouse mice
ox oxen woman women
34. The plural compound nouns consisting of a noun and a modifier is formed by making the noun plural.
In the following examples, the phrases -in-law, and -of-war, and the adjectives ‘martial’, ‘general’ and
‘by’ are all modifiers. In these phrases it is the noun that is modified by them. These nouns are made
plural.
mother-in-law mothers-in-law
man-of-war men-of-war
court-martial courts-martial
secretary-general secretaries-general
passer-by passers-by
35. The plural of a few compound nouns is formed in irregular ways.
drive-in drive-ins
tie-up tie-ups
six year-old six-year olds
36. The plural of compound nouns written as one word is formed by adding ‘–s’ or ‘–es’.
cupful cupfuls
leftover leftovers
strongbox strongboxes
spoonful spoonfuls
37. The plural of some foreign words is formed as in the original language.
(i) Words ending in ‘–a’ have a plural ‘–ae’
formula – formulae, formulas alumna – alumae
nebula – nebulae, nebulas
(ii) Words ending in ‘–us’ with a plural in ‘–i’
alumnus – alumni bacillus – bacilli
focus – foci, focuses stimulus – stimuli
fungus – fungi, funguses
Words ending in ‘–um’ have a plural ‘–a’
bacterium bacteria
curriculum curriculums, curricula
datum data
dictum dicta, dictums
memorandum memoranda, memorandums
stratum strata, stratums
(iii) Words ending in ‘–ex’, ‘ix’, ‘–is’ have the plural ‘ –es’.
apex apxes
apices
index indexes, indices
axis axes
amanuensis amanuenses
analysis analyses
crisis crises
ellipsis ellipses
hypothesis hypotheses
thesis theses
synopsis synopses
oasis oases
parenthesis parentheses
(iv) Words ending in ‘–on’, take the plural ‘–a’
automaton automata
phenomenon phenomena
There are some other words which you often misspell. This is because they contain combinations that are
easily confused with those in similar structure. Study the following groups carefully, looking for the trouble
spots. Once you practice in identifying these trouble spots you would acquire correct spelling.
1. ability The last two words end with ‘-ibility’ but not ‘ability’
responsibility
possibility
(Contd)
(Contd)
2. accumulate Notice the c’s and m’s in these common words
accommodate
recommend
3. across Both these words are often misspelled; notice the single ‘c’ and double
address ‘d’
4. amount Do not write ‘u’ in the word among because of the spelling of other word
among
5. arithmetic The first two words do not have ‘e’ after ‘th’ whereas in mathematics it is
athletics there. Do not forget the ‘e’ in mathematics
mathematics
6. accidentally In the second word double ‘l’ is not there as in the first word
publicly
7. believe These two most common ie/ei words. Do follow the rule
receive
8. committee
committing Here note the single ‘t’ in commitment
commitment
9. definitely Do not confuse with words ending –itely with
immediately –ately words
10. divide Not devide
decide
11. familiar The extra ‘i’ in familiar gives it an extra-syllable
similar
12. fulfill
foretell Don’t spell it fortell or fortill
13. necessary Only one ‘c’ in necessary. One ‘s’ in occasionally and one ‘f’ in profes-
occasionally sional
professional
14. pastime Don’t trouble that ‘t’ in pastime
part-time
15. relevant Two difficult words; notice the e’s and a’s and the l’s and v’s
prevalent
16. separate Notice the letter ‘a’ after ‘p’ in the word
desperate Separate and the letter ‘e’ after ‘p’ in the word desperate
17. surprise Don’t write suprise or surpose
suppose
18. strictly Not strick or strickly
stick
quickly
(Contd)
(Contd)
19. till Not untill
until
20. hinder Note –er in the first word and –ra in the second word
hindrance
21. develop There is no such word as develope
developed
envelope
22. indict Notice the letter ‘c’ in the word indict. But this letter is silent in this
Indite word
23. magnate Notice the letter ‘a’ in the word magnate and the letter ‘e’ in the word
magnet magnet
24. ordinance In the first word the letter ‘i’ is there after ‘d’. In the second word the letter
ordnance ‘i’ is not there after the letter ‘d’. In the third word the letter ‘o’ is there
ordonnance after the letter ‘d’. After the letter ‘o’ double ‘n’ is there
COMMONLY MISSPELLED WORDS

The following list of words are often misspelled by college students
abbreviate absence absorption absurd
accidentally accommodate accompanying accomplish
accumulate accustom achievement acknowledge
acquaintance acquire acquitted across
additionally address after effect aggravate
allegedly all right always almost
although altogether amateur among
analysis analyze annual answer
apparent apartment apology apparatus
apparently appearance appropriate arctic
arguing argument arising arrangement
ascend assistance association athlete
athletics attendance audience auxiliary
awkward bachelor balance barbarous
becoming beginning believe benefited
beneficial biscuit boundaries brilliant
bureau business cafeteria canceling
cancellation calendar candidate career
carburetor category certain changeable
changing characteristic chosen commission
committed committee comparative competitive
compulsory conceivable conference conferred
conqueror conscience conscientious conscious
continuous controversial controversy convenient

courteous criticism criticize curiosity
cylinder dealt decision definitely
describe description disastrous despair
desperate dictionary dilapidated disagree
disappear disappoint disastrous discipline
dissatisfied dissipate doctor dormitory
eighth elicit eligible eliminate
embarrass eminent enlargement environment
enthusiastic equipment equivalent erroneous
especially exaggerated exceptionally exhaust
exhilarate existence experience explanation
extraordinary extremely familiar fascinate
February forty foreign frantically
fraternities fulfil gauge generally
government grammar guard guidance
height hindrance humorous hygiene
illicit illiterate imaginary imagination
immediately impromptu inasmuch incidentally
incredible indefinitely indispensable inevitable
infinite inoculate insistence intellectual
insofar intelligence intentionally interesting
interfered irrelevant iridescent irresistible
knowledge laboratory legitimate license
lightning likelihood literature loneliness
loose lose losing maintenance
maneuver marriage mathematics miniature
mischievous necessary nevertheless ninety
noticeable nowadays oblige obstacle
occasion occasionally occurred occurrence
opportunity optimistic original outrageous
pamphlet parallel particularly pastime
permissible perseverance persistent personal
persuade perspiration physically picnicking
politics possession possible practically
precede precedence preferable preference
preferred prejudice preparation prescription
prevalent privilege probably procedure
proceed professor prominent pronunciation
prove publicly pursue quantity

questionnaire quiet receive recognize
recommend reference referred repetition
regard representative resistant restaurant
rhythm rhythmical ridiculous sandwich
schedule secretary separate siege
sieve sight (to view) similar simultaneous
sincerity site (a place) soliloquy sophomore
specifically specimen speech strictly
studying succeed succession suing
technique than then surprise
temperament temperature thorough throughout
tragedy transferable transferred tries
truly Tuesday unanimous undoubtedly
unnecessarily usage village villain
vertical visible weird whether
writing
VARIANT SPELLINGS
In the English language, there are some words which have two acceptable spellings. We made an attempt
to given some variant spellings.
Table 13.1 Variant Spellings
acknowledgement – acknowledgment lambaste – lambast

afterwards – afterward omelette – omelet
amid – amidst premise – premiss
among – amongst program – programme
blond – blonde poseur – poser
balm – balsam pacy – pacey
baulk – balk postcode – postalcode
bogey – bogy pekinese – pekingese
cipher – cypher pygmy – pigmy
curtsy – curtsey pillowcase – pillowslip
crosier – crozier pen-friend – pen-pal
disc – disk spic – spick
dispatch – despatch swap – swop
dieticien – dietitian swathe – swath
downwards – downward schmo – schmuck
eastwards – eastward schlepp – schlep
(Contd)
(Contd)
enquire – inquire seisin – seizin
entrench – intrench schemozzle – shemozzle
eyrie – eyre towards – toward
forward – forwards traveled – travelled
ghee – ghi upward – upwards
gram – gramme wagon – waggon
hiccup – hiccough wisteria – wistaria
haystack – hayrick whirr – whir
horsy – horsey whizz – whiz
inflammable – flammable whew – phew
SPELL-CHECKER
The spell-checker programme helps you to check your document but is not useful in all contexts. You should
know the exact spellings. Relying on the computer spell-checker does not suffice your needs. Homophones,
homonyms and confused words always create problems. The computer spell-checker cannot identify mistakes
among these words. Let us look at the following examples:
Eye through the bawl at hymn.
Here computer cannot underline any spelling mistake. The actual sentence is:
I threw the ball at him.
Hence, you cannot always depend on your spell-checker to make a final decision. For example neither
of the following sentences has a misspelled word because both are correct but have different meanings.
(i) The recently introduced law will effect a wide spread change in business. (Here “effect” means to
cause)
(ii) The recently introduced law will affect a wide spread change in business. (Here “affect” means to
influence)
You have to check yourself the message that you want to give and what suitable word you have to use.
Summary
It is a common notion that spelling mistakes are committed either due to ignorance or carelessness. The actual reason,
however, is that in the English language there is no correlation between the spelling and the pronunciation of a word.
That is because one letter stands for many sounds and also an addition or omission of a letter or a syllable of a word. So
the spellings of English are in a terrible snarl. Therefore, it is imperative to learn the art of writing spellings correctly.
Exercises
1. Write the following words, supplying the missing letters ‘e and i’ in the correct order. Write the rule you apply for
each of the following:
for– – gn ch– – f br – – f rel– – ve

n– – ce v––l conc – – ve p – – ce
retr– – ve c – – ling rec– – v e sl – – gh
gr– – f handkerch– – f th– – f s– – ze

pere – – ve ach– – ve s – – ge w– – rd
f– – nd bel– – ve bel– – f rec– – pt
l– – sure f– – rce
2. Write the word with a correct spelling after adding the suffix to each of the following words:
stop+ed benefit+ed hope+ing write+ing

approve+al nine+ty travel+ed desire+able
able+ity name+less run+ing prepare+ing
defer+ence defer+ed profit +ing propel+ing
control+ed fame+ous hope+less move+ing
red+est true+ly confe+ing refer+ed
final+ly mean+ness dry+ness happy+ness
key+s
3. Explain the spelling of each of the following word by referring to the rules discussed in the chapter:
coming conference peaceable occurred hopful

occurrance roofs regretted illogical noticeable
conferring ladies illegible regretted occurance
stubbornness receive leisure alumnae definitely
weigh achieve writing disappear arrangement
losening naturally monkeys conceited fierce
4. Some words are given below. Some prefixes and suffixes are also given below. Add the suitable prefix or suffix to
the given words. Apply spelling rules to get the correctly spelled word.
Prefixes: im–, dis–, mis–, un–, il–, in–, re–,
Suffixes: –ly, –ness, –able, –ing, –est, –ish, –ed
habitual agree merry animate

natural legible agree movable
use appear available keen
green appoint abated appropriate
casual practical material apprehend
spelled avoidable suitable possible
similar avoid ready final
dry shy cram bid
clannish shap quit stab
whip glad
5. Some words are such that they sound alike but have different spellings and different meanings. Select correct
spelling words to complete the following sentences:
1. break – brake 4. already – all ready
2. desert – dessert 5. altar – alter
3. cloths – clothes
1. When I saw my friend on the road, I applied the ––––––––––– immediately. (brake_ break)
2. Kavitha is wearing her best ––––––. (cloths, clothes)
3. We will ––– the apartment to suit tenants. (altar, alter)
4. –––––– soil is often fertile if irrigated. (desert, dessert)
5. The damage has –––––––– been done. (already, all ready).
6. Here are some “spelling demons”. Each word is spelled here in two ways: the correct way and the commonly
misspelled way. Read the following pairs and identify the correctly spelled word and write that in the blank pro-
vided:
1. (a) consensus (b) consense: ____________
2. (a) conscious (b) consceous : __________
3. (a) occurrence (b) occurrense :__________
4. (a) liquify (b) liquefy :__________________
5. (a) supercede (b) supersede : ___________
6. (a) occassion (b) occasion : ____________
7. (a) embarassed (b) embarrassed : __________
8. (a) disappoint (b) dissapoint : ____________
9. (a) battalion (b) batallion : _____________
10. (a) tyronny (b) tyrrany : ______________
11. (a) anoint (b) annoint : _______________
12. (a) analize (b) analyze : ______________
13 (a) reccomend (b) recommend : __________
14. (a) inoculate (b) inocculate : ___________
15 (a) indispensable (b) indispensible : _______________
16. (a) perseverance (b) perseverence : ________
17 (a) defnition (b) definition : __________
18. (a) enviaronment (b) environment : ________________
19. (a) comittment (b) commitment: ________
20. (a) controversial (b) controvercial : _________
21. (a) therfore (b) therefore : ____________________
22. (a) insentive (b) incentive : ___________
23. (a) menue (b) menu : _______________
24. (a) separate (b) separat : ______________
25 (a) environment (b) envirment; __________
26 (a) repetition (b) repitition : ____________
27. (a) irritable (b) irritible : ______________
28. (a) despair (b) dispair : __________
29. (a) superintendent (b) superintendant : _________
30. (a) recommend (b) recommend: __________
31. (a) incidentally (b) incidently : __________
32. (a) development (b) developmant :_________
33. (a) receive (b) recieve : _____________
34. (a) weird (b) wierd: __________
35. (a) enforcable (b) enforceable : __________
36. (a) changable (b) changeable : ________
37. (a) judgement (b) judgment : __________
38. (a) fiery (b) feiry : _______________
39. (a) leisure (b) liesure : ______________
40. (a) exceed (b) excede : ______________
41. (a) irresistable (b) irresistible : ___________
42. (a) insistant (b) insistent : ___________
43. (a) perseverance (b) perseverence : _________
7. Write the plural form of each of the following nouns. Explain the spelling rule you apply for that word.
alumnus alto chief bench

candy hero goose torch
shelf fly trolley piano

tomato brother-in-law gas editor-in-chief
spoonful appendix curriculum looker-on
larva medium seta alumna
appendex nucleus basis folium
executrix eriterion octopus opus
8. Review the rules again and do the exercise perfectly. Circle the correctly spelled word in each pair. If there is any
variant spelling pair write that as well.
a. alloting – allotting k. placment – placement

b. believing – beleiving l. priceless – pricless
c. chaseing – chasing m. gram – gramme
d. ceiling – cieling n. peacful – peaceful
e. program – programme o. soceity – society
f. friend – freind p. enquire – inquire
g. movement – movment r. saving – saveing
h. patroling – patrolling s. premise – premiss
i. traveled – travelled t. dispatch – despatch
j. acknowledgement – acknowledgment
9. Words completely change their meaning by altering only a letter or two. Read the list of words given below. Enjoy
the fun of two words masquerading as each other. Refer to dictionary and find the meanings.
accept – except dispel – expel

advice – advise discuss – discus
alter – altar envelope – envelop
assure – ensure, insure forward – foreword
aid – aide gig – jig
adapt – adopt, adept grist – gristle
alloy – allay, alley grit – grits
bait – bate lee – lees
born – borne lease – leave
breath – breathe loam – loan
breach – beach human – humane
break – brake hurdle – hurtle
capital – capitol intense – intensive
clinch – clench later – latter
compliment – complement moral – morale
confident – confidant personal – personnel
deadly – deathly principal – principle
desert – dessert prophecy – prophesy
dear – deer stationary – stationery
emmigrate – immigrate track – tract
eminent – imminent tear – tier
discrete – discreet two – too, to
demur – demure urban – urbane
10. Write these misspelled words correctly.
a. accidentely f. occassionally
b. athelete g. past-time
c. committment h. pronunce
d. develope i. recomend
e. immediatly j. seperate
10. Each of the following groups contains one misspelled word. Identify it and write the word correctly in the blank.
a. accumulate f. predict
accusative adict
accomodate verdict
:___________ :_________
b. adress g. possibility
necessary responsability
till acceptability
:___________ :___________
c. aspaire h. despite
despair respite
conspire :___________
:___________
d. decide i. receit
precide conceit
aside :___________
:___________
e. predicate j. acquire
syndicate riquire
accurete enquire
:___________ :___________
11. Read the following pairs carefully. Do you think there are spelling errors?
If your answer is “yes”, refer to dictionary and find out.
If your answer is “no”, bring out the differences.
1. biding – bidding 7. robed – robbed

2. coarse – course 8. singing – singeing
3. dying – dyeing 9. stared – starred
4. hoping – hopping 10. scared – scarred
5. feat – feet 11. wining – winning
6. planing – planning 12. chaf – chaff
12. The following paragraph contains sixteen misspelled words. Underline them and write the correct spellings in the
margin.
Writing well is definately a useful skill that you should develope. In proffesional communication, law, and medicine,
effective writing is neccessary. Students who do not beleive this is true are often supprised to discover too late that
they lack this important proffesional requirement. Not untill they learn the hard way – by recieving criticism of
their work – do many employees realize how prevelant the demand for good writing is. Amoung executives it is
understood that the committment to writing goes alone with the strickly technical aspects of a job. Colleges accross
the country are publically declaring their dedication to effective writing.
Chapter 14
Punctuation

Write sentences correctly with the correct punctuation.
Understand the meaning of the sentence.
Identify different types of punctuation marks.
Use punctuation marks appropriately.
INTRODUCTION
Professionals have more trouble with punctuations than with any other aspect of document preparation. When
we speak, we modulate our voice. We use pauses and gestures to emphasise the meaning, and we vary the
pitch of our voice to denote the beginning and ending of units of thought. That means we “punctuate” our
speech. We punctuate writing for the same purpose, drawing on a whole set of conventional devices to give
the reader clues to what we are trying to communicate.
The appropriate punctuation marks guide us to write sentences correctly and help us understand the
meaning of a sentence. You need them to bring clarity in your writing. Many authorities disagree with one
another and with the common usage. A medical transcriptionist, for example, may meticulously follow
punctuation marks. A journalist may ignore some punctuation marks which are normally included in business
documentation. A lawyer, on the other hand, uses many more punctuation marks in his legal documents.
The following rules and exercises adhere not only to traditional guidelines but also to use in contemporary
writings. So the use of punctuation marks should be guided by well-established and accepted conventions of
style. However, sometimes well-established uses change dramatically. An attempt is made to show variations
in practice and to alert you of possible future style changes. You need to learn the basic principles and be
consistent in using them.
Punctuation 231
Punctuations are vital to business writing and document preparation. Hence, the discussion on punctuation
in this chapter is to help you establish the rules in your mind so that you will acquire punctuation habits.
Correct punctuation is based, in varying degrees, on three principles: (i) thought or meaning, (ii) the structural
pattern of the sentence and (iii) the conventions of the age. Proper punctuation helps the reader understand
which items belong together, when to pause and what is being emphasised. Without proper punctuation,
communication breaks down, meaning can be distorted or the flow of idea is interrupted. For example, the
comma is used to clarify or signal the writer’s exact meaning for the reader; therefore, a comma misuse
may either mislead the reader or delay his/her comprehension. Undoubtedly, you have sentences in which
the meaning changes when a comma is deleted. The structural pattern is also used to convey the meaning.
In addition, a punctuation is governed by a set of conventions. The practice of writers may be codified into
a number of rules or principles. These principles govern a large number of typical situations in writing. At
times certain punctuation marks are optional, depending on the decisions of publishers.
In summary, remember that punctuation is often simple, but also keep in mind that it is not always subject
to precise and unchanging rules. Certain punctuation marks are simply common practice, if you rely on
common sense you may not always be right. Look at the following example:
Some writers use long and a large number of words to impress their reader in this connection William
stunks advice is worth remembering a sentence should contain noun necessary words a paragraph noun
necessary sentences for the same reason that a drawing should have noun necessary lines and a machine
noun necessary parts.
After reading this passage, what, for example, can you understand from this string of words?
To make this passage intelligible, we need to add two other kinds of punctuation marks:
(i) Changes in the size of letters and style of letters (capitals and italics).
(ii) Punctuation marks (periods, colon, comma, apostrophe and inverted commas).
See the example here.
Some writers use long and large number of words to impress their reader. In this connection, William
Stunk’s advice is worth remembering: “A sentence should contain no unnecessary words, a paragraph
no unnecessary sentences, for the same reason that a drawing should have no unnecessary lines and
a machine no unnecessary parts.”
This example reveals the four functions of punctuations.
Table 14.1 Functions of Punctuation Marks
1. End Punctuations Periods, question marks and exclamatory mark indicate beginnings and endings.
2. Internal Punctuation Commas, colons within sentences show the relationship of each word or group
of words to the rest of the sentence.
3. Direct-quotation marks Quotation marks indicate speaker, changes of speakers and exact words of
Punctuation speakers.
4. Word Punctuation Capitals, italics, quotation marks, apostrophe marks indicate words that have a
special character or use.
Finally, remember that punctuation is a part of a meaning and not a substitute for clear and orderly
sentence structure. Convention and practice guide you in using punctuation marks. Though many of the
rules are not hard and fast, there still is a community of agreement about punctuating sentences. Learning,
practicing and applying the punctuation rules that follow will help you observe these conventions. We now
discuss the four functions of punctuation marks. These are:
1. End Punctuation Marks
2. Internal Punctuation Marks

3. Direct-Quotation Punctuation Marks
4. Word Punctuation Marks
END PUNCTUATION MARKS

Periods, question marks and exclamation points signal the end of a sentence. Use a period to terminate
a plain assertive statement or command; use a question mark to terminate interrogative statements; use an
exclamation mark to terminate surprise or emotional feeling. Usually, the character of the sentence dic-
tates the proper end punctuation. Occasionally, however, you must determine for yourself just what you
intend the character of a sentence to be.
The following are the end punctuation marks:
Exhibit 14.1 End Punctuation Marks
The period (.)

Question mark (?)
Exclamation mark (!)
The Period (.)

The fundamental aid to understanding the written word is the period. It indicates the end of a sentence. In
the spoken form, some dictators will indicate the end of a sentence by saying “period” or “full stop” or
“stop”. Others drop their voice to indicate closure. You will need to learn the individual styles of dictators.
The period represents the longest pause. It is used:
1. At the end of an assertive or an imperative sentence or after an indirect question.
Examples:
(i) Man is a social animal.
(ii) Do these exercises everyday.
(iii) The principal asked the lecturer if the student had done a Business Communication course.
2. At the end of a request for action that is phrased as a question out of politeness.
Examples:
Will you please send a copy of your report to Dr. Raju?
3. At the end of a sentence, even if the sentence ends with a punctuated abbreviation, use only one
period.
Examples:
(i) The surgery is scheduled to begin at 7 a.m.
4. At the end of following words:
(a) Single capitalised words and single letter abbreviations.
Examples:
Mr. Dr. Inc. Ltd.
(b) The name of the genus when it is abbreviated and used with the species.
E. coli M. tuberculosis
(c) Lower case Latin abbreviations.
a.m. p.m. e.g.
Punctuation 233
(d) After letters and numbers in alphanumeric outlines except those enclosed in parentheses.
1. A. _____________ B. _______________
5. To separate decimal fraction from whole numbers.
Examples:
(i) His temperature on admission was 99.80F.
(ii) The wound measured 2.5 x 3.5 cm.
6. Use a series of three spaced periods […] to indicate ellipsis within a sentence.
An ellipsis is an intentional omission of words from the quoted material if you decide that it is un-
necessary to reproduce all the words of the author you are quoting. Use spaced periods to let your
reader know that you have left something out.
7. Abbreviations that get confused with the ordinary word.
No. In.
The following are not punctuated:
1. Abbreviations used for the names of organisations.
UNESCO, IIT, IAM
2. Metric units of measurement.
Ft mg km cm
3. Certification, registration and licensure abbreviations.
Rn RRA LPN
4. Acronyms
AIDS CARE WHO
5. Scientific abbreviations typed in a combination of capital and lower case letters.
RX DX Na
6. Academic degrees and religious orders.
MD MS PhD
Question Mark (?)

Use a question mark after a Direct Question.
Direct questions often begin with an interrogative pronoun adverb or an auxiliary verb and have an inverted
word order with the verb before the subject.
Examples:
Did you study Language Skills in your undergraduation?
You want to make a good impression, don’t you?
Do you ever wonder what your future will be?
Use a question mark inside parentheses (?)
To indicate doubt or uncertainty about the correctness of a statement, use a question mark inside parenthe-
ses. This device shows that even after research, you could not establish the accuracy of the fact. It does not
serve as a substitute for checking facts.
Example:
My mother was born in 1920(?) and died in 2005.
Do not use a question mark after an Indirect Question.
An indirect question is a statement implying a question but not actually asking one. Though the ideas ex-
pressed are interrogative, the actual phrasing is not.
Examples:
They asked me whether I did the Language Skills course in the undergraduation.
He asked me whether I wished to make a good impression.
I wonder what my future will be.
A polite request phrased as a direct question is often followed by a period rather than a question mark.
Examples:
Will you please return this book as soon as possible.
May we hear from you at your earliest convenience.
Exclamation Mark (!)

Use the exclamation point after the interjection or after a statement that is genuinely emphatic or exclama-
tory. Here is an example:
What a surprise!
Use an exclamation point after an expression of strong feeling.
INTERNAL PUNCTUATION MARKS

Internal punctuation marks indicate whether a writer wants you to read a whole sentence as a question, an
assertion or an expression of emotion. Internal punctuation indicates the relations and relative importance
of elements within the sentence. Five punctuation marks are used for this purpose: Comma, Semicolon,
Colon, Dash and Parentheses. These are shown in Exhibit 14.2.
Exhibit 14.2 Internal Punctuation Marks
Comma (,)
Slash (/)
Semicolon (;)
Colon (:)
Dash (–)
Parentheses ()
The most important use of these marks is indispensable to clarity. A skillful use of internal punctuation,
however, serves not only basic clarity but can also help writers communicate the precise shade of meaning
balance and emphasis they wish the reader to get.
Internal punctuation is basically a rhetorical and not a mechanical matter. In other words, it is impossible
to talk about punctuation of a sentence without talking about the meaning of that sentence. On any level of
writing, punctuation is an integral part of the meaning of a sentence. In studying the punctuation rules that
follow, notice how each mark is used and also how it contributes to the total meaning of the sentence.
The Comma (,)

Of all the marks of punctuation, the comma (,) has the widest variety of uses and often causes the most
problems for writers. At the same time, it is a very important aid in clarifying the meaning for the
reader. Probably because the comma is used in so many situations, any attempt to codify the practice of
the writers and state the usage in terms of definite principles will give a due weight to the exceptions. Yet,
however important the differences of practice are, to a student the most important thing is that there is such
Punctuation 235
a large area of agreement. Most of the uses of comma can be stated in terms of principles; principles which
reflect what most writers are doing. Commas should be used appropriately and sparingly. Therefore it is
important to learn the principles for proper placement of commas. Once the basic rules have been learned,
the remaining punctuation marks should cause little problem. The following are some of the principles we
should follow.
The commas are used:
between coordinate clauses
between parts of a series
between consecutive coordinate adjectives
to prevent communication gap.
Use a Comma between coordinate clauses
A comma is generally used to separate coordinate clauses joined by and, but, nor, so, for and yet except
when the clauses are short and closely related in meaning.
Examples:
Note: Do not use a comma if the clause is dependent.
Example:
The comma is obligatory before ‘for’ (to prevent confusion with preposition ‘for’) but recommended before
‘but’.
Example:
I have never had more than two English classes in my life, for though I wrote essays at school.
Note: You may omit a comma between two short, closely related independent clauses if there is no chance
of the meaning being confused.
Example:
(i) She came in the afternoon so we invited her to lunch.
(ii) I kicked the ball and John accidentally slipped reaching for it.
Use a Comma between parts of a series
Commas are used to separate three or more words of the same parts of speech, or phrases, or clauses in a
series that form a coordinate series. A series must have at least three words or phrases, usually the last two
are joined by “and” or “or”.
Examples:
(i) I met Shanthi, Prasanthi, and Kranth(i). (N)
(ii) I wrote, read, examined, revised and kept aside the document. (V)
(iii) Kavya explained the barriers to communication very clearly, carefully, convincingly and effectively.
(Adv)
(iv) Ravi is sincere, hard working, efficient and conscientious. (Adj)
Use a Comma between Consecutive Coordinate Adjectives
Commas are used between consecutive coordinate adjectives in a series. Use a comma after each element
or each pair of elements in a series of coordinate adjectives. Adjectives in a series are coordinate if each
adjective modifies the noun separately.
Examples:
(i) Mr. Anil was a surly, treacherous, cruel fellow.
(ii) You are a greedy, thoughtless, insensitive, prig.
Note: When an adjective modifies the whole idea that follows, it is not a coordinate clause and it is not
separated by a comma.
Examples:
(i) Ravi was a lazy old fellow.
(ii) My students are planning an exciting holiday canoe trip.
Note: A safe practice is to omit the comma with numerals and with the common adjectives of size and
age.
Examples:
(i) Four tiny black balls.
(ii) The small girl.
Use a Comma to prevent a communication gap
Semantic grouping of words is essential for a clear expression. Identify semantic grouping of words and use
a comma to avoid a semantic distortion and to prevent illogical grouping.
Examples:
(i) Before starting to eat, father bowed his head in prayer.
(ii) After washing, the guest went into the dining hall.
If we are to omit the punctuation mark after ‘to eat’ in the first sentence and after ‘washing’ in the
second sentence, the meaning gets distorted.
(iii) Our summer resort is furnished with comfortable rooms, a large lake with boating facilities, and a golf
course.
If we omit the comma after ‘facilities’ in the sentence, the sentence seems to suggest that resort has
a lake with a golf course. To avoid this type of a semantic distortion, strictly follow the principles of
effective use of punctuation marks.
Use a Comma after an introductory element
Use a comma to set off an introductory phrase or clause from a main clause.
Example:
As soon as he finished his dessert, he left.
Use a comma to set off a modifier which precedes the main clause especially when the introductory ele-
ment is long and not closely connected with the main clause in meaning.
Use a comma when you begin with a fairly long nonrestrictive adverbial clause.
Example:
If a language is spoken by at least two people, then there are always some differences of usage which an
observer can detect if he examines carefully.
Use a comma to set off a beginning participle phrase modifying the object or an absolute phrase
before the subject.
Examples:
(i) Having listened to his story, the judge nodded and then dismissed the case. (Phrase modifies Judg-
es)
(ii) The excitement being over, the students returned to the classroom.
Use a comma to set off short introductory prepositional phrases only when they are definitely nonre-
strictive, such as transitional phrases.
Example:
In the first place, he is usually the last person to leave the office.
Punctuation 237
Use a Comma with transposed or contrasting sentence elements

Examples:
(i) She will pick up a book, not any special book, but just to feel a book in her hand.
(ii) Inequality, by arousing jealousy and envy, provokes discontent.
Use a Comma with mild exclamations
Commas are used to set off mild exclamations, sentence adverbs, and responses such as ‘Yes’ and ‘No’
when beginning a sentence.
Examples:
(i) Unfortunately, the person did not come.
(ii) Yes, the second essay is due tomorrow.
(iii) No, I shall not go to the market today.
(iv) “Oh, it does matter,” replied her mother.
Use a Comma with Questions and Question Tags
Commas are generally used to separate direct quotations from the unquoted material.
Examples:
(i) “There is no use in working,” he complained.
(ii) She is reading a book, isn’t she?
Use a Comma with Nonrestrictive Clauses
Commas are used to set off nonrestrictive clauses. They are not used to set off restrictive clauses. A non-
restrictive element in a sentence is a word or group of words that is an addition to, rather than an integral
part of the basic word or group of words it modifies. Restrictive elements identify or designate in some
particular way with which they modify. Nonrestrictive elements introduce amplifying information beyond
what is necessary for the purpose of identification. An illustration will help make our meaning clear.
Example:
(i) Restrictive: A man who is sincere will succeed.
(ii) Nonrestrictive: Mr. Ravi, who is sincere, will succeed.
In the first sentence the clause ‘who is sincere’ identifies the nature of man who will succeed; it restricts
the subject of ‘will succeed.’ Hence, the clause is restrictive. It is thus not set off with commas. In the second
sentence, however, the proper noun Mr. Ravi identifies or designates the particular man ‘who will succeed;
the fact that Mr. Ravi is sincere is merely amplifying information about a person already sufficiently identi-
fied. Here, the clause is nonrestrictive. Hence, it is set off with commas.
Examples:
(i) We have decided to hire a woman who knows how to cook.
(ii) We have decided to hire Ms. Anitha, who knows how to cook.
Use a Comma with Nonessential Words
Use a comma to set off nonessential words, phrases or clauses from the reminder of the sentence.
Examples:
(i) Please notice, if you will, the depth of the lake.
(ii) Yes, please type this before you leave this afternoon.
(iii) Her voice, which had been high, fell suddenly.
Do not Use a Comma for Nonessential Material
Essential material will indicate the manner or condition or who, what, why, when or where.
Examples:
(i) I want to examine all the children when they have been prepared.
(ii) Staff members who fail to attend the meeting will lose their consulting privileges.
Note: Many people often have a difficulty with correct usage of ‘who, whom, whose, that, and which’ as
function words in essential and nonessential clauses. Who, whom, whose are used in both essential and
nonessential clauses. The word ‘that’ is used in essential clauses. The word ‘which’ is generally used
in nonessential clauses.
Examples:
(i) She twisted her left knee, which has an artificial prosthesis in it.
(ii) The family rejected the recommendation that she should study medicine.
Use a Comma to Set off Appositives
An appositive, or a word in apposition, is usually used to limit or qualify the meaning of another word, to
add to its meaning, or emphasise it. Most appositives are nonrestrictive and should therefore be set off by
commas.
Examples:
(i) Gandhi, the father of the nation, was a great freedom fighter.
(ii) Mother Theresa, great social worker, was a kind woman.
Note: Appositives which are essential for the complete meaning of the sentence must not be separated by
commas.
Examples:
(i) Your friend Mr. Anil reached at 3.30 p.m.
(ii) I myself will stay and finish the report.
Use a Comma to Set off the Parenthetical Element
Commas are used to set off parenthetical elements, or words, phrases and clauses used to explain, to qualify
or to emphasise. Three types of punctuation marks are used with parenthetical elements. Parentheses are
used for the most distant interrupters, dashes for something a little less distant and commas for interrupters
most closely related to the rest of the sentence.
(a) Conjunctive Adverbs
The words such as however, moreover, therefore, furthermore and nevertheless are conjunctive
adverbs. Use a comma when these adverbial conjunctives are used within a clause.
Examples:
(i) However, I want this report typed.
Some of the words used as parenthetical expressions are: indeed, for example, I suppose, of course,
after all, by the way, it seems, to be sure, therefore, however, furthermore, in my opinion, strictly
speaking and so on. However, no word or expression in itself is parenthetical. When these words are
closely connected in meaning with other words in a sentence, they are not set off.
Examples:
However upset he is, he will finish the report.
(b) Directive and Qualifying Words or Phrases
In formal writing, some of the most common are: also, perhaps, indeed, too, at least, may and for
example and are considered as close modifiers and therefore not set off by commas.
Examples:
(i) Indeed two of them actually did escape from the prison.
Punctuation 239
(c) Parenthetical Clauses

Most of these are parenthetical comments, but some are adverbial clauses which break into the sentence
flow.
Examples:
(i) This, I suppose, is the essence of the message.
(ii) Our interpretation of this message is, I think, totally unfair.
Use a Comma with Dialogue Guide
An explanatory clause like he said (a dialogue guide), when it breaks into a sentence of a dialogue, is set
off by commas.
Example:
(i) “It’s a rough trail”, explained the guide.
(ii) The man answered, “You’ll have trouble finding it, I think.”
Use a Comma to Set off Substantives
Commas are used to set off substances used in a direct address.
Example:
(i) Ravi, let me tell you what medicines you have to take today.
Use a Comma to Set off Titles and Degrees
Use a comma after the name and before and after the title.
Examples:
(i) A. Ravi, MD, saw the patient in consultation.
(ii) Ms. K. Kavya, administrator, gave him ten days to bring his incomplete charts up to date.
The Semicolon (;)

The semicolon is always used as a mark of separation. A semicolon is more than a comma and less than a
period. The period separates sentences. The semicolon separates the main clauses within a sentence.
1. Use a Semicolon in a Compound Sentence without Conjunction
A semicolon may be used between the main clauses of a compound sentence when they are not joined
by one of the coordinating conjunctions.
Examples:
(i) Plants and trees live a complete life without a nervous system; they breathe without lungs; they
distribute sap without a heart;…
Note: Generally a semicolon should not be used to cut off a phrase or a dependent clause from
the main clause.
(ii) To educate a man is to educate an individual; to educate a woman is to educate a family.
2. Use a Semicolon when the Clauses are long and to Show Distinct Pause
A semicolon is used between the clauses of a compound sentence joined by a coordinating conjunction
when the clauses are long and when they contain other punctuation, or when a more distinct pause
than the comma is desirable.
Example:
(i) Around the first of January, he developed a pain in his chest, which he ignored for several days;
and, finally he saw me, at the request of his family doctor, on July 16.
3. Use a semicolon to Separate Main Clauses Joined by a Conjunctive Adverb

Example:
We spend millions of rupees for road-building; however, our roads are rapidly deteriorating.
Note: If a conjunctive adverb comes within the second main clause instead of at the beginning, the
clauses must still be separated by a semicolon, and the conjunctive adverb should be set off by com-
mas.
Conjunctive adverbs are different from subordinating conjunctions. A conjunctive adverb is primarily
a transitional word carrying the thought from one main clause to the next subordinating conjunctions
introducing subordinate clauses. This list, though incomplete will aid you in distinguishing between the
two.
Exhibit 14.3 Conjunctive Adverbs and Subordinating Conjunctions
Conjunctive Subordinating
Adverbs Conjunctions
however when
nevertheless although
moreover though
therefore since
consequently if
hence because
indeed so that
like wise as
furthermore after
namely in order that
still while
then unless
accordingly
Use a semicolon between a series of phrases or clauses if any item in the series has internal
commas.
Examples:
(i) Among those present at the community warfare committee meeting were Dr. Ravi, Chief-of-staff;
Mrs. Kavya, administrative officer; Ms. Rachana, medical record technician; and Mr. Joseph, Director
of the training center.
(ii) The following people were present at the meeting: Kavitha, the Doctor; Kalpana, the Dentist; and
Kavya, the Psychiatrist.
The Colon (:)

The colon is a formal punctuation mark. It acts as a pointer, drawing your attention to an important
and concluding part. It is a mark of anticipation. It helps to couple separate elements that must be tried
together but emphasised individually. Often the material to the right of the colon means the same as the
material to the left of the colon.
Punctuation 241
Use a colon followed by a double space to introduce a list preceded by a complete sentence. These
lists are often introduced by the following expressed or implied words: as follows, such as, namely,
the following, etc.
Examples:
(i) Clearing his throat, the speaker began his talk as follows:
(ii) His faults are these: an uncontrollable temper, inexperience, and a lack of interest in his work.
(iii) The patient was treated for the following problems: insomnia, depression.
(iv) Please bring the following items with you for the class: Note-book, Work-book, Language skills
textbook, a pen and a pencil.
Note: Do not use a comma or a colon before a series, if the series is part of a sentence.
Examples: My favorite hobbies are dancing, singing and watching movies.
In listing the items and in tabulation the colon may be used after the verb introducing the list. The
colon is followed by a double space.
After a colon it is customary to use a capital letter when the list that follows consists of a complete
sentence or of several sentences; a small letter is used when what follows the colon is a part of the
same sentence.
Examples:
Write sentences correctly
Understand the meaning of the sentence
Identify different types of punctuation marks
Use a colon followed by double space to introduce an example or to clarify an idea. These ideas or
expressions are often introduced by the expressions: thus, or that is.
Examples:
(i) You must have a skill in writing: that is, clarity in expression.
(ii) I see only one alternative to improve your communication skill: that is, to do an English Lan-
guage Skills Course.
Use a colon followed by a double space after the introductory word or words in an outline.
Use a colon to separate two main clauses when the second clause amplifies or interprets the first.
Use a colon to set off a long or formal appositive or a summary or a series of statements introduced
by the words. The following are as follows:
Examples:
(i) If you are interested in improving your proficiency in English I would recommend the following
books: Words are your Friends; English Language Skills.
(ii) To check out a book from our library proceed as follows:
Use a colon with no space on either side to express ratios. Here the colon takes the place of the word
‘to’.
Examples:
(i) The solution was diluted 1:2.
(ii) We had a 2:1 mix.
Place a colon with no space on either side between the hours and minutes indicating the time of day
in figures.
Examples:
(i) Her appointment is for 10:30 a.m.
(ii) She has to attend a class at 9:30 a.m.
Use a colon followed by a double space to separate the title and the sub-title.
Examples:
(i) Chapter 1 Communication: Its interpretation.
(ii) Dictionary: Its use.
Use a colon and a double space to separate the reference or a subject notation in the body of a busi-
ness letter.
Examples:
(i) Re: Kavya
(ii) Subject: Writing Instructions.
The Dash (–)

The dash is used to indicate a sudden, abrupt break in thought or structure. It is effective as long as it is not
overused. It provides a dramatic emphasis. To indicate a dash, use two hyphens without a space between
them. The dash is used for an explanatory or parenthetical phrase or clause that breaks into the normal
flow of the sentence. Three kinds of marks may indicate parentheses: The comma, the dash and the marks
of parentheses. The degree of separation indicated by these marks varies from the highest for which the
commas are used, to the most definite for which dash is used and the most formal, for which marks of
parentheses are used.
Dash is used:
To give an emphasis to parenthetical remarks.
Example:
Anitha – a true friend – spent hours helping me.
To denote an after thought.
Example:
Have a good vacation – but do not get sunstroke.
To indicate an abrupt shift in the sentence structure or thought.
Example:
Should the workers try again to settle grievances – after all, the management walked out of the first
meeting – or, just go on strike?
The dash must not be used indiscriminately for all the other marks of punctuation. It should be saved for
its special function, so that it will be intelligible when it is used.
Parentheses [()]
Parentheses, commas and dashes are used to set off incidental or nonessential elements in text; which you
choose will be determined either by the dictator/writer of the material or by the closeness of the relation-
ship between the material enclosed and the remainder of the sentence. In general, commas are used to set
slightly apart but a closely related material, and parentheses are used when commas have already been
used within the nonessential element or the material itself is neither grammatically nor logically essential
to the main thought. The dash is a more forceful and abrupt division and draws attention to a statement;
parentheses de-emphasise. Material enclosed within parentheses can range from a single punctuation mark
(!) to several sentences.
Use parentheses to set off words or phrases that are clearly nonessential to the sentence. These are
often definitions, comments or explanations.
Punctuation 243
Examples:
(i) She felt that she had inhaled some sort of ornamental dust (gold, silver, bronze, etc.) while
working in her flower shop.
(ii) The administrative medical assistant (receptionist, secretary, book keeper, insurance clerk, tran-
scriptionist, file clerk) requires the same training as the clinical medical assistant.
Use parentheses around figures or letters indicating divisions.
Note: You may select to use a period after figures or letters indicating divisions as long as they do
not occur within a sentence.
Example:
(i) It is my impression that she has (1) progressive dysmenorrhea, (2) uterine lLeiomyoma, and (3)
weakness of the right inguinal ring.
The Slash (/)

Use the slash in writing certain technical terms. The slash sometimes substitutes for the words “per”,
“to” or “over”.
Examples:
(i) She has 20/20 vision.
(ii) Her blood pressure is 140/90.
Do not use the slash to take the place of ‘per’ except in describing specific qualities and a form of
measurement (including time).
Examples:
(i) He has been smoking three packets cigarettes per day.
(ii) Turn it a centimeter per day.
Or
Turn it 1 cm/day.
Use the slash to offer word choice.
Examples:
(i) and/or
Mr./Mrs./Miss/Ms.
Use the slash to write fractions or to write a symbol.
Examples:
(i) 2/3 (ii) C/O (iii) 1½
DIRECT QUOTATION PUNCTUATION MARKS

Material quoted verbatim from other sources must always be set off distinctly from a writer’s own words.
Such distinctions are usually indicated by quotation marks. Longer quotations, however, are indicated in a
different way. Quotation marks are:
“”
Use double quotation marks to enclose a direct quotation.
Examples:
(i) “Look to the paragraph and the discourse will look to itself”.
– Alexander Bain
(ii) “Dictionaries are like watches; the worst is better than none, and the best cannot be expected to
go quite true”.
– Samuel Johnson
Use single quotation marks to enclose a quotation within a quotation.

Examples:
(i) Your reading assignment is to read the chapter: ‘The Art of Conversation’ in this “book” said
the Teacher.
(ii) The chapter, ‘Punctuation’ in ‘Language Skills’ course is the most difficult topic for me.
Use quotation marks to enclose the definitions or meanings of words.
Example:
The etymological meaning of the word “nice” is “ignorant”.
If a quotation is relatively long and is extending more than four lines – it is usually indented from
both right and left margins, and not enclosed in quotation marks.
Words used in a special sense may be set off by quotation marks.
Example:
When a new book on “Professional Communication” comes into the library, it is first of all “acces-
sioned”.
Always place a comma or a period inside the quotation marks.
Example:
“There is no use in working late night,” he complained, “When it only makes me more sleepy than
usual.”
Always place a colon or a semicolon outside the quotation marks.
Example:
According to Shakespeare, the poet writes in a “fine frenzy”; by “fine frenzy” he meant a combination
of energy, enthusiasm, imagination, and certain madness.
Place a dash, question mark, or an exclamation point inside the quotation marks when it applies only
to the quotation; place it outside the quotation marks when it applies to the whole statement.
Examples:
(i) Kavitha said, “Will I see you tomorrow?”
(ii) Didn’t she say, “I’ll see you tomorrow”?
Use a comma to separate an opening quotation from the rest of the sentence unless the quotation ends
with a question mark or an exclamation point.
Examples:
(i) “The loan was sanctioned”, he said with happiness.
(ii) “Did he get the loan?” he asked.
(iii) “Oh, yes!” he shouted happily.
Use quotation marks to single out words or phrases for special attention.
Example:
The word “accommodate” is at the top of the list of “most frequently misspelled words.”
WORD PUNCTUATION
Capitals, apostrophes, italics and hyphens identify words that have a special use. They denote a particular
grammatical function in a sentence. Word punctuation indicates the function of a word within the sentence.
It also contributes to the semantic aspect of the sentence. Four punctuation marks are used for word punctua-
tion. These are: capitals, italics, apostrophe and hyphen. Let us analyse the grammatical function of these
word punctuation marks in the following sentence:
Punctuation 245
Our three-week program, assigned in Thursday’s class, is Soft-Skills Course. Here the italics set off
the Soft-Skills course as a title. The capitals identify Thursday as proper name, Soft-skills Course as the
title, and our, as the beginning of the sentence. The apostrophe indicates that Thursday is singular posses-
sive and not plural. The hyphens between three and week; and soft and skills make the two words function
as a single adjective.
Exhibit 14.4 Word Punctuation Marks
capitals
italics
apostrophe (’)
hyphen (-)
Capitals
The use of capitals is a device to make a written message clear, easy to read and understand.
Capitalise the following words:
The first word of a sentence.
Examples:
(i) Education is concerned not with knowledge but the meaning of knowledge.
(ii) Necessity is the mother of invention.
The first word of a line of poetry.
Proper Nouns, their derivatives and Abbreviations.
Examples:
India, Indians, Himalayan, Telugu, Hindus, WHO
Specific Places:
The Ocean Park
Specific Organisations:
Red-cross
Apollo Hospitals
Historical Events:
The French Revolution, The Independence Day
Religious terms with a sacred significance:
God, Almighty
Days of the week, months, festivals and historical events:
(i) Monday, Thursday, etc.
(ii) December, September etc.
(iii) Pongal, Christmas
(iv) The Republic Day, The Old English period.
Names of books, plays, work of art, newspapers, and journals:
(i) The Ramayana, Business Communication and Report Writing.
(ii) As you like it
(iii) The Taj Mahal
(iv) The Hindu

(v) Journal of Higher Education
Titles of people and names of things when we refer to unique examples:
(i) The President of India
(ii) The Chief Minister of Andhra Pradesh
(iii) The Golden Temple
Nouns and Pronouns standing for God:
The Lord, The Trinity
The Pronoun ‘I’ and the interjection ‘O’:
Chemical and Mathematical abbreviations are written in a combination of both the upper and the lower case
letters without periods.
Examples:
104 : ten to the power of four
Na : Sodium
HCl : Hydrochloric acid
O2 : Oxygen
Business Letters
The first letter of the opening salutation and the complimentary closure.
The first letter of the elements of the inside address.
The first letter of a person’s title when it appears in the inside address or envelope address.
The first letter of professional titles, military ranks when they immediately precede the name.
The first letter or all the letters in the word ‘Attention’ when it is a part of an address.
Example:
Attention or ATTENTION
The first letter of each word or all the letters in the title.
Example:
To Whom It May Concern
Or
TO WHOM IT MAY CONCERN
Both letters of the state abbreviations in the inside address and envelope address.
Examples:
AP, MP, UP, HP.
Italics
Generally, italics are typefaces that slope towards the right. The important uses of italics are provided
here.
1. Italicise the words in the following contexts:
(i) The titles of the books
(ii) The titles of Newspapers
(iii) The title of Magazines
(iv) Names of ships
(v) Names of aircrafts
Punctuation 247
2. Foreign words and phrases that have not yet been accepted into the English Language.
3. To give a word special stress or emphasis:
Example:
Write the Report and submit it.
4. Italicise letters, words, and numbers used as words.
Examples:
(i) your r’s look very much like your n’s.
(ii) your 3’s and 8’s are alike.
(iii) He used insight in place of incite.
5. The early settlers borrowed Indian words like pandit, lathi, and loot.
6. In definitions, the word to be defined is commonly set in italics.
Examples:
(i) Agenda is an official list of things to be done or dealt with at a particular meeting.
(ii) Christmas tree is the network of pipe at the mouth of an oil well.
The Apostrophe
1. To Form Possessive:
An apostrophe and –s are used to form the possessive of a noun, singular or plural, which does not end in
–s.
Examples:
A day’s work
Women’s watch
A girl’s dress
Note: When two or more names joined by ‘and’ are represented as joint owners of something, the last name
alone takes the possessive with the apostrophe.
Example:
Anitha and Rita’s mother is in town today.
2. Plural Nouns Ending in –S:
The apostrophe alone is used to form the possessive of a plural noun ending in –s.
Examples:
Ladies’ hats
Girls’ dresses
The employees’ records
My brother-in-law’s book (hyphenated noun)
Nobody’s fault (pronoun)
Proofreading is the CMT’s responsibility (abbreviation)
3. Singular Nouns Ending in –S:
The apostrophe with –s is used to form the possessive of singular nouns ending in –s, if the resultant form
is not unpleasant or difficult to pronounce; otherwise the apostrophe alone is used.
Examples:
For goodness’ sake
For conscience’ sake
4. With Indefinite Pronouns:

An apostrophe with –s is used to form the possessive of certain indefinite pronouns.
Examples:
Anybody’s game
Someone’s hat
One’s opinion
Note: Personal pronouns such as its, hers, yours, his, theirs, ours, whose or yours do not require an apos-
trophe.
Examples:
1. The next appointment is hers.
2. The possessive of the pronoun ‘it’ is its. It’s means “it is”.
3. If this coat isn’t yours (not your’s), it’s probably hers. (not her’s).
5. To Indicate an Omission:
An apostrophe is used to indicate the omission of letters or figures.
Examples:
Doesn’t
Isn’t
The class of ’07
6. Plurals of Figures, Letters, etc.:
An apostrophe and –s are used to form the plurals of figures, letters and words referred to as words.
Examples:
1. Your m’s, n’s, and u’s look alike.
2. He used too many and’s and but’s in his paper.
3. Be careful not to make your 3’s look like 8’s.
7. In Titles:
The apostrophe is often omitted in titles.
Examples:
The Authors League
Farmers Market
8. Possessive Expressions of Time, Distance, and Value:
Use an apostrophe in possessive expressions of time, distance and value.
Examples:
1. He should be able to return to work in a month’s time.
2. I want the patient to feel that she got her money’s worth.
Hyphens
The main uses of hyphen are given here.
Compound Words with Hyphens
1. Use a hyphen to form compound nouns that are not yet accepted as a single word.
If compound nouns express a single idea, they emerge as single words. This compound word passes
successive stages. The two elements are separate in the beginning. Hyphen is used when we form a
compound word. Hyphen is removed when this compound word is treated as a single word.
Punctuation 249
Examples:
News-paper Newspaper
Time-table Timetable
Class-room Classroom
Pen-friend Penfriend
2. A few compound nouns are special types. They generally take a hyphen.
Examples:
Test-tube, High-pitch
3. Use a hyphen for compounds beginning with a single capital letter.
Examples:
C-language, U-turn
4. Use a hyphen when the prefix ‘non-’ is used to mean ‘not connected’.
Examples:
Non-scientific, Non-verbal communication
5. All compound adjectives are to be consistently hyphenated.
Examples:
High-voltage lines, Cost-benefit analysis
6. Use a hyphen for coordinate compounds.
Example:
Subject-verb agreement
7. Use a hyphen for compounds formed with adverbial particle.
Examples:
Instructor-in-charge, On-campus programme
Use Hyphen with Numbers
8. Use a hyphen for the compound numbers 21 to 99 when they are written out.
Examples:
Sixty-four students participated.
Twenty-eight members attended the meeting.
9. Use a hyphen to separate the prefix if the base begins with a figure.
Example:
Pre-1960
10. Use a hyphen in adjective compounds with a numerical first element.
Examples:
3-week vacation 2-days work
11. Use a hyphen in the place of the words ‘to’ and ‘through’ to identify the numeric and alphabetical
ranges.
Example:
Learn 10-20 words daily.
Use a Hyphen with Prefixes
12. Use a hyphen to avoid doubling a vowel or tripling consonant except after the prefixes co-, de-, pre-,
pro-, and re-
Examples:
Anti-inflation Cell-like De-emphasise Co-ordination
13. Use a hyphen to clarify the pronunciation or the meaning.
Examples:
Re-creation Re-present
14. Use a hyphen when the prefix is combined with a word that begins with a capital letter.
Examples:
Half-yearly examination Pre-comprehensive examination
15. Use a hyphen when self-, ex-(when it means former) and all are used as prefixes.
Examples:
Self-sufficient All-around Ex-director
16. Use a hyphen when ‘great’ is used as a prefix with kinship terms.
Example:
Great-grandmother
Compound Words without a Hyphen

1. Some compounds do not take hyphen.
Examples:
Seafood Sawdust
2. Some compound words can be written as two words even though they express single idea.
Examples:
High school Sea shell
3. It is not hyphenated when the first element of the compound is an adverb ending in ‘-ly’.
Examples:
Highly effective Easily answered
4. Do not use a hyphen in a unit modifier which contains a letter or a number as its second element.
Examples:
Grade A cotton Point 3 program
5. Do not use a hyphen in a foreign phrase as a unit modifier.
Example:
Ex Officio member.
Word Division
Division of the word at the end of the line removes confusion in comprehending the material.
Divide between syllables.
Examples:
dex-ter-ous win-dow En-glish
Divide at two lettered syllable.
Examples:
ac-tive as-sign
Divide after a prefix or before a suffix.
Examples:
il-legal rais-ing
Punctuation 251
If a one vowel syllable appears in the middle of a word, divide after it and not before it.
Examples:
criti-cal busi-ness
Divide between two consonants.
Examples:
refer-ring admit-ting
If the word root ends with double consonants, divide the word between the root and the suffix.
Example:
spell-ing
Divide between the two different sounded vowels occurring together.
Examples:
cre-ative vi-olation radi-ation
Divide a hyphenated compound word after the hyphen.
Examples:
self-analysis twenty-fifth cost-analysis
Medical terms are not divided between syllables but are divided according to their component parts:
prefix, suffix or root of the word.
Example:
naso-frontal
Do not divide monosyllable words.
Examples:
make built pray take limp sea
Never divide after a one-letter syllable at the beginning or at the end of a word.
Examples:
amount about
Never divide the abbreviations.
Examples:
sonar nadar WHO
Never divide contractions.
Examples:
isn’t don’t aren’t won’t
Do not divide proper names.
Examples:
Rama Rao Snehalatha Panduranga Rao
Don’t split numbers. Very large numbers can be divided after the comma.
Examples:
22,000,400 can be divided as 22,000, -400.
Do not divide the last word in a paragraph or in a page.
Do not allow more than two consecutive lines to end in hyphenation.
Do not divide at the end of the first line or the last full line in a paragraph.
Do not divide a word that would change its meaning when hyphenated.
Example:
I will re-collect the patient’s daily slip.
Street addresses may be divided after the name of the street, but not between the number and the street
name.
SPACING WITH PUNCTUATION

No Space
Following a period within an abbreviation
Following a period used as a decimal point
Between quotation marks and the quoted material
Before or after a hyphen
Before or after a slash
Before or after a dash
Between the parentheses and the enclosed material
Between any word and the punctuation following it
Between an apostrophe
Between the number and the colon
Before a colon
Before or after a comma used within numbers
Before or after an ampersand in abbreviations
For Example: L & W
On either side of the colon when expressing ratios
On either side of the colon when expressing the time of the day
After closing the parentheses if another mark of punctuation follows
Leave One Space
After a comma
After a colon within a sentence
Before and after a semicolon
After a period following an initial
After closing the parentheses
Before an opening and after closing with in a sentence
On each side of the “X” symbol in an expression of dimension
Example:
3 X 3 Sponge
Leave Two Spaces
After a period
After a question mark
After an exclamation point at the end of a sentence
After a quotation mark at the end of a sentence
After a colon except when used with the time of day, ratio or when expressing a dilute solution
TOO MUCH PUNCTUATION

Superfluous comma should be avoided
Fundamentally, the purpose of punctuation is to facilitate the communication of thoughts, ideas or informa-
tion by means of the printed or written language. What writers and readers think, however, is necessary to
achieve clear and quick communication which in turn depends on conventions or practices. It is advisable to
Punctuation 253
use enough punctuation for clarity and effectiveness. The following are typical situations in which unneces-
sary commas should not be used in short, simple sentences that would be clear without the commas:
(i) Commas should not be used between subject and its verb, a verb and its object, a preposition and its
object, an adjective and its noun.
(ii) No comma should be used after a co-ordination of conjunction joining two clauses.
(iii) No comma is used before a coordinating conjunction joining two words, two simple phrases, two
subjects, or two predicates.
(iv) No comma is used to set off short introductory phrases or clauses that are not clearly parenthetical.
(v) Commas are not used to set off closely restrictive elements, such as clauses, appositives and
phrases.
(vi) Periods are not used after common contractions, with abbreviations standing for governmental or
international agencies or with another terminal mark to end a sentence.
Summary
Punctuation is important in business writings and document preparation. Correct punctuation helps you to write sentences
correctly and guides you to infer the meaning of the sentence. Hence, use of punctuation is based on three principles:
meaning, structural pattern of the sentence and the conventions of the age. For our convenience we can divide
punctuation marks in the following four categories: (1) the end punctuation marks which includes: period [.], question
mark [?], and exclamation mark [!]; (2) internal punctuation marks which includes: comma [,], semicolon [;], colon [:],
dash [–], parentheses ( ), slash (/); (3) direct-quotation punctuation marks [“ ”]; and (4) word punctuation mark which
includes: capitals, italics, apostrophe (’), and hyphen (-).
Correct use of punctuation marks helps you write your document effectively. These are also useful for proof-reading
the document. The process of acquiring the use of punctuation marks is:
Knowing → Learning → Practising → Applying.
Review Questions
1. How do punctuation marks help you understand the structure and meaning of the sentence?
2. Discuss ‘end punctuation’ marks.
3. Discuss ‘internal punctuation’ marks.
4. Discuss ‘word punctuation’ marks.
5. ‘The internal punctuation mark ‘comma’ creates more problems to both readers and writers.’ Discuss.
Exercises
Rewrite the following sentences by putting the missing punctuation marks wherever necessary, and in the space after
each sentence, write the letter of the rule you used from the list of rules given here. Each rule may be used more than
once. For some sentences more than one rule may be applicable. Some rules may not be used here.
Rules for Punctuation Marks
Use a period:
At the end of a request for action that is phrased as a question out of politeness
Abbreviations that get confused with ordinary word
Use Italics:
For words or phrases used as examples of language
For letters and numbers used as words
To give word a special stress or an emphasis
Use Comma:
To set off non-essential words or phrases
To set off parenthetical expression
To set off non-essential words from the remainder of the sentence
To set off the introductory clause or phrase
To set off the words that independently modifies the same noun
To avoid misleading or confusing the reader
May be omitted after a brief introductory element if clarity is not sacrificed
Do not use a comma when an essential or a restrictive clause appears in a natural order at the end of the sentence
or at the end of the independent clause
Do not use comma after the last modifier in front of the noun
Use a Semicolon:
To separate two or more closely related independent clauses when there is no conjunction
Use a Colon:
To introduce example or to clarify an idea
To express numbers in ratios
Use a Dash:
To denote an afterthought
Use an Apostrophe:
To form the plurals of figures, letters and words referred to as words
In possessive expressions to time, distance and value
To indicate omission
Use Quotation marks:
To the titles of minor literary works
To single out words or phrases for special attention
Exercises
1. In all offshore contracts consolidation does not mean what it naturally means.
2. You have only one goal here accuracy.
3. You have requested our cooperation we have complied.
4. He spells out difficult terms for example sanguine propinquity propitious etc.
5. He should be able to return to work a months time.
6. I kicked the ball and Raju accidentally slipped reaching for it.
7. During the course of the procedure a power failure occurred.
8. A power failure occurred during the course of the procedure.
9. She is a tall slender lady.
10. Accommodate is at the top of the list of most frequently misspelled words.
11. Yes please enter this data before you leave this afternoon.
12. Your homework assignment is to read the chapter 3 effective speech in English Language Skills.
13. When you make an entry in a chart be careful that your 2s dont look like ZS.
14. Please notice if you will the depth of the lake.
Punctuation 255
15. If possible schedule the class to follow the practice session of English sounds.
16. Your 3s and 8s are alike.
17. I will discuss with you after you have a data.
18. She should have in my opinion immediate surgery.
19. Please place the following warning on the door to Room 9 caution Radioactive materials in use.
20. Our receptionist whom I hired yesterday failed, to come to duty today.
21. However I want this report typed.
22. Write the report and submit it.
23. We received a poorly punctuated rude memo from your department.
24. You used four Is in the first paragraph.
25. Enjoy well but don’t waste time.
26. Would you please send this to Anitha.
Chapter 15
Common Errors in English

Identify errors in using nouns, pronouns, prepositions, verbs, adjectives, adverbs,
conjunctions and punctuation.
Overcome your mistakes.
Write without errors.
INTRODUCTION
This Chapter mainly presents an analysis of errors commonly made in spoken and written English. Regardless
of snarl in spellings, lexical items and the grammar of the English language, you can find in studying the
principles of usage an exciting challenge – a challenge that will appreciate the learning and the application
of the often disparaged rules of grammar. Acquiring mere knowledge does not suffice your needs of everyday
use of language. You must be able to express that clearly, effectively and correctly.
You must realise that rules for usage are unquestionably necessary. They are necessary because they
maintain uniformity in the usage of language that is an essential requirement for expressing your thoughts
precisely and correctly. If rules for usage did not exist, the differences that appear in using the language would
make the communication difficult. Rules for usage prevent miscommunication by insisting on uniformity in
using the language that guarantees a universality of meaning.
In this Chapter the rules for usage have been grouped according to grammatical concepts. It further
discusses the errors that occur because of commonly confused words. Speaker and writers use these words
incorrectly because they have not learned the precise meaning of these confused words. After a long experi-
ence of teaching I have made an attempt to analyse the common errors and framed the rules for usage which
are discussed here.
Common Errors in English 257
ERRORS IN USING NOUNS

1. Some Nouns are used only as singular. They have no Plural Forms. These Words are:
Alphabet cavalry machinery
Bread fuel offspring
Advice gram mischief
Baggage hair poetry
Bedding issue rice
Abuse infantry scenery
Furniture information luggage
Examples:
(i) Wrong : The sceneries of Switzerland is very fascinating.
Right : The scenery of Switzerland is very fascinating.
(ii) Wrong : The furnitures in the office were damaged.
Right : The furniture in the office was damaged.
(iii) Wrong : My luggages were left at the waiting room.
Right : My luggage was left at the waiting room.
(iv) Wrong : I have received no informations from you.
Right : I have received no information from you.
2. Some Nouns are Plural in Form but they are used as Singular. Here are Some Words:
Games and Sports : Athletics, innings, gymnastics, billiards
Diseases : Mumps, measles
Branches of Learning : Mathematics, Physics, Linguistics, Economics, Statistics, Politics, Civics,
Phonetics, Ethics, Aeronautics, Dynamics
Miscellaneous Words : News, summons, mechanics, classics, gallows, grits, acoustics, aesthetics,
magnetics, rickets, means, molasses
Examples:
(i) Wrong : Mathematics are a very interesting subject.
Right : Mathematics is a very interesting subject.
(ii) Wrong : Ethics are meant for self-purification.
Right : Ethics is meant for self-purification.
(iii) Wrong : Recently, measles have broken out in our area.
Right : Recently, measles has broken out in our area.
3. Some Nouns are always used in Plurals. They have no Singular Forms. Some of these are given
here.
annals movables spectacles wages
alms lees stocks valuables
assets oats scissors obsequies
breeches mumps stockings pliers
bellows leftovers shorts pincers
binoculars liabilities shoes remains
clothes premises savings shears
fetters proceeds thanks tweegers
extra riches trousers wages
goods surroundings (n) tongs vegetables
Examples:
(i) Wrong : The goods is delivered.
Right : The goods are delivered.
(ii) Wrong : Where is my spectacles?
Right : Where are my spectacles?
(iii) Wrong : My mother bought shoe yesterday.
Right : My mother bought shoes yesterday.
(iv) Wrong : Alms is offered to the beggar.
Right : Alms are offered to the beggar.
4. Some Collective Nouns are used in the Plural Form.
audience mankind poultry
cattle people gentry
clergy police vermin
folk peasantry
Examples:
(i) Wrong : The gentry of our area is well educated.
Right : The gentry of our area are well educated.
(ii) Wrong : Vermin destroys our health and property.
Right : Vermin destroy our health and property.
(iii) Wrong : The police is trying to find out the details of the case.
Right : The police are trying to find out the details of the case.
(iv) Wrong : The cattle is grazing in my field.
Right : The cattle are grazing in my field.
5. Some Nouns do not take Plural when preceded by a Numeral. These Words are given here.
dozen Lakh
hundred score
thousand
million
Example:
(i) Wrong : Rita bought six dozens apples.
Right : Rita bought six dozen apples.
6. Some Nouns have the same form in Singular and Plural Forms. These Words are given here.
Apparatus dozen or dozens sheep thousand
amends (N) fish or fishes series
Cannon gross swine
Corps heathen score
Cod hundred or hundreds species
Pan pair rice
Examples:
(i) Wrong : The sheep is eating grass in the field.
Right : The sheep are eating grass in the field.
(ii) Wrong : A series of lectures were delivered on “Business Communication.”
Right : A series of lectures was delivered on “Business Communication.”
(iii) Wrong : A pair of shoes are lost.
Right : A pair of shoes is lost.
7. Compound Nouns generally form Plurals by using the Plural of the Principal Word:
Daughters-in-law Fathers-in-law
Sons-in-law Commanders-in-chief
Passers-by Hangers–on
Lookers-on
Example:
(i) Wrong : Two of my Sister-in-laws are staying with me.
Right : Two of my Sisters-in-law are staying with me.
ERRORS IN USING PRONOUNS

A Pronoun must agree with its antecedent in number, gender and case. (The term antecedent means the noun
or the pronoun to which a later pronoun refers.)
8. The pronouns everyone, everybody, someone, some, one, no one, none, nothing, somebody, some-
thing, nobody, anyone, anything and anybody are always singular. In using these pronouns, one
must be especially careful to make the verb agree and must also make any pronouns substituted
for one of them singular.
Examples:
(i) Wrong : Everyone accept their responsibility.
Right : Everyone accepts his responsibility.
(ii) Wrong : Nobody in that group have their reports revised.
Right : Nobody in that group has his reports revised.
9. The pronoun ‘one’ must be followed ‘one’s’ and it must agree with its antecedent.
Example:
(i) Wrong : One must help his friends in difficulty.
Right : One must help one’s friends in difficulty.
10. The words ‘either’ and ‘neither’ can be correlative conjunctions, adjectives, or pronouns. “Either”
or ‘neither’ used as a pronoun is always singular.
Examples:
(i) Wrong : Neither of the courses are acceptable.
Right : Neither of the courses is acceptable.
(ii) Wrong : Either of the two girls are eligible to get the rank.
Right : Either of the two girls is eligible to get the rank.
11. When two singular nouns are joined by ‘or’, ‘either … or’, ‘neither … nor’, the pronoun used
is in singular.
Examples:
(i) Wrong : Kiran or Karun may offer their services.
Right : Kiran or Karun may offer his services.
(ii) Wrong : Neither Ravi nor Ram did their work today.
Right : Neither Ravi nor Ram did his work today.
(iii) Wrong : Either Anitha or Savitha will submit their report.
Right : Either Anitha or Savitha will submit her report.
12. When a singular noun and plural noun are joined by ‘or’, ‘either….or’, ‘neither … nor’, the
pronoun must be in the plural. In such sentences the noun in singular comes first.
Example:
(i) Wrong : Neither the officer nor his subordinates did his duty.
Right : Neither the officer nor his subordinates did their duty.
13. If pronouns of all the three persons come together in a sentence, the second person pronoun
should be placed first, the third person pronoun comes next and the first person pronoun last
of all.
Examples:
(i) Wrong : Kavya and I and you can expect promotion.
Right : You and Kavya and I can expect promotion.
(ii) Wrong : Both Rachana and you must attend the function.
Right : Both you and Rachana must attend the function.
14. ‘Such’ is always followed by the relative pronoun ‘as’ and ‘same by ‘that’ or ‘as’.
Examples:
(i) Wrong : He is such a man that I honor.
Right : He is such a man as I honor.
(ii) Wrong : This case is not the same of the other.
Right : This case is not the same as the other.
15. Use ‘both’ when pointing out similarities; use ‘each’ when pointing out differences. Note that
each is always singular.
Example:
(i) Wrong : Although both cooks makes cake, each have a different recipe to prepare
this.
Right : Although both cooks make cake, each has a different recipe to prepare this.
16. ‘Each other’ is used to refer to two things or persons and ‘one another’ is used for more than
two things or persons.
Example:
(i) Wrong : These two theories contradict one another.
Right : These two theories contradict each other.
17. ‘Such’ is a pronoun used for a person or a thing of the type specified. ‘Such as’ refers to every-
thing that is specified; ‘such as’ and ‘like’ are confused words. ‘Such as’ means ‘like’. It means
that like things that are specified. ‘Like’ means ‘similar to’.
Example:
(i) Wrong : I prefer, garden flowers like roses, jasmine, chrysanthmum and crossandrum.
Right : I prefer garden flowers such as roses, jasmine, chrysanthmum and crossan-
drum.
8. The expressions ‘and which’, ‘but which’, ‘and who’ and ‘but who’ should be used only when
‘which’ or ‘who’ clause precedes them in the sentence.
Example:
(i) Wrong : Our team was pleased with the audience’s enthusiastic response and which we
had expected before the conference.
Right : Our team was pleased with the audience’s response, which was enthusiastic
and which we had expected before the conference.
OR
Our team was pleased with the audience’s enthusiastic response, which we
had expected before the conference.
19. When the word ‘both’ is used as pronoun it is always plural and therefore requires a plural
verb.
Example:
(i) Wrong : He has two sisters: both lives in London.
Right : He has two sisters: both live in London.
20. The words ‘all’, ‘any’, ‘none’, ‘some’ used as pronouns may be singular or plural, according to
their meaning.
Example:
(i) Wrong : None of her friends has come forward to help her.
Right : None of her friends have come forward to help her.
21. Mine, ours, yours, hers and theirs do not take a noun after them; my, our, your, her and their
always take a noun after them; ‘His’ is common to both.
Examples:
(i) Wrong : Your’s book is on the table.
Right : Your book is on the table.
(ii) Wrong : Your’s sincerely.
Right : Yours sincerely.
22. The word ‘they’ must not be used as an antecedent to ‘who’. The word ‘those’ is used.
Example:
(i) Wrong : They who have not completed their assignment should leave the class.
Right : Those who have not completed their assignment should leave the class.
23. When pronouns myself, yourself, himself, herself, ourselves, yourselves, and themselves are used
as the object of a verb, they are called reflexive pronouns because they help to reflect or turn
the action of the verb back upon the subject itself. Generally, the verb ‘enjoy’ takes a reflexive
pronoun.
Examples:
(i) Wrong : The students enjoyed during the holidays.
Right : The students enjoyed themselves during the holidays.
(ii) Wrong : They are hurting by their conduct.
Right : They are hurting themselves by their conduct.
24. The words few, many and several are used with a plural verb.
Example:
(i) Wrong : Several of us has faith in rebirth.
Right : Several of us have faith in rebirth.
25. When two singular nouns joined by ‘and’ are preceded by ‘each’ or ‘every’, the pronouns used
must be in the singular form.
Example:
(i) Wrong : The principal found each clerk and each lecturer in their place.
Right : The principal found each clerk and each lecturer in his place.
ERRORS IN USING PREPOSITIONS

26. Use ‘native to’ meaning ‘indigenous to’ when discussing plants and animals etc.; use ‘a native
of’ when discussing where people were born.
Examples:
(i) Wrong : Custard apple is a native of India.
Right : Custard apple is native to India.
(ii) Wrong : The tiger is a native of India.
Right : The tiger is native to India.
(iii) Wrong : Gandhiji is native to India.
Right : Gandhiji is a native of India.
27. The preposition ‘to’ is used instead of ‘than’ after some adjectives. These adjectives are superior,
inferior, senior, junior, prior, anterior, elder, and prefer.
Example:
(i) Wrong : Anitha is senior than Kavitha
Right : Anitha is senior to Kavitha.
28. When used with verbs of speaking (talk, speak, communicate etc.), the preposition “to” indicates
that one person did all the speaking.
Example:
Ravi spoke to the group. (It means Ravi did all that speaking.)
The preposition “with” on the other hand conveys the idea of a two-way discussion.
Example:
I spoke with the group about their problem.
This sentence conveys the idea of a discussion between the speaker and the group.
Example:
Wrong : A national leader should communicate with his people effectively in the meeting.
Right : A national leader should communicate to his people effectively in the meeting.
29. Preposition is not used after certain verbs. These verbs are: describe, discuss, order, meet, attend,
tell etc.
Example:
Wrong : I ordered for ten books.
Right : I ordered ten books.
30. Preposition is not used after ‘await’.
Example:
Wrong : We are awaiting for your reply.
Right : We are awaiting your reply.
Or
Right : We are waiting for your reply.
31. Time expressions beginning with words: this, that, last and next are used without a preposi-
tion.
Example:
Wrong : My friends after their tour will return in this month.
Right : My friends after their tour will return this month.
32. One becomes angry ‘with’ persons but ‘at’ a ‘thing’ or ‘situation’.
Examples:
(i) Wrong : I was angry at my sister.
Right: I was angry with my sister.
(ii) Wrong : I was angry with the result.
Right: I was angry at the result.
33. ‘Agree to’ means ‘consent’, ‘agree with’ means ‘concur’ we use ‘agree with’ a person and ‘agree
to’ a thing.
Example:
Wrong : They agreed with a project but disagreed to us. They agreed only with a principle.
Right : They agreed to a project but disagreed with us. They agreed only in principle.
34. ‘As’ is not used after the following verbs in the pattern: Subject + Verb + Object + Object
Complement.
The verbs are: consider, call, choose, appoint, elect, name, select, etc.
Example:
Wrong : We consider Anitha as a great leader.
Right : We consider Anitha a great leader.
35. When discussing the similarity between people, things and actions you can use both ‘as’ and
‘like’. Generally, use ‘like’ to compare nouns and use ‘as’ to compare ‘actions’.
‘Like’ is a preposition and is used before nouns and pronouns such as a preposition introduces
prepositional phrase.
Example: He has black eyes like me.
‘As’ is also a preposition and is used to appear to be somebody, as a character of somebody or someone
as something.
Examples: He is dressed as a Politician.
(i) Wrong : Kavya sings as her sister.
Right : Kavya sings like her sister.
(ii) Wrong : Kavitha sings like her sister does.
Right : Kavitha sings as her sister does.
The word ‘like’ belongs to many parts of speech and ‘as’ belongs to three parts of speech. Read the table
here.
Exhibit 15.1 Parts of Speech
Word Parts of Speech

V Prep. Adj. Adv. V. Conj. Suffix
Like √ √ √ √ √ √ √
As – √ – √ – √ –
Common error in using these two words as adverb: refer to rule 84 and as conjunction refer to 91, 92.
36. Preposition ‘by’ is used with the ‘agent’ or the ‘doer’, while ‘with’ is used before an instru-
ment.
Example:
Wrong : The snake was killed by a stick.
Right : The snake was killed with a stick.
37. We go by bus, by train, by air or on foot.
Example:
Wrong : My children go to college by walk.
Right : My children go to college on foot.
38. When the word ‘enter’ is used in the sense of ‘go into’, preposition is not required.
Example:
Wrong : Students entered into the room.
Right : Students entered the room.
39. ‘Alive to’ means ‘aware of something’ or ‘alert to something’ whereas ‘alive with’ means ‘full of
living’.
Example:
Wrong : Rachana is fully alive with the possible dangers.
Right : Rachana is fully alive to the possible dangers.
40. Preposition ‘to’ is added after certain words. These words are: addicted, access, refer, averse,
devote, amenable and answerable (refer to Appendix D).
Examples:
(i) Wrong : The matter has been referred for the Director for decision.
Right : The matter has been referred to the Director for decision.
(ii) Wrong : Everybody is answerable for God for his sins.
Right : Everybody is answerable to God for his sins.
41. Preposition ‘of’ is added after certain words. These words are: devoid, proud, fond, aware, as-
sure, died etc. (refer to Appendix D).
Example:
Wrong : Rachana is devoid from any common sense.
Right : Rachana is devoid of any common sense.
42. When the word ‘appoint’ is used in the sense of ‘to choose somebody for a Job’ preposition ‘as’
or ‘to’ is added.
When it is used in the sense of “fix or decide on something especially time or place”, preposition
‘for’ is added.
Examples:
(i) Wrong : He was appointed for the vacant post.
Right : He was appointed to the vacant post.
(ii) Wrong : Kavitha asked her secretary to appoint a date to the next meeting.
Right : Kavitha asked her secretary to appoint a date for the next meeting.
43. ‘Beside’ means ‘by the side of’. ‘Besides’ means ‘in addition to’
Example:
Wrong : Kavitha sat besides Kalpana in the party.
Right : Kavitha sat beside Kalpana in the party.
ERRORS IN USING VERBS

44. Simple present tense is used to express a universal truth or a statement or a habit.
Example:
Wrong : The earth is revolving round the sun.
Right : The earth revolves round the sun.
45. Simple past tense is used with words and phrases of past time. The words of past time reference
are: ago, yesterday, last, then, previous year, at that time etc.
Examples:
(i) Wrong : I have written a letter to him yesterday.
Right : I wrote a letter to him yesterday.
(ii) Wrong : He has returned from the USA last week.

Right : He returned from the USA last week.
46. The words ‘lay’ and ‘lie’ always create confusion.
The verb ‘lay’ is a transitive verb. ‘To lay’ means: to put or to place. The verb ‘lie’ is, on the other
hand an intransitive verb. ‘To lie’ means ‘to recline’ or ‘occupy a place’. Only ‘lay’ (in its passive
form) may be used in the passive voice whereas lie is never passive. The principal parts of these verbs
are:
Exhibit 15.2 Verbs: Lay and Lie
Verb Present Past Participle Present Continuous

lay – transitive verb lay laid laid laying
lie – intransitive verb lie lay lain lying
Examples:
(i) Wrong : Yesterday, I laid in bed.
Right : Yesterday, I lay in bed
(ii) Wrong : He was laying in the Sun.
Right : He was lying in the Sun.
47. The past tense is used after – ‘It is time’.
Example:
Wrong : It is time they start.
Right : It is time they started.
48. The words ‘affect’ and ‘effect’ always create confusion. The word affect is generally used as a
verb. Similarly, the word effect is also generally used as a noun. As a verb, ‘affect’ generally
means to ‘influence or to change’. As a noun ‘effect’ generally means ‘result or influence’. There
is, in addition, one special instance in which ‘effect’ is a verb which means “to bring about”.
There is a noun ‘affect’ with a specialised technical meaning, in psychological parlance.
Examples:
(i) Wrong : What affect does education have on the mind?
Right : What effect does education have on the mind?
(ii) Wrong : How does education effect the mind?
Right : How does education affect the mind?
49. Two or more singular nouns connected by ‘and’ must be used with a plural verb.
Example:
Wrong : Smoking and drinking is injurious to health.
Right : Smoking and drinking are injurious to health.
50. Two or more singular nouns connected by ‘and’ expressing one idea must be followed by a sin-
gular verb.
Example:
Wrong : Knowledge and wisdom make a man great.
Right : Knowledge and wisdom makes a man great.
51. Two singular nouns connected by ‘and’ which are preceded by ‘each’ or ‘every’ must be used
with a singular verb.
Example:
Wrong : Each boy and each girl have got an admission in the college.
Right : Each boy and each girl has got an admission in the college.
52. Some verbs are not used in the continuous tense. These verbs are: taste, hear, smell, feel, love,
like, shirk, have, own, possess, belong etc.
Example:
Wrong : The apple is tasting sweet.
Right : The apple tastes sweet.
53. The word ‘hang’ (pt. pp. hung) means ‘to attach something or be attached in a high position so
that the lower part is free and does not touch the ground.’
Examples:
(i) A towel hung from the rail.
(ii) Hang your dress on that hook.
Its other forms are:
hang – hung – hung.
This word has got another meaning as well. It is used in the sense of: to kill somebody or oneself.
Its other forms are:
hang – hung.
Example:
The criminal was hanged.
Examples:
(i) Wrong : The pictures were hanged on the wall.
Right : The pictures were hung on the wall.
(ii) Wrong : The murderer was hung on Sunday.
Right : The murderer was hanged on Sunday.
54. The conjunctions ‘as if’ and ‘as though’ always take a past tense after them in the subordinate
clause.
Example:
Wrong : Anil behaves as if he is a generous person.
Right : Anil behaves as if he were a generous person.
55. When the verb in the main clause is in the imperative, the verb in the subordinate clause should
be in the present indefinite.
Example:
Wrong : See that you will come for the party in time.
Right : See that you come for the party in time.
56. In clauses of time and condition, the simple present tense is used for a future action.
Example:
Wrong : I shall inform you when my friend will complete the report.
Right : I shall inform you when my friend completes the report.
57. When the verb in the main clause is in the future tense, the verb in the subordinate clause should
be in the present tense and not in the future tense.
Example:
Wrong : My friends will come if you will invite them.
Right : My friends will come if you invite them.
58. If the verb in the main clause is in the past tense, the verb in the subordinate clause must be in
the appropriate past tense.
Examples:
(i) Wrong : She said that she is doing the project.
Right : She said that she was doing the project.
(ii) Wrong : He was late so he is scolded by the lecturer.
Right : He was late so he was scolded by the lecturer.
59. A past tense in the principal clause may be followed by a present tense in the subordinate clause
if the subordinate clause expresses a universal truth.
Example:
Wrong : The Judge said that truth always triumphed.
Right : The Judge said that truth always triumphs.
60. When the verb in the “if clause” is in the past tense, the verb in the main clause must be in the
conditional tense.
Example:
Wrong : If I went to the USA I would have brought you the book on “Professional Com-
munication”.
Right : If I went to the USA I would bring the book on “Professional Communication”.
61. When the verb in the “if clause” is in the past perfect tense, the verb in the main clause must
be in the perfect conditional tense.
Example:
Wrong : If I had known of your arrival I would meet you.
Right : If I had known of your arrival I would have met you.
62. Generally, we make a speech and we give a lecture. Similarly, the student will take a test and
the teacher will give a test.
Examples:
(i) Wrong : My friend gave a speech on ‘Hyphenation’.
Right : My friend made a speech on ‘Hyphenation’.
(ii) Wrong : Our visiting faculty made an interesting lecture on “Group Discussion”.
Right : Our visiting faculty gave an interesting lecture on “Group Discussion”.
63. If the word ‘lest’ connects a subordinate clause with principal clause, ‘should’ must always occur
in the verb of the subordinate clause.
Example:
Wrong : Kavitha works hard lest she will fail.
Right : Kavitha works hard lest she should fail.
64. ‘To infinitive’ is used after certain verbs: allow, order, command, request, wish, want, permit,
encourage and forbid.
Example:
Wrong : My teacher ordered me wait.
Right : My teacher ordered me to wait.
65. Bare infinitive is used after certain principal verbs. These verbs are: make, suggest, bid, let, hear
and watch.
Examples:
(i) Wrong : Rachana made me to wait.
Right : Rachana made me wait.
(ii) Wrong : I bade him to go away at once. (to order somebody)
Right : I bade him go away at once.
66. A tag question contains a verb and a pronoun. An affirmative statement takes a negative tag. A
negative statement takes an affirmative tag.
Examples:
(i) Wrong : Kavitha answered all questions, isn’t she?
Right : Kavitha answered all questions, didn’t she?
(ii) Wrong : Kavitha did not answer all questions, didn’t she?
Right : Kavitha did not answer all questions, did she?
67. The verb bid has two forms of the past tense and past participle: bid – bid – bid; bid – bade –
bidden. The first one is used only in the case of offering a certain price at an auction.
Examples:
(i) Wrong : He bade Rs.60,000/- for the land.
Right : He bid Rs.60,000/- for the land.
(ii) Wrong : We bid the senior students farewell.
Right : We bade the senior students farewell.
68. Leave means to ‘go away’. Let means to ‘allow, to permit’.
Example:
Wrong : He should not have left us to borrow his car.
Right : He should have let us to borrow his car.
ERRORS IN USING GERUND OR AN INFINITIVE

So far it has been written to serve as an analysis of errors commonly made in spoken and written English.
This analysis of correct usage is unquestionably necessary. This feature is essential and necessary for ex-
pressing our thoughts precisely and correctly. There are many words in the English language which follow
certain verbs but not others. These are ‘gerunds’ and ‘infinitives’. Use of a gerund or an infinitive after a
verb is always a debatable issue and most often leads to common errors.
A gerund is the ‘–ing’ form of a verb used as a noun. The examples are: opening, closing etc. An infinitive
is a plain form of a verb preceded by ‘to’. The examples are: to open, to close etc. Gerunds and infinitives
may follow certain verbs but not others. And sometimes the use of a gerund or an infinitive with the same
verb changes the meaning of the verb.
Use either a Gerund or an Infinitive
69. A gerund or an infinitive may follow the following verbs with no significant difference in mean-
ing:
begin hate love
can’t bear hesitate prefer
continue like start
Examples:
(i) The machine began to work.
(ii) The machine began working.
(iii) Kavi started crying.
(iv) Kavi started to cry.
(v) Kavi began crying.
(vi) Kavi began to cry.
70. After continuous tense of the verb ‘begin’ or ‘start’ the ‘–ing’ form of the verb is not normally
used.
Example:
Wrong : It is starting/beginning raining.
Right : It started/began to rain.
71. ‘Couldn’t’ is used with the infinitive without ‘to’

Example:
Wrong : Ravi couldn’t to answer the question.
Right : Ravi couldn’t answer the question.
Meaning change with a Gerund or an Infinitive
72. With the following four verbs, a gerund has quite a different meaning from an infinitive:
forget stop
remember try
Examples:
(i) He stopped eating. (He no longer ate)
(ii) He stopped to eat. (He stopped in order to eat).
Use Gerund not Infinitive
73. After certain verbs, a gerund is used. These verbs are:
admit deny escape miss put off suggest
adore detest finish pardon quit tolerate
appreciate discuss forgive postpone recall understand
avoid dislike imagine practise recollect resist
consider enjoy keep prevent resent risk
Examples:
(i) Wrong : Kavitha avoids to speak to her friend.
Right : Kavitha avoids speaking to her friend.
(ii) Wrong : Rachana finished to eat lunch.
Right : Rachana finished eating lunch.
74. A gerund is used after the following expressions:
would you mind it is no use can’t stand
look forward to it is no good can’t help
Examples:
(i) Wrong : She can’t help to listen to them.
Right : She can’t help listening to them.
(ii) Wrong : It is no use to cry over spilt coffee.
Right : It is no use crying over spilt coffee.
USE AN INFINITIVE NOT A GERUND

75. Do not use a gerund but use an infinitive after the following verbs:
attempt care fail plain refuse
ask claim have pretend say
agree choose hope prepare want
assent decide hesitate proceed wish
beg expect manage promise
encourage neglect
Example:
Wrong : He decided checking the report.
Right : He decided to check the report.
Use a Noun or a Pronoun and an Infinitive

76. Some verbs may be followed by an infinitive alone or by a noun or a pronoun and an infinitive.
The presence of a noun or pronoun changes the meaning.
ask dare need wish
beg expect promise would like
choose help want
Examples:
1. He expected to work.
2. He expected his workers to work.
77. Some verbs must be followed by a noun or a pronoun before an infinitive.
admonish encourage order tell
advise forbid permit train
allow force persuade urge
cause hire remind warn
challenge instruct request
command invite require
convince oblige teach
compel
Example:
He instructed his workers to watch.
78. Do not use ‘to’ before the infinitive when it follows one of these verbs and a noun or pronoun.
feel make (force) suggest
have see
hire watch
Example:
He let his workers learn by observation.
ERRORS IN USING ADJECTIVES

79. The adjectives superior, inferior, senior, junior, prior, anterior, posterior and prefer are followed
by ‘to’ instead of ‘than’ and are not preceded by ‘more’ but by “much”.
Examples:
(i) Wrong : Kavitha is senior than Kalpana.
Right : Kavitha is senior to Kalpana.
(ii) Wrong : I prefer coffee than tea.
Right : I prefer coffee to tea.
80. Some adjectives have no degrees of comparison: perfect, unique, round, square, eternal, ideal
and supreme. Hence, never associate ‘quite’ ‘very’ and ‘most’ with such words.
Example:
Wrong : This is the most unique book.
Right : This is the unique book.
81. The word ‘some’ is used in affirmative sentences and ‘any’ is used in negative sentences. The
word ‘any’ is used especially to emphasise, faster, slower, better etc., in negative sentences.
Examples:
(i) Wrong : She has not taken some books from here.
Right : She has not taken any books from here.
(ii) Wrong : She did not buy some sarees here.
Right : She did not buy any sarees here.
82. ‘Less’ denotes ‘quantity’; ‘fewer’ denotes a number.
Example:
Wrong : They do not sell fewer than two bags of rice.
Right : They do not sell less than two bags of rice.
83. ‘Many a’ is a singular adjective. Hence it follows by a singular verb.
Example:
Wrong : Many a worker are doing their duty well.
Right : Many a worker is doing his duty well.
84. When ‘both’ is used as an adjective with a plural noun, it may be followed by ‘the’.
Example:
Wrong : They were absent on both days.
Right : They were absent on both the days.
85. The word ‘whole’ is preceded by ‘the’ and ‘all’ is followed by ‘the’
Examples:
(i) Wrong : Kavitha has searched whole the house.
Right : Kavitha has searched the whole house.
(ii) Wrong : The all efforts failed.
Right : All the efforts failed.
(iii) Wrong : The all tables have been broken.
Right : All the tables have been broken.
86. ‘Farther’ refers to ‘distance’; ‘further’ means additional.
Example:
Wrong : They must not discuss this case any farther.
Right : They must not discuss this case any further.
87. ‘Elder’ and ‘eldest’ are used to refer to one’s family relations. ‘Older’ and ‘oldest’ may be used
to persons as well as ‘things’.
Examples:
(i) Wrong : Where is your older sister?
Right : Where is your elder sister?
(ii) Wrong : Kavitha is elder than Kalpana.
Right : Kavitha is older than Kalpana.
88. Double comparative or double superlative should not be used.
Example:
Wrong : Mount Everest is the most highest peak in the world.
Right : Mount Everest is the highest peak in the world.
ERRORS IN USING ADVERBS

89. ‘Ago’ is used only when you date back from now i.e., the time of speaking. ‘Before’ can be used
when you date back from any point of time which is made specific.
Example:
Wrong : I saw my friend two years ago I went to Delhi.
Right : I saw my friend two years before I went to Delhi.
90. Adverb of time like always, before, never and often are placed before the verb.
Examples:
(i) Wrong : He absented often himself.
Right : He often absented himself.
(ii) Wrong : We try always to help him.
Right : We always try to help him.
91. The Phrase ‘As … as’ is generally used in affirmative sentences and ‘So’ … as’ in negative sen-
tences.
Examples:
(i) Wrong : Money is not as useful as knowledge.
Right : Money is not so useful as knowledge.
(ii) Wrong : Kavitha is so tall as Kalpana.
Right : Kavitha is as tall as Kalpana.
92. ‘As’ is an adverb used before an adverb and an adjective in order to make a comparison.
Example:
He is as tall as his father.
‘Like’ is also an adverb used in very informal speech at any point as a meaningless addition or to
qualify a word or expression about which the speaker is not sure.
Example:
He just, like, refused to talk to me.
Both these words are used as prepositions (Refer to rule 35 and also used as conjunctions. (Refer to
Rule: 91, 92).
93. Both .….. and is the only pair that always results in a plural subject.
Example:
Wrong : Both Ravi and Raju was unsupportive of Anil’s political ambitions.
Right : Both Ravi and Raju were unsupportive of Anil’s political ambitions.
94. The adverb ‘enough’ should be placed after the adjective or the adverb.
Example:
Wrong : Rachana is enough rich to buy the car.
Right : Rachana is rich enough to buy the car.
ERRORS IN USING CONJUNCTIONS

95. When correlative conjunctions are used, care should be taken to see that two nouns and verbs
are joined properly.
Example:
Wrong : You should either come today or tomorrow.
Right : You should come either today or tomorrow.
96. Neither is always followed by nor.
Example:
Wrong : I know neither, Rachana or her husband.
Right : I know neither Rachana nor her husband.
97. Correct form of pronoun must be used after the words ‘than’ and ‘as’.
Examples:
(i) Wrong : I am as tall as him.
Right : I am as tall as he.
(ii) Wrong : He is cleverer than me.
Right : He is cleverer than I.
98. The adverbs ‘rather’ and ‘other’ are followed by ‘than’.
Examples:
(i) Wrong : I would rather speak English but Hindi.
Right : I would rather speak English than Hindi.
(ii) Wrong : I loved no other girl except Rachana
Right : I loved no other girl than Rachana.
99. The adverb ‘like’ cannot be used as a conjunction.
Example:
Wrong : Kavya speaks English well like her mother.
Right : Kavya speaks English well as her mother.
100. ‘As’ is usually a conjunction and it is used before a subordinate clause.
‘Like’, in speaking, is frequently used as a conjunction replacing both ‘as’ and ‘as if’.
Examples:
(i) Nobody understands her as/like I do.
(ii) It looks as if/looks like we’re going to be late.
Generally, ‘like’ should not be used for ‘as if’ or ‘as though’ which are conjunctions used to introduce
clauses.
Wrong : She looks like she studied all night.
Right : She looks as if she studied all night.
101. The abbreviation of ‘et cetera’ is ‘etc’. It means ‘and other things’. Some writers write ‘and etc.’
In this phrase ‘and’ is redundant word. The ‘etc’ is sufficient.
Example:
Wrong : The new electronics shop sells audio cassettes, Cameras, Electronic games, and
etc.
Right : The new electronics shop sells audio cassettes, cameras, electronic, games, etc.
102. Both ‘whether’ and ‘if’ are conjunctions. Both connect one idea to another in the sentence but
each is used in a different situation.
If you are choosing between two alternatives, select ‘whether’ and in whether or not.
Example:
Rachana is not sure whether she should activate the cell phone.
It means that she has two choices to activate or not to activate.
‘If’ on the other hand, describes a possibility.
Let us take the example:
Rachana will reach the top of Mount Everest if the sunny weather continues.
Here, the sentence talks about the possibility of sunny weather.
Wrong : If I go or stay is completely irrelevant to you.
Right : Whether I go or stay is completely irrelevant to you.
ERRORS IN USING PUNCTUATIONS

103. A semicolon is used to separate coordinate clauses when they are not joined by conjunctions.
Wrong : Your course title is English Language Skills, mine is Professional Communication.
Right : Your course title is English Language Skills; mine is Professional Communica-
tion.
104. Use a hyphen when ‘self-’ is used as a prefix.
Wrong : Kavi is a self made person.
Right : Kavi is a self-made person.
105. Comma is used before and after words, and phrases, introduced parenthetically, such as “there-
fore”, “in my opinion” etc.
Wrong : Kavitha is I am certain a truthful friend.
Right : Kavitha is, I am certain, a truthful friend.
Wrong : I therefore request you to kindly grant me one day’s casual leave.
Right : I, therefore, request you to kindly grant me one day’s casual leave.
COMMON ERRORS DUE TO COMMONLY CONFUSED WORDS

Many words in the English language are often very confusing. Some words are similar in sound. Some words
show similarity in meaning but are not exactly the same. Any wrong use of the words can change the whole
meaning of the utterance. Similarity in sound and meaning creates confusion. Therefore, you try to understand
their precise meaning so as to avoid the confusion. We have discussed such words in this section.
106. Able, Capable
The word ‘able’ means ‘having the ability to perform a given act’. The word ‘capable’ means ‘having
adequate capacity to do or to make’. A common error lies when we use ‘able’ for ‘capable’.
Examples:
(i) Wrong : The child is not yet capable to write.
Right : The child is not yet able to write.
(ii) Wrong : I am sure Rachana is able to read a 400 words passage in a minute.
Right : I am sure Rachana is capable of reading a 400 words passage in a minute.
107. Advice, Advise
Advice (N) means counsel, instruction.
Advise (V) means to advice, to inform, to notify.
Examples:
(i) Wrong : My parents always give me good advise.
Right : My parents always give me good advice.
(ii) Wrong : My mentor adviced me to take “English Language Skills – 1”.
Right : My mentor advised me to take “English Language Skills – 1”.
108. Affect, Effect
Affect means ‘to act upon’, to pretend.
Effect (N) means ‘result’.
Examples:
(i) Wrong : My advice had no affect on him.
Right : My advice had no effect on him.
(ii) Wrong : The change in climate may effect your health.
Right : The change in climate may affect your health.
109. Access, Excess

Access means approach
Excess means extreme
Examples:
(i) Wrong : Access to anything is bad.
Right : Excess of anything is bad.
(ii) Wrong : She excessed four different files to find the correct information.
Right : She accessed four different files to find the correct information.
110. Adapt, Adopt, Adept
Adapt : To adjust oneself to a new environment
Adopt : To choose or take as one’s own
Adept : Expert or skilful in doing something
Examples:
(i) Wrong : This machine has been specially adopted for use.
Right : This machine has been specially adapted for use.
(ii) Wrong : Kavitha is an adapt in the art of singing.
Right : Kavitha is an adept in the art of singing.
(iii) Wrong : She has been adapted as a candidate for minority community.
Right : She has been adopted as a candidate for minority community.
111. All ready, Already
The words ‘all ready’ mean that ‘everything is in readiness’, or ‘everyone is ready’.
The word ‘already’ is an adverb which emphasises the idea that an action is complete at the present
moment or was completed at a moment in the past.
Example:
Wrong : The students are already for the examination.
Right : The students are all ready for the examination.
112. All right, Alright
The term ‘all right’ is correct; but the word ‘alright’ is non-existent in acceptable usage.
Example:
Wrong : Everything was alright.
Right : Everything was all right.
113. All together, Altogether
The words ‘all together’ have the meaning ‘everyone in or at the same location’. The word ‘altogether’
means ‘entirely’.
Examples:
(i) Wrong : During Pongal holidays, we were altogether for the first family reunion.
Right : During Pongal holidays, we were all together for the first family reunion.
(ii) Wrong : They were all together mistaken in their understanding.
Right : They were altogether mistaken in their understanding.
114. Alter, Altar
The word ‘alter’ means change. The word ‘altar’ means an elevated place at which religious rites are
performed.
Example:
Wrong : He does not want to altar his decision.
Right : He does not want to alter his decision.
115. Allusion, Delusion, Illusion

The word ‘allusion’ means a ‘reference’. It is the noun form of the verb ‘allude’. The word ‘delusion’
defined broadly is a fixed aberration of the mind. The word ‘illusion’ means a ‘situation wherein a
person has misinterpreted the data of his senses’.
Examples:
(i) Wrong : His illusion to my failure was clear.
Right : His allusion to my failure was clear.
(ii) Wrong : My friend suffered from the illusion that he was a Chief Minister.
Right : My friend suffered from the delusion that he was a Chief Minister.
116. Ancient, Old
The word ‘ancient’ means ‘of old times’. The word old means ‘advanced in age’.
Examples:
(i) Wrong : He is a student of old Indian History.
Right : He is a student of Ancient Indian History.
(ii) Wrong : Kavitha is an ancient friend of mine.
Right : Kavitha is an old friend of mine.
117. Abstain, Refrain
The term ‘abstain’ means to refrain voluntarily from something regarded as improper. The term ‘refrain’
means to keep oneself from doing or saying something.
Examples:
(i) Wrong : My husband refrains from wine.
Right : My husband abstains from wine.
(ii) Wrong : We should abstain from telling lies.
Right : We should refrain from telling lies.
118. Admit, Confess
The word ‘admit’ means to allow, to enter, to confess, to acknowledge. The word ‘confess’ means to
own, admit as true.
Examples:
(i) Wrong : Kavitha confesses her friend’s statement to be true.
Right : Kavitha admits her friend’s statement to be true.
(ii) Wrong : The criminal has admitted his guilt.
Right : The criminal has confessed to his guilt.
119. Abject, Object
The word ‘abject’ means utterly hopeless, humiliating or wretched.
The word ‘object’ means aim, purpose.
Example:
Wrong : Kavi is living in object misery.
Right : Kavi is living in abject misery.
120. Amiable, Amicable
The word ‘amiable’ means having or showing a friendly disposition. The word ‘amicable’ means
agreeable.
Examples:
(i) Wrong : Raju is an amicable person.
Right : Raju is an amiable person.
(ii) Wrong : Let us come to an amiable agreement and end the dispute.
Right : Let us come to an amicable agreement and end the dispute.
121. Born, Borne

Born means brought forth by birth
Borne is a past participle of bear
Examples:
(i) Wrong : Rachana was borne in America.
Right : Rachana was born in America.
(ii) Wrong : Kavitha has born many difficulties in her life.
Right : Kavitha has borne many difficulties in her life.
122. Blunder, Error
Blunder means a stupid mistake
Error means a deviation from accuracy or correction
Examples:
(i) Wrong : Kavya has made an error by resigning her government job.
Right : Kavya has made a blunder by resigning her government job.
(ii) Wrong : A slight blunder while driving a car can cause an accident.
Right : A slight error while driving a car can cause an accident.
123. Beside, Besides
Beside means by the side of
Besides means in addition to
Example:
Wrong : The children were playing besides the road.
Right : The children were playing beside the road.
124. Between, Among
The word “between” should be used only when two persons, objects or ideas are under consideration.
If three or more are involved, the word “among” should be used.
Example:
Wrong : Between Ravi, Raju, and Kavi, the dispute was finally settled.
Right : Among Ravi, Raju, and Kavi, the dispute was finally settled.
25. Continual, Continuous
“Continual” means “with occasional interruption”. “Continuous” means “without interruption.”
Example:
Wrong : The student continuously disturbed the class.
Right : The student continually disturbed the class.
126. Canvas, Canvass
Canvas means a closely woven heavy cloth of hemp, flax or cotton.
Canvass means to solicit votes, opinions etc.
Examples:
(i) Wrong : Kavitha brought canvass shoes.
Right : Kavitha bought canvas shoes.
(ii) Wrong : Ravi has recruited many persons to canvas for him during the forthcoming
elections.
Right : Ravi has recruited many persons to canvass for him during the forthcoming
elections.
127. Ceiling, Sealing, Roof
Ceiling means top surface of room
Sealing means to stamp with seal
Roof means the top covering of house

Examples:
(i) Wrong : The attender is ceiling the parcel.
Right : The attender is sealing the parcel.
(ii) Wrong : The sealing of this room is painted.
Right : The ceiling of this room is painted.
128. Compliment, Complement
Compliment means an expression of praise or admiration.
Complement means a thing that contributes new or contrasting features or qualities which improve
something or make it complete.
Example:
Wrong : Rice makes an excellent compliment to a curry dish.
Right : Rice makes an excellent complement to a curry dish.
129. Corporal, Corporeal
Corporal means bodily
Corporeal means physically
Examples:
(i) Wrong : Corporeal punishment has been abolished in schools.
Right : Corporal punishment has been abolished in schools.
(ii) Wrong : Angels have no corporal existence.
Right : Angels have no corporeal existence.
130. Credible, Creditable, Credulous
Credible means believable
Creditable means deserving credit, honor, and reputation
Credulous means gullible
Example:
Wrong : His statement is not creditable.
Right : His statement is not credible.
131. Council, Counsel
Council means an assembly of persons or representatives
Counsel means advice, opinion
Example:
Wrong : Mr. Ravi is appearing as my defence council in this case.
Right : Mr. Ravi is appearing as my defence counsel in this case.
132. Disinterested, Uninterested
The term disinterested means ‘not influenced by personal or self-interest’. The word ‘uninterested’
means ‘not interested’.
Example:
Wrong : I was disinterested in the story.
(wrong if the speaker means was not interested).
Right : I was uninterested in the story.
133. Discover, Invent
‘Discover’ means to gain knowledge of something previously unknown. The word ‘invent’ means to
originate, to produce or create with imagination.
Examples:
(i) Wrong : Columbus invented America in 1492.
Right : Columbus discovered America in 1492.
(ii) Wrong : Graham Bell discovered telephone.
Right : Graham Bell invented telephone.
134. Fewer, Lesser
The word ‘fewer’ should be used only when actual counting is possible. The word ‘lesser’ should be
used when referring to quantity.
Example:
Wrong : We have less staff than we had in the previous year.
Right : We have fewer staff members than we had in the previous year.
135. Eminent, Imminent
Eminent means distinguished
Imminent means soon, happening, impending
Examples:
(i) Wrong : Kavi is an imminent professor.
Right : Kavi is an eminent professor.
(ii) Wrong : Ravi’s father is suffering from severe heart attack and his death is eminent.
Right : Ravi’s father is suffering from severe heart attack and his death is imminent.
136. Elicit, Illicit
Elicit means to draw out
Illicit means unlawful, forbidden
Examples:
(i) Wrong : Ravi is engaged in the elicit trade.
Right : Ravi is engaged in the illicit trade.
(ii) Wrong : At last we have illicited truth from him.
Right : At last we have elicited truth from him.
137. Imply, Infer
Imply means to suggest something indirectly rather than stating it directly. It should be used by speak-
ers and writers.
Infer means to reach an opinion based on information or evidence.
Examples:
(i) Wrong : His silence seemed to infer agreement.
Right : His silence seemed to imply agreement.
(ii) Wrong : Are you inferring that I am wrong?
Right : Are you implying that I am wrong?
(iii) Wrong : It can be implied that the company is bankrupt.
Right : It can be inferred that the company is bankrupt.
138. Moral, Morale
As a noun, ‘moral’ means ‘a lesson’ or ‘the ability to distinguish between right and wrong’
As an adjective, ‘moral’ means ‘good or characterised by that which is right’
Morale means ‘mental condition, general spirit, frame of mind’
Examples:
(i) Wrong : This story has no morale.
Right : This story has no moral.
(ii) Wrong : His morales are questionable.

Right : His morals are questionable.
139. Raise, Rise
Raise is transitive verb whereas, rise is intransitive verb. The verb forms of ‘raise’ are:
raise – raised – raised – raising.
The verb forms of rise are:
rise – rose – risen – rising.
Examples:
(i) Wrong : He rose his head from the pillow and switched off the alarm clock.
Right : He raised his head from the pillow and switched off the alarm clock.
(ii) Wrong : She raised from her chair.
Right : She rose from her chair.
140. Stationary, Stationery
Stationary is an adjective and means ‘unmoving’. Stationery is a noun meaning “writing materials”.
Examples:
(i) Wrong : There was a stationery car outside the house.
Right : There was a stationary car outside the house.
(ii) Wrong : The bookseller also sells stationary.
Right : The bookseller also sells stationery.
141. Verbal, Oral
Often we use verbal and oral synonymously. Verbal means, ‘of or pertaining to words.’ Oral means
spoken and not written. Hence, the opposite of written is oral not verbal.
Example:
Wrong : Tribal legends have been passed down verbally.
Right : Tribal legends have been passed down orally.
142. Gamble, Gambol
The word ‘gamble’ means ‘to play for money by betting’. The word ‘gambol’ means ‘playfulness or
frolic’.
Examples:
(i) Wrong : Ravi is addicted to gamboling.
Right : Ravi is addicted to gambling.
(ii) Wrong : The children are gambling in the park.
Right : The children are gamboling in the park.
Summary
An analysis of common errors of the English Language Skills has been covered in this chapter. Basically it deals with
two aspects: the first one is usage and the second one is commonly confused words. It helps the learner to master the
rules of usage so that he can write clearly and correctly. The rules for usage are unquestionably necessary to express our
thoughts effectively and correctly. There are many groups or pairs of words in the English Language which are very often
confusing. Confusion of these words leads to very common errors. Any wrong use of words can change the meaning of
the sentence. Therefore, you must try to understand their precise and exact meaning so as to avoid common errors.
Review Questions
1. Discuss the rules for usage in using nouns and pronouns. Give your own examples.
2. Can you explain why prepositions are not used after certain verbs such as discuss, order, meet, attend and tell.
(Hint: Refer to dictionary and see the meanings of these words).
3. How do you justify that the word ‘await’ does not require a preposition.
4. Do you use the words ‘squander and carelessly’ together? If not why? (Hint: Refer to dictionary find out the
meaning)
5. Discuss the use of the following prepositions:
as and like,
adverb: as
conjunction: as.
6. Discuss the common errors that occur in a subject-verb-agreement. Give your own examples.
7. Discuss the common errors that occur in using a gerund and an infinitive.
8. How do you differentiate the commonly confused pairs of words?
serf-surf compile-comply plain-plane

spoor-spore human-humane dessert-desert
bear-bare rivers-reverse aid – aide
ballet-ballot peal-peel
9. How do you differentiate the use of whether and if? Give your own examples.
Exercises
I. Correct the following sentences:
1. Slow and steady win the race.
2. Rachana could pass this examination if she tries.
3. Kavya does not speak like I do.
4. Every student must submit their assignment.
5. The interview will be held between 9 to 11 A.M. today.
6. I want to sell such books that I do not require.
7. Rajesh was accused for murder.
8. Unless you do not ask me, I cannot help you.
9. Being the rainy day, we had to cancel the match.
10. One must love his country.
11. I went to shop to buy some stationeries.
12. We had a grand party and we enjoyed very much ourselves.
13. She is neither a teacher nor a student.
14. Everyone should love one’s country.
15. My college works from 8 and six.
16. None of them has completed their report.
17. We are waiting for the chief guest since six p.m.
18. Neither he is a fool nor a mad man.
19. Neither of them have the requisite qualification.
20. Kavi works efficiently lest he is dismissed.
II. Correct the following sentences:
1. My position is the same of yours.
2. I received neither any letter or an e-mail.

3. He was enough foolish to believe Rama.
4. The conference will take place between the 8th to 12th of this month.
5. Everybody thinks they have the right to strike.
6. Kavya had been to England recently.
7. Today I lay down.
8. Nothing more were heard of him.
9. The student should abide with the decision of the lecturer.
10. Kalpana complained that she was badly treated.
11. I discovered that he is innocent.
12. The higher you climb colder it gets.
13. Anand was angry on his brother.
14. Let us not walk any further.
15. Start early lest you may miss the flight.
16. Kavitha replied that she will not come.
17. He rests daily for two hours lest he will be ill again.
18. I agree with the contract.
19. If you will laugh at her, Kavitha will be angry.
20. Take care that you will not be late.
II. Correct the following sentences:
1. Mr. Anil was addicted of drinking.
2. My son hinted that he wants to purchase a car.
3. This requires farther consideration.
4. It is a good habit to refer the dictionary.
5. Rachana had consulted the doctor last week.
6. Yesterday, I laid down.
7. Kavitha need not lost her temper.
8. We can’t help to listen to them.
9. He walks carefully lest he falls.
10. Kavya takes much care for her health.
11. The postman lies the mail on the table everyday.
12. Kavitha’s father already left when she reached her house.
13. Kavitha died from cholera.
14. I shall tell Ravi about it, when I will know the truth.
15. Both yourself and your son are intelligent.
16. My teacher said that honesty was the best policy.
17. The swines are running.
18. The students are learning the alphabets.
19. Our teacher told us that the earth rotated on its own axis.
20. He is fully prepared to the examination.
IV. Correct the following sentences:
1. The officer communicated his orders with the men by e-mail.
2. He lays on the sofa to rest everyday after work.
3. My mother asked me why I was late.
4. My friend gave me good advices.
5. Our lecturer will take a test in English tomorrow.
6. The decoits has been charged of murder.
7. Rajesh works hard lest he will fail.
8. Both himself and his daughter are lecturers.
9. The summon has been issued.
10. Kavya was able to easily pay his debt.

11. The Director was enough kind to grant me leave.
12. Mr. Anil has been absolved from the charge.
13. Our teacher told us that the earth moved round the sun.
14. Kavitha is very fond of vegetable.
15. The accused has appeared for the High Court.
16. I devote five hours for my studies daily.
17. Please pay my respect to your father.
18. Rachana must avail herself in this opportunity.
19. You must believe on God.
20. Kavitha plan to hurriedly complete the work and leave.
V. Correct the following sentences:
1. Rachana is capable for doing anything.
2. Kavya is working in the college for the last six years.
3. Athletics are not popular in our college.
4. We shall give a test in English tomorrow.
5. Rachana has made a complaint for him to the teacher.
6. My Professor always likes to closely examine every report.
7. His cooperation is the most essential factor.
8. We discussed about grammar.
9. Our teacher will take a test in Effective Communication tomorrow.
10. Neither of the courses are acceptable.
11. We shall combine the two departments into one.
12. He must be made conscious with his faults.
13. Each student must take care of his individual self.
14. The staff was comprised of four Professors and two lecturers.
15. Rachana is fully contended to her life.
16. My prophesy is that Rachana will succeed.
17. Kalpana has been cured from the pain in her leg.
18. Neither of the girls are intelligent.
19. We are proud on your brilliant success.
Unit IV
Reading Skill
Chapter 16
Reading Skill

Relate spellings to sounds.
Develop the skill of word-analysis.
Enrich the vocabulary.
Be aware of the sentence structure and the composition of paragraphs.
Read the sense groups rather than individual words.
Avoid the undesirable reading habits.
Know the traits of reading.
Know the major types of reading depending upon the purpose of reading.
Read at different speeds from 150-450 words per minute to suit different purposes.
INTRODUCTION
Language, when used for communication, is a tool. We must remember that handling of any tool requires
a certain skill. The inborn ability to use a language that all human beings possess has to be developed and
sharpened through practice. When we say that someone is a good user of a language, we mean that he is
able to use language effectively for all his communicative needs, in all kinds of situations that he possesses
- all communication skills or language skills. These skills are: Listening, Speaking, Reading and Writing
(LSRW). Of all these four skills, the essential skill for the second language learners is the reading skill.
The generally accepted principle is that writing skill is based on reading skill. Reading helps you
acquire vocabulary, word usage, sentence construction, developing paragraph and organisation of the
material. This ability helps you to write effectively. In this context, it is worth referring to the words of
the seventeenth-century genius, “On Reading” hold profound meaning: “Reading maketh a full man,
writing an exact man, and conferring (speaking) a ready man.” We use language as a means of com-
munication in terms of receiving and sending information. We receive information through listening and
reading and we send information through speaking and writing as given in the following table:
Table 16.1 Use of Language Skills
Process of Skill Skill of Receiving Information Skill of Sending Information

Oral Listening Speaking
Written Reading Writing
To develop competence in receiving and sending information we need to acquire language skills such as
listening, speaking, reading and writing. This book mainly deals with all four language skills. In this chapter,
we shall focus our attention on reading skill.
The ability to read and comprehend effectively is an essential skill. It can be acquired and developed
with intelligent, consistent and continuous effort like any other skill. Reading involves a number of skills;
we shall now try to identify and categorise them.
MECHANICS OF READING
Reading can be analysed as a process of recognising words and inferring their meaning. It can be presented
as:
Sight → Sound → Sense
It deals mainly with identifying symbols, analysing them in terms of sounds, attaching meanings to them
and decoding the matter. At this level, the reader should be able to recognise the written symbols which
form the words, phrases, clauses, sentences and paragraphs. So, the reader needs to acquire the following
abilities:
Phonetics: It is the ability to relate spellings (combination of written symbols) to sounds. This requires
the reader to be able to guess the pronunciation of a new word on the basis of his prior experience of similar
words. It helps to decode the written language.
A Sight-recognition Vocabulary: This is the ability to get familiarity with the visual shapes of words.
So that it helps the reader to comprehend the reading material quickly.
Word-analysis: The reader should have a sufficient knowledge of morphology to be able to guess the
meanings of new words and a group of words. At the word level, for example, the readers familiarity with
the rules of word formation using prefixes like dis –, un –, non –, etc., or suffixes like – tion, – ness, – ity
etc., (see Chapter 11) should enable him to guess the meaning of many new words.
Structural Analysis: You should have the ability to analyse the sentence syntactically in order to guess
the meanings of a sentence. At the structural level, the reader’s ability to recognise and identify structural
relationships between parts of sentences, between sentences in a paragraph and between paragraphs is an
important aspect of reading efficiency.
Clause Analysis: The reader should have sufficient knowledge of clauses to be able to guess the mean-
ing of a sentence. You should be able to recognise the clauses that cluster together to make the meaning of
sentences more complex.
‘Paragraphic’ Analysis: The reader should have sufficient knowledge of the composition of paragraphs.
You should know the relationship of sentences in a paragraph. The main idea of the paragraph is generally
expressed in a sentence called the ‘topic’ sentence or the ‘theme’ sentence. All other sentences in the para-
graph clarify the idea, give supporting facts or details, illustrate or provide additional information.
Reading Skill 289
Mechanics of Writing: You should be aware of mechanics of writing to guess the meaning of the mate-
rial. Style features such as headings, title, subheadings, placement of a word and layout features help you
to get the meaning.
Punctuation: Punctuation marks also contribute to the meaning.
The activity of reading can provide a wealth of varied language practice in different skills of the lan-
guage. For all this to happen, it is essential that the student must cultivate the habit of reading. To become
an efficient reader, one should cultivate the habit of reading. He should avoid undesirable reading habits and
should acquire desirable reading habits. Let us now discuss undesirable and desirable reading habits.
Undesirable Reading Habits

The reader, while reading generally, develops certain habits which prevent him from mastering the mechanics
of reading. These are undesirable habits. The habits which slow down the reading speed are:
The habit of pointing at words with a finger or a pencil.
The habit of moving the head from side to side rather than using eye movement.
Murmuring the words audibly, using lip movement.
Sub-vocalisation: Pronouncing the words mentally but not audibly.
Perceiving only one word per ‘eye-fixation’.
Regression or backward eye movement along a line.
Excessive and indiscriminate use of dictionary also hampers reading.
Check whether you cultivated any of these defects. If so, avoid these undesirable reading habits to improve
your reading ability.
Desirable Reading Habits

Reading is essentially a personal individual activity. The reader works by himself for himself at his own rate
and in his own manner. Reading is an interpretative activity to be mastered. To achieve moderate speed and the
required degree of comprehension, the reader should cultivate the desirable habits of reading. These are:
The ability to derive meanings from words, grammatical structures, contextual clues and derivatives.
The ability to read at different speeds of 150-600 words per minute to suit different purposes.
The ability to vary the degree of comprehension from complete absorption of details to the retrieval
of essentials only depending on the purpose.
The ability to ‘skip’ and to ‘skim’ intelligently, when this is possible and necessary.
The ability to think selectively during the process of reading, to relate significant statements and to
distinguish between fact and opinion.
The ability to anticipate statements, arguments, events etc.
The ability to identify difficult words and phrases and interpret them based on the context.
The ability to ‘infer and interpret’ the text.
The ability to read between and beyond the lines of text.
The ability to develop a larger ‘memory-span’, i.e., to be able to ‘hold’ large group of words in your
memory while decoding the next set of words, so as to get the complete meaning.
TYPES OF READING
Fluent use of a language to meet the requirements of communicative needs is possible only through ex-
tensive reading. So it is essential to know the different types of reading. A brief analysis of major types of
reading may help you improve your reading skill. These types are Skimming or Scanning, Study-reading
and Critical Reading.
Skimming
The fastest type of reading is perhaps the ‘skimming’. Skimming is a well-defined reading skill which
involves the judicious and selective skipping of less-essential and non-essential matter. If reading is the
process of getting the main theme of a passage then we do not need all the details. We do, however, need
to identify the general idea of what the passage is about. You can avoid reading all the examples and the
detailed explanation. The technique of efficient skimming depends mainly on the reader’s ability to dis-
criminate accurately and rapidly between what is of real importance and what is of less or no importance.
This ability can be acquired if you have a thorough understanding of the structure of a paragraph. Most
paragraphs contain a topic sentence at the beginning or at the end of a paragraph. Rarely, a topic sentence
occurs in the middle of the paragraph. You should be able to identify the topic sentence. Analyse a number
of paragraphs selected for the identification of a topic sentence. If identification of the topic sentence of a
paragraph and the understanding of the passage are satisfactory your purpose is solved.
In a library, we often skim through a few books to decide which of them may be worth reading more
carefully. For this purpose, in addition to topic sentences, you can quickly go through the headings, the
introduction which often gives the scope and purpose of the subject and also the summaries at the end of
each chapter. This will lead you to find the focal point of emphasis. Needless to say skimming is a time
saving device. Often you spend a lot of time – waste a lot of time – without getting any reward, if you do
not master the technique of skimming.
Study-Reading
When the student has to read a text-book and get a systematic learning in any particular discipline, he has
to employ a different technique for reading. New realms of knowledge are consistently opening up; Spe-
cialisation in specific branches of discipline is fast developing and expert knowledge of even small details
of information may be necessary in certain areas of learning (For instance, computer science, electronics,
medical, legal etc.). In this context, we need study-reading. This type of reading is different from skimming
because here the student needs not only a general idea of a subject but a correct and exact understanding of
all the main details as well as supporting details. In comparison with other types of reading, study-reading
is slow, perhaps very slow, because it is concerned with details as well as the main ideas.
Perhaps the student starts with skimming through the entire material and gets a general idea of what it
is about. Then he shifts to study-reading. Then, the student should divide the material into convenient and
manageable units of thought. He further analyses it into concepts and ideas with all the supporting evidence
of details. The division into smaller units depends upon the student’s ability, his previous background, his
purpose in reading and a host of other factors. An essential point of study-reading is that he has to learn,
assimilate, revise and make his learning permanent. Another important point is to communicate this infor-
mation to others. Study-reading involves thinking; but for the most part this thinking is concentrated on
making the information meaningful to the student. By using this method of reading, the student understands
and retains information. There is another kind of reading where the student not only understands the subject
matter, but also evaluates it. This is critical reading.
Critical Reading
Another device for reading is Critical Reading. In some cases study-readings and critical readings go together,
but not always. The student should learn to think logically. While reading and also after reading, the student
must be able to identify the existing or missing link in a logical argument. He should be able to identify
inconsistent logic, false analogies and irrelevant ideas, if there are any. This leads to the understanding of
the differentiation between fact and opinion. Efficient and reliable evaluation rests on the ability to decide
Reading Skill 291
what fact is and what opinion is. A student is expected to acquire a wide background of factual knowledge
which is possible only by wide reading. Now and then the reader has to stop reading and has to check his
understanding of the subject matter and has to evaluate it.
Many of our research papers, periodical articles, proposals, instructions, procedures, reports, newspapers,
articles etc. require critical reading.
READING SPEED
Learning different types of reading and to decide what type of reading is suitable based on the purpose and
the nature of material helps us to become more effective in overall use of reading time. Let us briefly dis-
cuss the details of reading speed. According to Edward Fry1, there are three reading speeds: study-reading
speed, average reading speed and skimming speed. The details of these three speeds of reading are shown
in the following Table 16.2.
Table 16.2 Details of Three Reading Speeds
S.No. Purpose of Reading Poor Reader Good Reader

Words per Minute Degree of Words per Minute Degree of
Comprehension Comprehension
1. Study-reading 90-125 80-90% 200-300 80-90%
2. Average Reading 150-180 70% 250-300 70%
3. Skimming Cannot Cannot 800 + 50%
The study-reading speed is used for reading material which deals with concepts, ideas, notions, instructions,
legal documents, subject material etc. After reading, the reader is expected to organise the information in
logical order, for easy comprehension and retention of what he has read for a long time. The average reading
speed is used for everyday reading of magazines, newspapers, brochures, news letters etc. The emphasis in
this kind of reading is on the writer’s point of view. Skimming is another type of reading with objective to
get an overall idea of what the text is about.
Table 16.3 Comprehension Skills
S.No. Nature of Comprehension Skill Required

1. Global or Overall Comprehen- The ability to perceive an overall idea
sion
The ability to understand the organisation of the given text
– The themes and sub-themes
– The logical and hierarchical relationship between them.
2. Factual and Literal Compre- The ability to locate, identify and recall facts which are explicitly stated
hension such as:
(Contd)
1 Edward Fry, Teaching Faster, Reading. The University Press, Cambridge, 1963. p. 52.
(Contd)
– Sequence of events;
– Comparison and contrast
– Cause-effect relationships
– Descriptive statements
3. Referential Comprehension The ability to refer factual information from the text
4. Inferential Comprehension The ability to draw inferences from stated facts
The ability to draw inferences from cause-effect relationships which are not
explicitly stated
Reasoning abilities which are higher and more complex than those involved
in factual information
5. Evaluate Comprehension The ability to judge the accuracy, acceptability, value etc., of the statements
made by the author of a text
The ability to respond to the traits, personality and the attitude revealed by
the author of a text
The ability to determine what is ‘stated’ and what is ‘implied’ between fact
and opinion etc.
6. Reorganisation of Information The ability to retrieve information from text
– Categorisation of information
– Process of selection and summarisation
7. Prediction The ability to predict on the basis of something that has been read
The ability to anticipate what is likely to follow in a piece of text
Summary
By cultivating an effective reading habit, you can enrich your vocabulary, word usage, sentence construction and com-
posing paragraphs. Acquiring different speeds of reading the reader can develop a wide range of comprehension abili-
ties such as global, factual, literal, referential, inferential, evaluative and predictive. The common belief is that when
reading speed increases, comprehension suffers. Many studies on reading show that comprehension improves with an
increase in speed.
Hence, concentrate on the message and not on the speaker. It contributes to improve your reading skill. The exercises
provided in this chapter should be read at the study-reading speed because they have been designed to give practice in
reading skill.
Review Questions
1. Discuss briefly the importance of reading skill at the workplace.
2. What are the desirable reading habits?
3. What are the undesirable reading habits?
4. What are the various types of reading?
5. Write guidelines for improving the reading skill.
Reading Skill 293
Exercises
Passage 1
The word “English” comes from the country of England. But people didn’t always speak English there. In fact, 2000
years ago England was not the name of the country, and the English people did not even live there.
At that time, another group of people, the Celts, lived in the place that is now England. They did not speak English.
The name of their language was Celtic. Then groups of people came to England from other countries in Northern Europe.
The Celts had to leave England when these people came.
Today, only a few people in the world still speak a Celtic language – in Scotland, Ireland, Wales and France. And
there are only one or two English words that come from Celtic. But the names of some towns and places in England
are from Celtic – such as Kent, York, Thames and London.
The English language started about 1500 years ago in England. Three groups of people came to the country then – the
Angles, the Saxons and the Jutes. These three groups brought their language with them to England. After sometime the
three languages became one new language – English. The name ‘English’ comes from the Angles. They lived in most
of England. ‘England’ means ‘Angle Land’ or country of the Angles.
The language that we speak today – ‘Modern English’ is not the same as the English that people used 1500 years
ago. That language – old English – sounded different and it had some different rules of grammar. And there were only
a few thousand words in old English. But Modern English does come from old English, and it is still like it in many
important ways.
Modern English has a very large vocabulary. In fact the famous Oxford Dictionary lists over 650,000 different words.
Not all the words in this dictionary are currently used. A lot of new words come into the language every year. Every
time there is a new thing or someone has a new idea, people need a new word to talk about it.
Which words are new and which ones are old? The answer is easy – the words for new things are new and the ones
for old things are old. For example, airport, computer, stereo and motel are new words. Tree, house, and mountain are
old.
From World English 2nd ed. by –
Jovanovich and Others, Harcourt, New York, 1980.
Comprehension
After reading the passage, answer the following questions.
1. What are the three languages which contribute to the development of a new language – English?
2. After reading this passage how do you differentiate the new and old words?
3. Do you think laptop is a new word or an old word?
4. If you take ‘lap’ and ‘top’ as two words, do you consider these two words as new words or old words?
Spellings
Complete the following words. The meanings of the words are given here:
5. Voca ____________ : the total number of words in a language.
6. Dicti _____________: a book that gives the words of a language in alphabetical order and explains their mean-
ing.
7. Curr ______________: at the present time.
Pronunciation
eI/, /A:/,
In the following words the letter ‘a’ is pronounced as /@/, /eI A:/, /{/, /e/, or /I/.
Arrange the following words under these sounds:
after Saxons fact
thousand language today
name ago Wales
many land England
8. /@/
9. /eI/
10. /A:/
11. /{/
12. /e/
13. /I/
Passage 2
The impact of television on society is a matter of concern for psychologists as well as sociologists. However, it is re-
garded as a magic box of idiots’ lantern – its effects are now capable of scientific investigation, although a sociologist
needs more than one decade of widespread viewing before he can draw permanent conclusions.
It appears that television is changing our leisure habits. Regular viewers have ceased to go to cinema, and a major-
ity admits that they have given up reading. On the other hand, many more people are visiting picture galleries, show
jumping, soccer matches, Wimbledon tennis and other events popularised by television. Gardening as a leading hobby
has remained unaffected, but conversation at home has declined.
Before these effects can be labelled desirable or undesirable, they need closer examination. Is it bad to abandon the
cinema? Perhaps, but one might as well watch inferior films in the home as in the cinema. Is it bad to abandon read-
ing? Perhaps but only if one assumes that the viewer was formerly reading a novel rather than the ‘Daily Gossip’. Is it
bad to abandon conversation? Perhaps, but some think we all talk too much. We can perhaps see an advantage in the
change in conversational habits, the friendship which can develop between total strangers over discussion of a compel-
ling television programme.
The social implications, however, go beyond the field of leisure. The message of television is largely expressed in
middle or lower middle class terms. The odd play or documentary will give glimpses of other worlds but the general
background is fairly constant. Learning new social attitudes from the screen may be an advantage or retrogression.
Some think retrograde the romantic notion of sex continually accentuated: though thinking back over the art forms of
the centuries, one wonders whether this is so very new.
Comprehension
After reading the passage answer the following questions:
1. According to the writer, how does television change our leisure habits?
2. Name two beneficial effects of television discussed in the passage.
3. According to the writer of this passage, what are the adverse effects of television?
4. Explain the meaning of the phrase: ‘Will give glimpses of other worlds’.
5. ‘Conversation in the home has declined’. Why is it so?
Spellings
Complete the following words. The meanings of the words are given for guidance.
6. Aban _____________: to go away from a person, thing or place not intending to return.
7. Compe ____________: extremely interesting and exciting.
8. Retrog _____________: returning to old fashioned ideas or methods.
Pronunciation
In the following words the letter ‘s’ is pronounced as /s/, /Z/, or /z/. Arrange the following words under /s/, /Z/,
and /z/:
television effects
conclusion visiting
ceased
9. /s/
10. /Z/
11. /z/
Reading Skill 295
Vocabulary
Write down the other forms of each of the following words:
Verb Adjective Noun
12. Investigate
13. Compel
Give words or phrases similar in meaning to the following words taken from the passage.
14. ceased
15. abandon
16. conversational
17. compelling
18. retrogressive
Passage 3
DDT (short form for dichloro-dephenyl-trichloro-ethane) was first synthesised by a German chemist in 1874, but its
properties as an insecticide were not discovered until 1939. Almost immediately DDT was hailed as a means of stamping
out insect-borne diseases and winning the farmers’ war against crop destroyers overnight. The discoverer, Paul Muller
of Switzerland, won the Nobel Prize.
DDT is now so universally used that in most minds the product takes on the harmless aspect of the familiar. Per-
haps the myth of the harmlessness of DDT rests on the fact that one of its first uses was the wartime dusting of many
thousands of soldiers, refugees, and prisoners, to combat lice. It is widely believed that since so many people came into
extremely intimate contact with DDT and suffered no immediate ill effects, the chemical must certainly be innocent of
harm.
This understandable misconception arises from the fact that – unlike other chlorinated hydrocarbons – DDT in powder
form is not readily absorbed through the skin. Dissolved in oil, as it usually is, DDT is definitely toxic. If swallowed, it
is absorbed slowly through the digestive tract; it may also be absorbed through the lungs. Once it has entered the body
it is stored largely in organs rich in fatty substances (because DDT itself is fat-soluble) such as the adrenals, testes, or
thyroid. Relatively large amounts are deposited in the liver, kidneys, and the fat of the large, protective mesenteries that
enfold the intestines.
This storage of DDT begins with the smallest conceivable intake of the chemical (which is present as residues on
most foodstuffs) and continues until quite high levels are reached. The fatty storage depots act as biological magnifiers,
so that an intake of as little as 1/10 of 1 part per million in the diet results in storage of about 10 to 15 parts per million,
an increase of one hundredfold or more. These terms of reference, so commonplace to the chemist or the pharmacologist,
are unfamiliar to most of us. One part in a million sounds like a very small amount – and so it is. But such substances
are so potent that a minute quantity can bring about vast changes in the body. In animal experiments, 3 parts per million
has been found to inhibit an essential enzyme in heart muscle; only 5 parts per million has brought about necrosis or
disintegration of liver cells; only 2.5 parts per million of the closely related chemicals dieldrin and chlordane did the
same.
This is really not surprising. In the normal chemistry of the human body there is just such a disparity between cause
and effect. For example, a quantity of iodine as small as two ten-thousandths of a gram spells the difference between
health and disease. Because these small amounts of pesticides are cumulatively stored and only slowly excreted, the
threat of chronic poisoning and degenerative changes of the liver and other organs is very real.
– from ‘Silent Spring’, Rachel Carson.
Comprehension
After reading the passage answer the following questions:
1. For what purposes has DDT been regarded as particularly beneficial?
2. Why was DDT so easily regarded as harmless?
3. Explain the effects of introducing small quantities of DDT into animals.
4. DDT stands for _________________.
5. What is the difference between DDT in powder form and when dissolved in oil?
Spellings
Complete the following words. The meanings of the words are given for guidance.
6. Common ____________ : ordinary.
7. Cumu _______________ : gradually increasing.
8. Excr ________________ : to pass out waste matter from its body or system.
9. Degen (adj) ___________ : getting or likely to get worse.
Pronunciation
In the following words the letter ‘a’ is pronounced as /@/, /{/, /A:/, /eI/ or /O:/. Arrange the following words in
lists under the sounds – /@/, /A:/, /{/, /eI/ or /O:/.:
/O:/
stamping familiar intake combat cause

farmers absorbed fat animal harmless
small amount part human war
10. /@/
11. /{/
12. /A:/
13. /eI/
14. /O:/
In the following words the letter ‘s’ stands for different sounds. Identify and group them. Refer to a dictionary.
15. disease
16. arise
17. usually
18. surprise
Vocabulary
Write down the other forms for each of the following words. Refer to a dictionary.
Verb Adjective Noun
19. Protect
20. Understand
21. Surprise
22. Degenerate
Unit V
Writing Skill
Chapter 17
Paraphrase Writing and
Précis Writing

Learn how to comprehend a passage.
Identify the context.
Identify the content and overall idea of the topic.
Organise the material in a logical way without distorting the meaning.
Interpret the given material based on context.
Express the given document in a simple language.
Identify the essential ideas and non-essential ideas of a given document.
Enhance the skill of reading.
Increase the skill of quick comprehension.
Develop the skill of summarising information.
Develop the effective skill of writing.
INTRODUCTION
At a workplace, there is a great pressure to read or listen and comprehend the document and reproduce
the gist of the original document precisely. For an effective reproduction of the main ideas of the material
you need to acquire specific skills such as reading, listening skill, comprehension skill, reasoning skill and
writing skill. This process involves speedy reading or effective listening, quick understanding and precise
reading. This chapter discusses paraphrase writing and précis writing.
PARAPHRASE WRITING
The word paraphrase is of Greek origin which means literally equivalent sentence. Paraphrase may be defined
as an “expression or restatement of the meaning of a given passage or a text in other words”. It gives
more explanation by changing words and sentence structures in order to make it easier to understand. It is
a process of rewriting a text passage or a text in different words without changing or distorting its original
meaning. Paraphrase writing activity is a specific intellectual exercise. The writer has to possess compre-
hensive ability, interpretative ability, and a command over language. If the writer develops these skills, he
will be able to write a good paraphrase.
Effective paraphrase writing means not just rewriting the passage in different words from what the
original contains. Once the subject matter is clearly understood, the context clear, then the unity and co-
herence of thought process is required. The skill of organisation of ideas of the original material, logical
sequencing of points, clear and meaningful expression, use of language suitable to the content and context,
the ability to rephrase the material in one’s own words are essential for writing a paraphrase effectively.
At the same time, however, a paraphrase is not creative writing inasmuch as it is merely a restatement of
the original writer’s ideas, points etc.
Techniques of Paraphrasing
Specific techniques are required for paraphrasing the given material. The following techniques may be useful
in this regard:
Replace the high sounding words and phrases by precise words
Replace clichés by simple words
Use suitable synonyms
Simplify the difficult expressions for clarity
Change complicated and confused paragraphs to simple paragraphs
Organise the material in a logical way without distorting the meaning
Interpret the given material based on contextual reference
METHODS OF PARAPHRASING
The basic requirement for paraphrasing the given document is reading skill. The writer has to understand
the document and should be able to interpret it effectively. You must read attentively and familiarise yourself
with the passage by reading it thoroughly. You should be able to analyse the context. You should also be
able to identify the key words and expressions. Thereby you can paraphrase easily. Let us now discuss the
essential methods for paraphrasing.
Change Poetic Order into Prose Order In poetry the order of words is often inverted. Poets may
use an object or a verb in place of the subject. Generally, simple sentence structure in English is Subject
+ Verb + Object (+ Complement). When you have to paraphrase the poem, you have to change it into
normal prose order – Subject + Verb + Object (SVO) – as shown here:
How happy is he born and taught
That serveth not other’s will;
Whose armour is his thought
And simple truth his utmost skill!
“Character of a Happy Life” – Sir Henry Wotton
Paraphrase: A free man, who is not a slave to the will of others, leads a happy life. Honesty is his armour
and truthfulness is his natural gift.
Change Archaic Words into Modern Equivalents Sometimes, in poetry archaic and out-of-the-way
words are used. You must change them into their modern equivalents. Here are some words.
Paraphrase Writing and Précis Writing 301
Table 17.1 Archaic Words and their Equivalents
ere for before sire for father

o’er for over quoth for said
aught for anything serveth for serves
albeit for although doth for does
damsel for girl hath for has
dame for lady
Change Ornate Style into Simple Language Ornate language and literary frills should be changed
into a simpler language. Rhythmic expressions and clichés must be avoided.
Change Metaphors into Simple Language If the passage contains metaphors, idiomatic expressions
and similes, their meanings should be brought out clearly. The easiest way of doing this is by changing
them into simple and precise language. Sometimes you may drop the metaphors and similes altogether and
express the idea in a simple and direct language. Here is an example.
All the world’s a stage.
And all the men and women are merely players.
Shakespeare’s “As you Like it”.
Act II, scene VII.
Paraphrase: Here Shakespeare compares the world to a stage and all men and women to actors. (Here, the
writer uses theatre as a powerful metaphor.)
Change Epigrammatic Diction into Simple Language In any writing we often use epigrammatic
diction. You may have to expand such expressions to bring out their meanings.
Omit the Repetition of Thought If there is any repetition of thought in the passage you may omit it
in the paraphrase.
Change Rhetorical Questions into Affirmative Statements Rhetorical questions and exclamatory
sentences should be converted into simple affirmative statements by using simple language. Direct speech
of the original passage may be retained in paraphrase.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PARAPHRASE AND PRÉCIS

A paraphrase differs from a précis inasmuch as a paraphrase must reproduce not only the substance or central
meaning but also the details of a given text. Nothing in the original document may be left unrepresented in
the paraphrase. It is, therefore, a full reproduction of the original document. It contains the full details of
the passage in simple language without distortion of meaning. On the other hand, a précis is a brief sum-
mary of the salient points of a given passage. There is no hard and fast rule for the length of a paraphrase as
compared with the length of the original passage. The paraphrase is about as long as the original. Sometimes
it may be even slightly longer because you may have to explain a metaphor or even elucidate an epigram
which occurs in the original. A précis or summary is much shorter than the original.
GUIDELINES FOR WRITING PARAPHRASE

Generally, you will be asked to paraphrase the given document. When you have to make a paraphrase the
following points should be borne in mind:
Read the document slowly and carefully to get clarity and an overall idea.
Read again to understand its central idea.
Read the document again, after noting the central idea, to get all details.
Note all unusual words and expressions, as well as comparisons, similes metaphors and idiomatic
expressions and express them in a simple and precise language.
Note all inversions and stilted expressions and change them into simple language.
Break long sentences into short simple sentences or combine several short sentences into one long
sentence in order to make it easy.
Note all clichés, literary jargon and unusual grammatical constructions and express them in simple
language.
Rearrange sentences in order to maintain unity and coherence and to make the meaning clear.
Consider the passage as a whole. Do not paraphrase word by word or line by line.
Eliminate if there is any repetition of thought.
Write the paraphrase in your own words.
Change archaic, obscure, abstract and ambiguous words into simple, precise and ordinary words.
Make a rough draft of the paraphrase.
Compare the rough draft with the given passage.
Check whether all the details have been reproduced.
Revise it correcting all grammatical, spelling and other common errors.
Make a fair copy and read again to check the content.
Do not change simple words.
Do not change words if they are the right words in the context.
Do not replace scientific and technical terms or standard formal phrases.
Do not add any new information in the paraphrase.
DEFINITION OF A PRÉCIS
A ‘précis’ may be defined as ‘an unchanged restatement in a shortened form of the main points or ideas
of a written text.’ The word précis is derived from French and it means ‘terse’ or ‘exact’. The final letter
‘s’ is silent in pronunciation so it is pronounced as /’preIsI:/ (pray-see). The plural form of this word is
the same but it is pronounced /’preIsI:z/. Writing a précis is a very rewarding intellectual exercise. Précis
writing means not just writing in different words what the original contains. It is not merely paraphrasing
of the original or a list of its main points. For writing an effective précis, a thorough understanding of the
subject matter is essential. Then identify unity and coherence of thought process of the original passage.
The skill of organisation of ideas, logical sequencing of points, clear and meaningful expression, use of
language suitable to the situation are essential for writing a précis effectively. The writer of a précis must
be able to identify the essential ideas in a given passage and separate them from non-essential ideas. At the
same time, however, a précis is not creative writing, inasmuch as it is merely a condensed restatement of
the original writer’s ideas.
A précis writer is not a critic. He is not an enthusiastic reader reading for pleasure. Précis does not contain
any comments or explanation by the writer. The ability to express an elaborate idea or co-related information
in as few words as possible is an important feature of précis writing. Its rigour has no place for examples,
illustrations and literary frills used by the writer of the given document to emphasise his point. As a précis
writer, however, you must retain the style and the writer’s point of view of the original document.
PRINCIPLES OF WRITING A PRÉCIS

The important requirements to make a good précis are a clear understanding of the given passage, the ability
to distinguish between the essential and non-essential points of the given passage and identification of main
points and sub-points. A précis writer has to concentrate on the process of selection of what is important
and elimination of what is not important and how best the selected ideas can be rearranged and expressed in
a concise way. You must have the ability to reproduce main ideas and supporting points effectively in your
own words. Let us now discuss the essential qualities of précis writing. These are completeness, concise-
ness, clarity and unity and coherence.
Completeness: A précis should contain all essential ideas dealt within the original passage. It should
not omit any important idea or fact. It should cover the necessary information. It should be complete and
self-contained and self-intelligible.
Conciseness: Brevity being the hall mark of a précis, the language used in it should be clear, brief and
precise. At the same time it should cover the original ideas. Avoid literary frills, circumlocution expressions,
redundancy and ornamental phrases. Make it precise, simple and easily comprehensible.
Clarity: A précis writer should express the main ideas of the original passage clearly and meaningfully.
It should be free from ambiguity and redundancy. It should be intelligible, concise and easily comprehen-
sible.
Unity and Coherence: A good précis is not a mere tabular presentation of ideas or making out a list of
the main points or ideas expressed in the given passage. The points or ideas should be presented coherently
and in a logical sequence. When read, the précis should appear like an original piece of writing and should
be self-sufficient and easily comprehensible.
STEPS FOR WRITING A PRÉCIS

For writing a précis you must follow certain steps. The most important step is reading. You must read with
intense concentration and then get the overall idea of the subject. You have to read repeatedly to identify
the supporting points of the subject and illustrations used in the given document. However, to understand a
given passage and to answer a few questions based on it is one activity and to re-express briefly the chief
points contained in it is another. Practice is essential to acquire this skill. Here are some steps which will
help you to write a good précis:
Read the Original Document: Read the passage carefully to understand what the passage is about and
to get a general idea of the subject. Give a second and even a third reading to identify the main theme and
to distinguish the essential ideas and concepts from the unimportant ones.
Identify the Purpose: Form a clear idea about the subject and find out what is said about the subject in
the given document. Find out what purpose the writer wants to achieve or has kept in view in dealing with
the subject.
Identify the Key Ideas and Concepts: Read the passage carefully and list out all the main points, ideas
or aspects and the supporting ideas. Make sure that no single point, major or minor eludes your attention.
Select the Essential Points: Start the process of selection and elimination of ideas now. Select the es-
sential points and jot them down and reject the rest. Prepare only the gist or the main purport of the passage
that needs to be presented in the précis. Strike off the items which you consider non-essential from your
list.
Summarise the Theme of the Passage: Summarise the material on the basis of gist or purport which you
prepared. Avoid repetitions, illustrations and examples. If many examples are given in support of a point,
retain one and omit the others. Avoid circumlocution and rhetoric expressions.
Bring out Unity and Coherence: Arrange all important ideas of your list in a logical order. They need
not be in the same order as they appear in the original passage. In fact, you may at times even find it neces-
sary to change the order in order to bring out the unity of thought process.
Write the Précis: Now write down the preliminary draft on the basis of your identification of the main
points and sub-points, listing of important points and summarisation of the theme.
Check the Length: There is no fixed rule about the length of a précis but generally it should contain
one third of the original document. So check the length of the précis. If it is more than the required limit,
go through the draft again and delete any unnecessary words or phrases or rewrite some sentences to cut it
down to a suitable length.
Review and Edit: Compare your draft with the original document to check any irrelevancy. It should not
be too long or short. Don’t include your own ideas and comments. Check the content and review it. Edit, if
there is any grammatical, punctuation or spelling errors and review it.
Write down the Title: You are required to give your précis a title. The title should indicate the main
theme of the passage. It must be a word or a phrase or a sentence. Identify the main subject and key words
and then think about a suitable title from the main subject of the passage. Usually, a hint for the title can
be found in what we call the key or the topic sentence of the passage. Generally the topic sentence may be
found either at the beginning or at the end of the given passage. Rarely is the topic sentence is in the middle
of the passage (see Chapter 19).
Prepare the Final Draft: Read again and revise it. For the final revision, avoid redundancy, ambiguity,
verbosity, repetition, illustrations, idiomatic usage and literary frills. Pay attention to the content, punctua-
tion, grammar and spelling.
METHODS OF ABRIDGING SENTENCES

Here are some methods for abridging sentences. You can use these methods while you check content, ef-
fectiveness and the length of a précis. You must learn to re-express ideas concisely and precisely through
the methods suggested here.
1. By Reducing the Long Phrase to a Word:
(i) At this point of time → Now
(ii) A large number of → many
(iii) Due to the fact that → because
(iv) Come to the conclusion → conclude
(v) In almost all instances → nearly, always
(vi) Under circumstances in which → if
2. By Reducing a Clause to a Phrase:
(i) Kavitha cannot read unless she wears her → Kavitha cannot read without her glasses.
glasses.
(ii) It is difficult to make an approximation. → It is difficult to estimate its cost.
(iii) Rajiv Gandhi, who was the former Prime → Rajiv Gandhi, the former Prime Minister of
Minister of India, was assassinated near India, was assassinated near Madras.
Madras.
3. By Reducing a Clause to a Word
(i) I follow the example which is set by Mother → I follow Mother Teresa’s example.
Teresa.
(ii) That is not the way in which the question → That is not the way to answer the question.
should be answered.
(iii) Please tell me when the meeting takes → Please tell me time of the meeting.
place.
(iv) The constitution declared that every citizen → According to the constitution every citizen
has a right to vote. has a right to vote.
4. By Reducing Long List of Words to a Generic Term:
(i) Pencils, pens, paper, ink, clips, erasers and tags: Stationery
(ii) Forks, knives and spoons → Cutlery
(iii) A collection of flowers → Bouquet
(iv) A group of small insects → Aphid
5. By Reducing Illustrations to one
If you have many illustrations, identify the most important one and retain it.
6. Avoid:
Figures of speech
Quotations
Exclamations
Rhetorical questions
7. Change the direct speech to the indirect speech.
8. Change the first person to third person and change the present to the past tense.
9. Remove superficial or ‘ornamental words’.
There are several conclusions that might be drawn from the study → Several conclusions might be drawn
from the study.
10. Reduce a lengthy and repetitive expression to a brief statement.
‘We listed the events in this’ schedule that will take place during the next one month and also the time
and venue so that you can decide beforehand whether you will like to take part in any event, inform
the concerned person.
Précis:
The events of the next one month are listed in the schedule. If you wish to take part in any event, inform
the person concerned.
Summary
A paraphrase is like an expansion and a précis is a specific writing activity. Paraphrase is self-sufficient, self-contained
and intelligible to the reader. It can stand by itself as an independent unit and can be understood easily. It should be in
itself clear and comprehensible without any reference to the original passage. By the practice of writing a paraphrase,
the learner can improve his comprehension ability. It develops the ability to understand what you read. It also develops
the ability to interpret the given material clearly and precisely.
The skill of précis writing is essential for writing reports. Précis writer has to inculcate extensive and competent reading
skill, intense concentration, comprehending ability and a command over the language. When the writer develops these
skills, then he will be able to write a good précis. At the workplace you need to comprehend a lot of information and
present it logically. To get success in this kind of work, we must develop the ability to present it logically and precisely
what has been read without any significant point or emphasis. It is highly recording activity at the workplace.
Review Questions
1. What is a paraphrase? Explain it.
2. What techniques would you suggest for writing a paraphrase?
3. Discuss briefly methods for preparing a paraphrase.
4. What are the differences between a paraphrase and a précis?
5. What guidelines would you like to give for writing a paraphrase?
6. What is précis writing? Discuss.
7. Discuss the principles of précis writing.
8. What are the various steps that you are required to follow for writing a good précis?
9. What are the various methods for writing a good précis? Give examples.
10. In what way is précis writing different from a paraphrase?
Exercises
1. Read Exercise 3 from Chapter 16 and write a paraphrase of it.
2. Read the following lines and write a paraphrase in simple language.
(a) “Reading maketh a full-man, writing an exact man, and conferring a ready man.”
(b) After deep meditation, Sir Isaac Newton discovered that there was a law in nature called allocation, by virtue
of which every particle of matter, that the world is composed of draws towards itself every other particle of
matter with a force that is proportionate to its mass and distance.
(c) When you look at the rainbow in the sky, what strikes you most about it? First of all, I think, its beauty, but
after that the fact that its many colours melt, almost by little, one into the other, so that there is no real line
of separation between red and orange or orange and yellow.
(d) Gandhi thought that religion was necessary for the maintenance of good conduct and social order.
3. Write a précis of the following passages and suggest a suitable title.
Passage 1
There is another way of flattering important people which has become very common, I notice, among writers
in the newspapers and elsewhere. It consists in applying to them the phrases ‘simple’, or ‘quiet’, or ‘modest’
without any sort of meaning or relation to the person to whom they are applied. To be simple is the best thing
in the world, to be modest is the next best thing. I am not so sure about being quiet I am rather inclined to
think that really modest people make a good deal of noise. It is quite self-evident that really simple people
make a great deal of noise. But simplicity and modesty, at least, are very rare and royal human virtues, not
to be likely talked about. Few human beings, and at rare intervals, have really risen into being modest; not
one man in ten or in twenty has by long wars become simple. These virtues are not things to fling about
as mere flattery, many prophets and righteousness have desired to see these things and have not seen them.
But in the description of the births, lives and deaths of very luxurious men they are used incessantly and
quite without thought.
–‘The Worship of the Wealthy’ – G.K. Chesterton
Passage 2
All through my public life, whether as teacher or subsequently as politician, a noble vision has shed lustre
on my path. Pray do not consider this as propaganda or as controversy. It is a sober statement of convic-
tion. The pioneers of the political movement of our country, going back to the days before the National
Congress, dreamed of a united India and a United Indian people. Sometimes they called them a nationality,
but always they conceived of them as one whole. They knew that Ashoka and Akbar had dreamed the great
dream and hoped that it could be realised under the aegis of Britain. When I was a lad at school, Surendra
Nath Banerge thundered forth the evolution of the Indian Nation and made the name of Mazzini, Carour and
Garibaldi familiar to our ears. In the West, Ranade enforced the same lesson from the press and from the
platform, showing how the different cultures that had been thrown together, Hindu, Muslim, Sikh, Parsi and
Christian, were blending gradually, to form a rich composite Indian culture, how furthermore this process
of amalgamation was going forward to its consummation through peaceful and constitutional means, and
how patriots should devote themselves to this great purpose in a spirit of sacrifice and suffering. I taught
this doctrine to thousands of students.
– What I Cherish Most by V.S. Srinivasa Sastry
Passage 3
Few of us, however, have lost much property on our travels through forgetfulness. The ordinary man arrives
at his destination with all his bags and trunks safe. The list of articles lost in trains during the year suggests
that it is the young rather than the adult who forget things and that sportsmen have worse memories than
their ordinary serious-minded fellows. A considerable number of footballs and cricket-bats, for instance, were
forgotten. This is easy to understand, for boys returning from their games, have their imaginations still filled
with the vision of the playing field, and their heads are among the stars – or their hearts in their boots – as
they recall their exploits or their errors. They are abstracted from the world outside them. Memories prevent
them from remembering to do such small prosaic things as take the ball or the bat with them when they
leave the train. For the rest of the day, they are citizens of dreamland. The same may be said, no doubt, of
anglers who forget their fishing rods. Anglers are generally said – I do not know with what justification – to
be the most imaginative of men, and the man who is inventing magnificent lies on the journey home after a
day’s fishing is bound to be a little absent-minded in his behavior. The fishing-rod of reality is forgotten by
him as he day-dreams over the feats of the fishing-rod of utopia. This loss of memory is really a tribute to
the intensity of his enjoyment in thinking about his day’s sport. He may forget his fishing-rod, as the poet
may forget to post a letter, because his mind is filled with matter more glorious. Absent mindedness of this
kind seems to me all but a virtue. The absent-minded man is often a man who is making the best of life and
therefore has no time to remember the mediocre.
–Forgetting by Robert Lynd
Chapter 18
Note-Making and
Summary Writing

Develop the skill of comprehension.
Identify the main points of the document.
Identify the overall idea of the given material.
Discriminate, evaluate and select the essential points.
Organise the information in a logical way.
Make notes after reading the document.
Take notes while listening to a talk.
Take notes while participating in a discussion.
Condense the information without changing the original meaning.
INTRODUCTION
Acquiring knowledge is necessary for success in any field. At the turn of the 20th century, people used to
read different documents, journals etc. pertinent to their subjects. At the dawn of the 21st century, informa-
tion was overflowing at a breakneck speed. So, it was unquestionably difficult to go through in detail all
those documents pertinent to their subjects. There is a pressing need to make a gist from that voluminous
material. Hence, note-making and summary writing are essential requirements at the workplace. This chapter
focuses on these two concepts.
NOTE-MAKING
Preparing notes is a device which is useful for writing assignments, term papers, reports, research papers,
and minutes and also for preparing for examinations. Acquiring knowledge is necessary to get success in
Note-Making and Summary Writing 309
any field. Knowledge in the twenty-first century is multiplying at a breakneck speed. We prepare notes when
we read a book, an article in a journal or any other document. While listening to a talk, lecture or discussion
we take down notes. Hence, notes provide us big chunks of knowledge in a logical and succinct form. It
is essential to realise the importance of taking down notes at the workplace. Notes serve as a ready source
of reference and help you to recall quickly the entire salient features of the document. Right attitude and a
right approach are required to prepare notes effectively. Remember that preparing notes is not an aimless
jotting down the points. You must:
have a definite purpose
be aware of the limits of the purpose
keep the overall subject in the mind as you select facts
be prepared to amend your division suddenly if the document or book is badly organised or a talk is
unorganised
Preparing notes is an essential requirement at the workplace. Lecturers jot down notes while preparing
for a class. An executive takes down important points to be discussed in the meeting before he conducts
the meeting. A secretary for writing minutes takes down the main points while the discussion is going on.
Writing notes is a method of investigating the necessary material and noting it down in a systematic and
logical way without changing the meaning of the original document. It is a process of jotting down useful
information, important points, ideas, concepts, facts and arguments from the original material for the
specific purpose. Notes help us to:
Remember important details
Consult the original material whenever required
Refresh your memory about what you read sometime back in the past
Write a report
Write an article
Participate in a discussion
Give a talk or lecture
Prepare for an examination
Update information
The term ‘note’ means ‘a short written record to help one remember something’. Note-making may be
defined as ‘preparing a brief and organised written record of a given material without changing its
original meaning and used as an aid to memory’. Note-making requires both reading and writing skills.
Since note-making is an essential skill that one has to acquire, we shall focus our attention on how to ac-
quire this skill. Let us now discuss the various aspects of this skill. These are organising the information,
shortening process, acquiring note-making skill and note-taking.
ORGANISING THE INFORMATION

Note-making is a skill of gathering information from the source and organising the material in a logical
way. Identification of main aspects and supporting aspects is the basis of note-making. Arrangement of
information indicates various levels of importance and entails using indentations and numbering system. It
clarifies the ideas of the writer and establishes the relationship among the various aspects at various levels.
Let us now consider two popular numbering systems: (i) Roman Numeral-Letter System and (ii) the Decimal
Numbering System.
Roman Numeral-Letter System It is the combination of Roman numbers, Arabic numbers and letters.
This system consists of Roman numerals to indicate the main topics, capital letters for first degree subtop-
ics, Arabic numerals for second degree sub-topics and lowercase letters for third degree sub-topics. If your
topic progresses beyond third degree sub-divisions; and you need further divisions, continue the numbering
system by alternating Arabic numerals and lowercase letters. The first three levels of divisions are set off by
periods and the lower-levels are set off by single or double parentheses. The following exhibit demonstrates
the Roman Numeral-Letter System. Note that each subordinate point is indented with a specific number of
spaces.
Exhibit 18.1 Roman Numeral-Letter System
I. The first Roman numeral indicates the first main division.

A. The first capital letter together with the indention indicates the first degree sub-division of the first main
division.
1. The first Arabic numeral, together with the indention, indicates the second degree sub-division.
(a) The first small letter, together with the indention indicates the third degree sub-division.
(i) The first small Roman numeral together with the indention and parentheses indicates
the fourth degree sub-division of the third degree sub-division.
II. The second Roman numeral indicates the second main division.
A. The first capital letter together with indention indicates the first degree sub-division of the second main
division.
1. The first Arabic numeral, together with the indention, indicates the second degree sub-division.
(a) The first small letter, together with the indention indicates the third degree sub-division.
Decimal Numbering System Decimal numbering system is generally used in modern days. It uses
Arabic numerals and decimals to indicate main topics and sub-topics. The numbering system begins with a
single digit (1, 2, 3, 4 etc.) to mark first-level divisions. For each sub-division, a decimal is added and the
parts of that sub-division are numbered consecutively (1.1, 1.2; 2.1, 2.2; 2.2.1, 2.2.2; etc.). This is illustrated
in the exhibit given here.
Exhibit 18.2 Decimal Numbering System
1. The first main division

1.1 The first degree first sub-division of the first main division.
1.2 The first degree second sub-division of the first main division.
1.2.1 The second degree first sub-division of the first degree second sub-division of the first main
division.
1.2.2 The second degree second sub-division of the first degree second sub-division of the first main
division.
2. The second main division
2.1 The first degree first sub-division of the second main division.
2.2 The first degree second sub-division of the second main division.
In the Roman numeral letter system the first Roman numeral (I) stands for the first main division of
the text. The second Roman numeral (II) stands for the second main division of the text. The third Roman
numeral (III) stands for the third main division. The first capital letter ‘A’ stands for the first sub-division of
all main divisions. The capital letter ‘B’ stands for the second sub-division of all main divisions. It is a bit
confusing and not clear. In comparison, the Decimal numbering system is very clear and accurate. Every first
level division is identified with a single number; every first degree sub-division has two numbers separated
by a decimal; every second-degree sub-division has three numbers separated by a decimal and so on. It
does have a distinct advantage over the other system. Every sub-point in the outline has a separate number.
It quickly tells the reader where he is in the writer’s scheme of things. The reference to specific sections of
the text is easy in decimal numbering system. In the Roman numeral system it would be difficult.
SHORTENING PROCESS
By eliminating the unnecessary and repetitive information, you can reduce the material and can prepare
notes effectively. You can also use abbreviations and symbols as a shortening process. Care should be taken
that one abbreviation or symbol does not stand for more than one word. There should not be any ambiguity
while using abbreviations and symbols in note-making. After a few weeks, months or years, you should be
able to decipher the abbreviations and symbols. However, use common abbreviations and symbols which
are easily comprehensible at a later date.
Use of Abbreviations It is a common practice to use abbreviations. There are some commonly used
abbreviations which are given in the dictionary. In addition you may abbreviate words and phrases by using
the simple methods given here.
Use the First Letter of the Word Words may be abbreviated by just using their first letter. You can apply
this method according to your convenience. If you, however, consider some standard abbreviations, there
will not be any confusion at a later date. Look at the following tableTable 18.1.
Table 18.1 Abbreviations: First Letter of the Word
Word or Expression Abbreviation

East E
West W
North N
South S
Left L
Lake (on a map) L
Large Size (especially on clothing) Learner L
(somebody who is learning to drive a vehicle)
Parking (road sign) P
Page number p.
Page numbers pp.
Carbon c
Volt v
Verse V
In every detail, exactly T
Use First Few Letters of a Word Sometimes we form abbreviations by using first few letters of a word. Look
at the following Table 18.2.
Table 18.2 Abbreviations: First Few Letters of the Word
Word Abbreviation
Secretary sec
Vacation vac
Temperature temp
Minute min
Edition ed
Approximately approx
Professor prof
Especially esp
Use First Letter and Last Letter or Some Letters at the End of a Word These abbreviations are commonly
used in dictionary and note-making.
Table 18.3 Abbreviations: First Letter and Last Letter or Few Letters
Word Abbreviation
Somebody sb
Something sth
Yard yd
We use some abbreviations which are not entered in the dictionary. In note-making we use these
abbreviations.
Table 18.4 Formation of Abbreviations
Word Abbreviation
Month mth
Year yr
Hour hr
We often form abbreviations with the first letter and the last few letters of the word. These abbreviations
are not entered in the dictionary. Sometimes we put an apostrophe in between – look at the following Table
18.5.
Table 18.5 Formation of Abbreviations
Word Abbreviation
Without w’out
Writing wrt’g
Reading r’dg
Speaking sp’ing
These types of abbreviations do not find a place in the dictionary.

Use Initial Letters of Compound Word or Phrases We can form abbreviations by taking the initial letters of
words or phrases and form new words. This method is known as ‘acronym’. See the following Table 18.6.
Table 18.6 Acronyms
Word/Expression Acronym
World Health Organisation WHO
With effect from wef
Curriculum Vitae CV
Teaching of English as a Foreign Language TEFL
Use Special Techniques to Abbreviations Any letter or letters of a word or a phrase to be abbreviated
need to be taken into account. Look at the following Table 18.7.
Table 18.7 Abbreviations
Word/Phrase Abbreviations
Compare cf
that is i.e.
et cetera and others etc.
for example e.g.
namely viz
Use Symbols and Signs While making notes you may use appropriate signs and symbols.
Exhibit 18.8 Symbols
Symbol Means
∴ therefore
because
(Contd)
(Contd)
L The roman numeral for 50
V The roman numeral for 5
= equals
battery
capacitor
+ positive or plus
– negative or minus
> greater than
< less than
& and
: ratio
# number
/ per or over
% per cent
ºC degree celsius
ºF degree fahrenheit
ACQUIRING NOTE-MAKING SKILLS

Note-making gives an important training in the art of selecting the important points, facts, ideas, and con-
cepts from a welter of general information. It develops analytical ability while reading the material. It trains
you to summarise the given material and present it in an organised way. Effective note-making is an asset
which will help you to read and make notes on your own. Note-making develops the skills of comprehen-
sion, discrimination, discernment and organisation. It involves the identification of important points and
organisation of the material effectively. Since it focuses on the identification of essential information from
the whole document, it also develops critical and reasoning faculty. The following points are useful for the
identification of important information and careful preparation before writing notes:
Give a skim reading to get the purpose of the written material.
Read the given material to get the overall idea.
Read the contents to identify:
— the purpose
— the scope
— the theme
— the development of the subject.
Read the given material again in order to identify the main points and important details that support
the main points.
Read for key points and signal words.
Read to identify unity and coherence of the passage.
Ignore the irrelevant details.
Infer meanings of words and phrases from the context.
Interpret graphic aids can be used in the text.
Identify the main divisions and give suitable headings.
Use existing headings if they help you to make notes.
Under each heading make brief but clear notes of the main points or those points which you wish to
retain.
Try to identify what you want from the passage.
If something catches your eyes make a brief reference note for further reading.
Do not add any information that is not there in the document.
Do not plunge into the material making haphazard notes.
Do not be put off by irrelevant material, however interesting it may be to you.
Do not use confusing words, structures or expressions.
TAKING NOTES
Taking notes while listening to a talk or discussion is an essential skill at the workplace. It also requires the
ability to follow and analyse a talk and to note down the main points. It requires that we:
Develop the critical attitude of evaluating the material
Identify the coherence of thought process
Identify the purpose
Listen carefully
Listen for the main idea
A critical well-organised structure of the talk will probably have some frame work as this:
Title of the topic
Purpose of the topic
Introduction of the subject
Preview of the talk
Main aspects
Supporting material for each main aspect
Explanation of each topic
Repetition of the idea to reinforce the point of view;
Giving practical application
Summing up
This planning of the presentation will help you to secure the main headings in the beginning itself. If
the speaker introduces his subject clearly and presents to his audience how he intends to present it, then it
would be clear for you to put down a series of rough headings. Here are a few do’s and don’ts which may
help you to take notes.
Do’s
Be prepared by giving some thought to the topic before attending a talk/ discussion/lecture.
Listen carefully for the key introductory phrases. Such as:
— I am going to deal with…
— There are two ways of…
— The most important aspect of this concept is…
Analyse unity and coherence of the thought process.
Space your notes reasonably.
Number your identified aspects of the material especially in sequence and list them.
Identify the central idea.
Don’ts
Don’t be hasty in taking notes.
Don’t take every minor fact as it comes along.
Don’t try to write everything as verbatim.

Don’t take notes intensely.
Don’t be put off if the speaker is wandering from the point.
Don’t use abbreviations which you may not understand later.
Don’t introduce any new information.
SUMMARY WRITING
Summarisation is an extremely useful tool at the workplace. It is a functional and communication skill.
Students as well as professionals have to often present a gist of what they have heard or read. Often during
the years of your education or at your workplace, you will need to reduce chapters of books or manuscripts
to short manageable statements for purposes of review and study.
Summarising is a process of condensing information without changing the original meaning and
focus of the passage. It encourages active reading and helps you understand the material and remember it. It
also improves your ability to write concisely by making you identify the essential information and be aware
of the kind of details or expressions that can be avoided to achieve precision in writing. Generally, we need
summarising skill for various purposes such as books, reports of different types, journals, bulletins, news
letters, minutes of meeting – all these present a formidable reading problem at the workplace. Sometimes
the material can be rendered in the note form; sometimes the material needs to be reproduced in a condensed
form such as a synopsis, précis or an abridgement. Let us learn something about each of these terms and
then we shall discuss summary in detail.
A synopsis is an orderly arrangement of main points that can be apprehended at a glance. It aims
to give only significant features rather than presenting a complete summary of the entire document of a
book or a report. By glancing at a synopsis the reader can see the development of the subject or problem
but he has to read the original for details. In other words, this type of summary offers in general what the
document contains and does not give specific information. Sometimes, synopsis is merely an expansion of
the title and is used on the title page as a subtitle. An abridgement is a shortened form of the original
and is generally prepared for literary works.
BASICS OF WRITING A SUMMARY

Summary includes a brief description of the problem, the approach taken to solve it, the results of the problem
and final conclusions. A well-constructed summary, though much shorter, shighlights the important points.
The essence of each main point should be stated in proportion to its importance in the original document.
Practice in preparing a summary will also help you to read with greater care and write concisely and directly.
You cannot summarise effectively if you have not read carefully and have discriminated between the main
and subordinate ideas. Such discrimination in turn, will help you to sharpen your style to avoid the prolix-
ity that creeps into careless writing.
Thus, in all these types of summaries the process of writing involves a skill of comprehension. That is,
selecting from the material those points which are relevant. It is not an easy task and there is no quick way
or short cut to acquire the technique. It involves:
The ability to understand the original document
The ability to read efficiently
The ability to develop the skills of discrimination, evaluation and selection of important points
The ability to interpret the points
The ability to re-present the points not a line-by-line pruning or re-hashing of the original
The ability to organise the points effectively
The ability to use direct, concise and precise language

The ability to convey the information to readers adequately
Since summary is meant to be objective, you should present not only what the author says but also how he
organises the information.
OVERALL ORGANISATION
A good summary contains an introduction, a discussion and a conclusion.
Introduction
Introduction begins with a topic sentence. Usually, this sentence will present the primary focus of the origi-
nal source. It also presents two or three major points to be discussed. If it is necessary, it includes source
citation.
Some points to remember:
Source of your material you are summarising
Author’s name, article title etc.
Publication date
Preface of your summary
Discussion
In this section, briefly summarise the main points covered in the original document. State the author’s point
of view, summarise the author’s ideas and views in your own words. It covers the major portion of the
summary.
Conclusion
In conclusion of your summary, you can reiterate the focus statement, reminding the reader of the author’s
key ideas and views; highlight the author’s conclusions of the source material. You can also mention the
author’s recommendations.
Although the summary will not cover every fact in the original, after reading the summary you should
have a clear overview the main ideas of the original.
GUIDELINES FOR WRITING A SUMMARY

Before you try to summarise a passage, read it carefully to find out the author’s purpose, scope, major
ideas and point of view. Focus on the author’s own summaries either at the beginning or at the end of a
passage.
After reading the passage, you are ready to organise your summary. The following guidelines may be
useful for writing an effective summary:
Pick up author’s key terms and phrases.
Identify the central ideas and notice how they are organised.
Summarise the author’s key ideas in the same order in which they are presented.
Summarise the author’s major points and conclusions.
State the significance of these points.
Show their importance or impact.
Preserve the flavour of the original.
Reduce the material from 5 to 10 per cent of the original.
Use simple or complex sentences rather than compound sentences.
Use compound sentences if there are two or more equally dominating ideas in the paragraph.
Separate the relevant points from the irrelevant points.
Arrange the ideas systematically and logically.
Present the material clearly and precisely.
Should reflect the author’s content truly and accurately.
Use transitional words or phrases to link ideas and provide a smooth flow of thought.
Must be an unbiased presentation of what the author states.
Do not include your opinions.
Omit irrelevant details, examples, explanations or descriptions.
Discard any figures of speech, digressions or discussions that are not essential to the main theme.
Avoid:
— Long words and sentences
— Technical jargon
— Past histories
— Definitions
— Statistics, figures or tables
— Tangential information
— Biographical information
Summary
Notes prepared by the method of note-making or note-taking provide big chunks of knowledge in a clear and succinct
way. Notes are an aid to memory. They are virtually a re-creation of main ideas in the writer’s and speaker’s mind. It
gives us the clear idea of the original document.
Sample
Here is a worked out sample passage. Now we shall go through the process of making notes.
About 2,500 million years ago, (according to present theories) the Earth on which we live was a ball of gas which
on cooling, grew smaller and became liquid. The liquid continued to cool, giving some of its heat by radiation, and
when liquids grow colder, they solidify. The crust of the Earth is a solid matter resulting from this cooling, but probably
inside the Earth there is still a mass of molten material which has not cooled as much as the outer crust.
The crust on which we live and from which we obtain almost everything that we have is not quite rigid. Volcanoes
such as Etna and Stromboli on the Italian islands remind us from time to time of the force and heat below the ground.
Various places on the Earth are subject to earthquakes, the country that has suffered most from these being Japan. The
study of earthquakes, the science of seismology, has shown that the origin of many of them is under the bottom of the
sea and near the coast of a continent or a large island. In an earthquake the surface of the land may move suddenly in
any direction, bringing down houses, changing a straight railway-track into a useless zigzag, altering the courses of
rivers, changing the shapes of hills and sometimes causing an immense sea-wave to rush on the nearest shore and add
to the destruction. This tidal wave, as it is called, is wrongly named because it has nothing to do with the tide.
Formation of the Earth: 2,500 million years ago – Earth – a ball of gas gradually grew cooler – became liquid
cooled and solidified – became Earth’s crust.
Volcanoes and Earthquakes: Vol. indicate force
force
Below Earth’s crust
heat
Ea qs
Under bottom of sea
Origin of many
near coast of continent
Widespread destruction
Houses
Railways
Cause
Alteration: Course of rivers
Shape of hills
Tidal waves
Remember that summarising is an advanced language exercise as it involves:

Focused reading; intensive thinking (comprehension) – selection of essential points; and effective writing (composi-
tion) – presentation of the material in a coherent and stylistically impressive form. Remember the purpose of a summary
is not to convey everything but to convey the essential information. If readers want additional support or proof they
should read the rest of the document.
A summary should be regarded as a completely independent unit, intelligible and self-sufficient without referring to
any part of the original document. It must be brief but complete and meaningful. It must preserve the exact message.
It is useful in many ways. It enables the reader to comprehend the important ideas quickly. It is a re-presentation of
information in a condensed form. It is an impersonal, unbiased and non-critical presentation of essential points of the
original document.
Review Questions
1. What is note-making? Define it.
2. What is note-taking? Define.
3. Discuss ‘shortening processes for the preparation of note-making.
4. Explain the skill of organisation of the material for note-making.
5. What guidelines would you like to give for the preparation of note-making?
6. What is a summary? Discuss.
7. What are the criteria for writing an effective summary?
8. How do you differentiate synopsis from summary?
9. Discuss briefly the guidelines for preparing summaries.
10. Discuss the organisational structure for preparing summaries of the given document.
Exercises
1. Read the following extract and prepare notes in the form of a table:
Ramsay and Travers isolated 16 litres of liquid argon from the atmospheric nitrogen and subjected it to fractional
distillation at different reduced pressures, and separated a new element with an atomic weight of 20.2. They named
it as neon. Neon has the property of giving an orange red glow in a discharge tube at 2 mm. of pressure. It is
extensively used in glow lamps (known as neon tubes) for advertising purposes. Different colours can be obtained
when neon is mixed with mercury vapor or with argon. Depending on the colour of the glass tube and mixture of
the gases taken, different colours are obtained from the glass tube. If a colourless tube contains gases like neon,
argon, and mercury vapor, the visible colour is light blue. If neon, argon and mercury gases are present in a grey
colour tube, the visible colour is dark blue. The visible colour is light green, if a green colour test tube contains
neon, argon and mercury vapors. If the colour of the tube is amber and it contains neon and helium, then the visible
colour is golden yellow. A colourless tube with neon and helium gases in it gives a white visible colour. Neon gas
in the light red tube gives a dark red colour. Neon gas in a colourless tube gives an orange red colour. The glow of
neon lamps is visible even through fog and mist and hence, are used as signal lights and as beacon lights for safe air
navigation. It is used in safety devices, relays and rectifiers, as it has a capacity for carrying high voltage current.
2. Read the following passage and make notes in the form of a table contrasting the life in the twenty-first
century with the life a hundred years ago.
Life in the twenty-first century is very different from what it was a hundred years ago. Life-span in those days
was quite short. A man today expects to live many years longer than his forefathers did. Our expectation of life
has been, and still is increasing. Fewer babies die today. In the old days infant mortality was very high. Many
babies died at birth and quite a few contracted all kinds of fatal diseases when they were still quite young. Our
houses, factories and cities are far cleaner than those of our ancestors. In the past the insides of houses were clean
but the surroundings were dirty. There were ponds of stagnant water which were breeding places of mosquitoes
and germs. Now-a-days every city has a good drainage system and water is not allowed to stagnate. Insecticide is
sprayed on ponds and efforts are made not to allow mosquitoes to breed. We have very competent doctors now who
have received special trainings in each subject. They have replaced the quacks who had very little or no scientific
knowledge of medicine. Life-span of the modern man has increased.
3 Read the following passage. Prepare notes in the form of a table to highlight the contrast. You can consider
contrasting points as size, weight, distance and description.
The moon looks large, bright and beautiful in the night sky. Yet it is very small compared with the Earth. It is
only about a quarter of its size. You could put nearly four moons, side by side, across the middle of the Earth. If
the Earth was empty, you could get fifty moons inside it. You would have to press them out of shape to get them
in.
The moon measures about 3,360 km through the center. The sun and the moon look the same in size. But they
are not. Across the middle of the sun you could put 400 moons, side by side.
The Earth is 81 times heavier than the moon. But the sun is 27 million times heavier than the moon.
The moon looks big in the sky. This is because it is much closer to us than anything else in the sky. It is about
384,000 km away. In astronomy this is a very short distance. The moon is our nearest neighbor; almost like an
airplane flew round the equator of our Earth ten times. From the Earth to the moon is a shorter distance. Our next
nearest neighbor is the planet Venus. Venus is over 41 million km away.
A second name for the moon is satellite and so the moon is Earth’s satellite. The Earth is a planet. Some planets
have a number of satellites. In fact, there are only three planets without satellites. They are Mercury, Venus and
Pluto.
4. Read the following passage and prepare notes in the form of a tree diagram:
A ‘solution’ is defined as a homogenous mixture of two or more substances, whose composition may be varied
within certain limits. The individual substances in a solution are referred to as components of the solution. The
component (or continuous medium) of the solution in which the other substance dissolves is known as a solvent.
Depending upon the physical state of the solvent, the solutions are classified broadly into three types. These are
gaseous solutions, liquid solutions and solid solutions. The examples for liquid solutions are cane sugar in water,
Alcohol in water and soda water. Atmospheric air (N2 & O2), moisture in the air and camphor in the air are examples
of gaseous solutions. The examples for solid solutions are brass, zinc amalgam and an occlusion of H2 on Pd. The
above three types of solutions are subdivided further. Gaseous solutions are sub-divided into gas in gas, liquid in
gas and solid in gas. The sub-divisions of liquid solutions are gas in liquid, liquid in liquid and solid in liquid.
Solid solutions are sub-divided into three categories. These are gas in solid, liquid in solid and solid in solid.
5. Read the following passage and prepare notes in the form of a tree diagram:
In angiospermic plants the ovary develops into a fruit after fertilisation and the ovules inside the ovary develop into
seeds. Formation of seeds inside the fruit is the characteristic feature of angiosperm. Time taken for the formation
of fruits varies from fruit to fruit. It may range from a few weeks to several years. These fruits are classified into
two categories. These are ‘false fruits’ and ‘true fruits’. The false fruits are developed from other floral parts except
from the ovary such as calyx, thalamus and pedicel. These floral parts form a major part of the fruit. True fruits
are developed from fertilised ovaries. The true fruits are again classified into three types, namely – Simple fruits,
Aggregate fruits and Compound fruits. The simple and aggregate fruits are developed from a single flower whereas
compound fruits are developed from the entire inflorescence. Simple fruits develop from a syncarpous ovary of a
single flower. These simple fruits are divided into fleshy fruits and dry fruits based on the nature of the pericarp.
The pericarp of fleshy fruits becomes fleshy at the time of ripening. The pericarp of dry fruits remains dry and
undifferentiated when ripe. They are of three types, namely dry dehiscent, dry indehiscent and schizocarpic.
Dry Dehiscent fruits dehisce and liberate the seeds at maturity. Dry indehiscent fruits are normally one seeded
and never dehisce even at maturity. The seeds are liberated only after the disintegration of the pericarp.
Schizocarpic dry fruits show the characters of both the dehiscent as well as indehiscent fruits. At maturity the
fruits split up into many one-seeded bits called mericarps. The seeds present in the mericarps are librated only after
the disintegration of the pericarp.
Aggregate true fruits are developed from a single flower having multicarpellary, apocorpous ovary. Each carpel
develops into a fruitlet. All these fruitlets are aggregated on a common pedicel to form a single aggregate fruit.
Compound true fruits or multiple fruits are developed from whole of the inflorescence with its component parts;
the fruits developed from all the flowers of the inflorescence are associated closely and form one single composite
fruit at maturity. This multiple fruits are of two types: sorosis and synconus.
Sorosis multiple fruit develops from spike or spadix or catkin inflorescences. Synconus multiple fruit develops
from hypanthodium inflorescence. The peduncle is developed into a hollow, fleshy receptacle, which forms the
edible portion.
6. Read any chapter of this book and write a summary of that topic.
7. Select one topic from your professional subject and write a summary of it.
8. Select some topic from your professional subjects and write a summary in the form of a table and also in the form
of a chart.
Chapter 19
Paragraph Writing

Develop an idea into a meaningful paragraph.
Identify the purpose of writing a paragraph.
Understand the unity and coherence of a paragraph.
Know the techniques to develop an effective paragraph.
Know the various principles for writing an effective paragraph.
Know how to write topic sentences.
Know the various types of paragraphs.
Write an effective paragraph.
INTRODUCTION
A sentence is a group of words that makes a single statement; a paragraph is a group of sentences that are
related to one another and form a single coherent part of a larger unit of thought. The word ‘paragraph’
comes from two Greek words ‘para’ which means ‘beside’ and ‘graphein’ which means to write. Paragraph
contains one core idea. Traditionally it was identified with the proofreading symbol ‘¶’ in the margin of a
manuscript beside the place where a unit of the text was to begin. The symbol is now used to indicate the
beginning of a paragraph.
When you narrate an event or a character you write a paragraph. When you describe a scene or a picture
you write a paragraph. But here, this descriptive paragraph is woven into the story and not presented as a
separate unit. When you have to present facts and ideas you write a paragraph. Whatever may be the purpose,
a paragraph is a unit of the segment of thought. There are also special purpose paragraphs, such as those
used for introductions and transitions.
Paragraph Writing 323
Traditionally, we speak of elaborating or developing an idea into a paragraph. Then, we face questions
like: What is the length of a paragraph? How much does the writer need to say about it? We have to answer
these questions in terms of his subject, his purpose, his occasion for writing and his readers. It all depends
on what type of information the writer wishes to present and what he wants to say about it. It is quite pos-
sible and natural that an idea may be adequately elaborated in a single sentence for its specific purpose. On
the other hand, it is also possible that another idea may take several paragraphs. This explanation does not
mean that there is no method for writing paragraphs. A poorly organised paragraph is still an ineffective
paragraph.
For effective writing, perhaps we should remind ourselves that paragraphing is strictly a utilitarian device.
Its main purpose is to make communication clear and effective. It serves this purpose by:
appealing to the eye
resting the eye
breaking up the material into single thought units
indicating the beginnings of thought units;
indicating the development of thought unit
indicating the ending of thought units
The development of the idea also is one of the features of writing effective paragraphs. Hence, paragraph
development depends on several considerations, such as:
thoroughness of the subject to develop the idea
completeness of thought to develop the idea
clarity of thought to develop the idea
the class of readers for whom it is meant
present-day conventions governing paragraph length
Thus, a paragraph is a distinctive functional unit designed purposefully to group related sentences in a
logical way in order to deal with a single unit of thought and focus on it. An adequately developed and pur-
posefully written paragraph makes the meaning clear and enables the reader to grasp the meaning quickly.
The features of effective paragraph writing are unity, development of sentences, coherence, principles
of development of paragraph and various types of paragraphs. For convenience we discuss these features
separately, but all these are interdependent.
UNITY OF THE PARAGRAPH

All effectively written paragraphs have one quality in common – unity. Without unity, any piece of writing
remains just that, a piece of writing. A unified paragraph is more than a mere assembly of words however
impressive; and is more than a mere assembly of sentences however grammatical. Any paragraph which is
not unified ceases to be purposive. It distracts the reader’s attention. We shall now attempt to state some of
the characteristics of unified writing. These are:
It is about one single idea
It has a sense of direction
It shows the clarity of expression
The ideas are grouped in a skillful manner
Each sentence contributes to strengthen the main idea
It should have no other competing idea
It should have inner harmony
It should be complete by itself
It should be informative
THE DEVELOPMENT OF SENTENCES

The purpose of paragraphing is to convey the information clearly. Let us examine the following paragraph
to see how a group of sentences are related to each other and also to see how each sentence serves as part
of a larger unit. The sentences are numbered in the following paragraph for easy reference.
(1) Making ropes is one of the oldest trades in the world. (2) We know that people made ropes more
than 5,000 years ago because we have found pieces of rope in very old Egyptian tombs. (3) They made
some of these from the hair of Camels. (4) They have made others from twisted grass. (5) People used
them for tying animals for getting water from deep wells and for pulling large stones which they used in
buildings. (6) We have found two ropes which were made of a thin copper wire in the city of Pompeii,
which a volcano destroyed a little less than 2,000 years ago.
First, all these sentences serve a single purpose. Sentence 1 provides a generalised statement on making
ropes as the oldest tradition. Sentence 2 establishes the fact by referring to historical evidence. Sentences
3 and 4 give further details about making ropes. Sentence 5 explains its uses. Sentence 6 provides another
historical evidence to support the generalised statement mentioned at the beginning of the paragraph. Thus,
the generalisation is made concrete by details both by historical evidence and its uses. The sentences
that follow the generalised statement provide illustrations and give further information about ancient rope
making. Since all the sentences contribute directly to a single purpose, we say the paragraph has unity.
Second, the individual sentences are not only related to each other in subject matter but are also specifi-
cally tied together by logic and grammatical structure. The second part of the second sentence “… because…
in old Egyptian tombs” justifies the broad generalisation in sentence (1). That is why sentence (2) is longer
and more detailed. Sentences (3) and (4) connects to sentence (2) by using the pronoun – ‘they’. Sentence
(5) connects to sentences (2), (3) and (4). Sentence (6) with its subject – ‘we’, ‘made of thin copper’ and
‘historical evidence’ connects all other sentences of the paragraph. All sentences are related to one another.
In short, this paragraph has coherence.
Third, the sentences in this paragraph give ample information about the subject. The writer of the para-
graph need not write extensively about the ropes. The writer here gives us enough information. He tells us
about ancient rope making with evidences; different material used for rope making, uses of rope and finally
gives us historical evidence. The writer therefore, developed the paragraph adequately.
This paragraph clearly demonstrated the development of the main idea in the first sentence and then how
the other sentences in the paragraph are related to the main idea. These sentences provided enough details
to make the main idea clear and convincing. The sentence that gives the main idea is called topic sentence
and the other sentences are supporting sentences.
The Topic Sentence

A unified paragraph has a clear intent and its topic is either summed up in one of its sentences or strongly
implied by the subject matter. The paragraph should contain a sentence which contains the idea that is built
or illustrated in the rest of the paragraph. We call this sentence the ‘topic sentence’ – that is a sentence that
expresses the central idea of the paragraph. Such sentences help the writer in two ways: they provide the
base on which he can build the paragraph and they determine the limits.
The Main Features of Topic Sentences The topic sentence states the main idea of the paragraph. To
write effective topic sentences, you must follow the guidelines given here. The topic sentence of a para-
graph:
Controls the main idea
States the main idea precisely

Arouses the reader’s interest
Controls the Main Idea The topic sentence of a paragraph should not be too limited or too general. You must
introduce an idea in the topic sentence that can be further developed by succeeding sentences in a paragraph.
If you state a general idea in the topic sentence, it would be too broad for a topic sentence. It would take
the whole subject to cover it. The topic sentence should contain a single main idea that controls both the
content and the development of the paragraph. The following example illustrates the point clearly:
1. Vitamin D is good for your health.
2. Milk is a good source of Vitamin D.
3. Vitamin D is one of the essential vitamins necessary for the healthy growth of teeth and bones.
In the example above, sentence 1 is too broad and general. When you develop a paragraph on this topic,
you have to give all the details of Vitamin D. The content will become too broad. Sentence 2 limited the
content. It is difficult to develop the idea further based on the topic sentence. It restricted the content. Sentence
3 is an effective sentence for the development of the paragraph. For the topic sentence of a paragraph, it is
highly suitable and effective. Based on this sentence you can develop the supporting sentences. It clearly
states that Vitamin D is necessary for the healthy growth of teeth and bones.
State the Main Idea Precisely Topic sentences should be simple, direct and precise. Avoid ambiguous,
abstract, vague and high sounding words. Use concrete and specific words so that the main idea is clear
to the reader. Avoid all unnecessary words, phrases or stereotyped expressions such as: “This paragraph
contains…”; “This paragraph illustrates….”; “This paragraph explains….”; “This paragraph deals with…”;
“This paragraph is about….”; or “In this paragraph I am going to discuss….”. State the main idea of the
paragraph in as simple and clear words as possible.
Arouse the Reader’s Interest The topic sentence should create an interest to your reader. For this reason,
select the topic which creates an interest in your readers. Also select words and phrases that catch the reader’s
attention. Sometimes this can be accomplished with specific details or thought provoking ideas. The follow-
ing example demonstrates the point clearly:
Weak: Effective communicative skill is useful in many ways.
Improved: Effective communicative skill helps the employees to improve their career at the workplace.
The Position of Topic Sentence The topic sentence is also called the ‘thesis sentence’. Generally, the
topic sentence is the first sentence in a paragraph, sometimes combined with a transitional phrase. Occa-
sionally it comes last when the writer wishes first to prepare his reader for the general idea. Sometimes the
topic sentence comes both first and last; the entire idea may be repeated in the last sentence, a part may be
stated by the first sentence and a part by the last. In some paragraphs the topic sentence appears within the
paragraph. And, still, in some paragraphs the topic sentence may be implied. All of these methods will be
made clearer by the sample paragraphs which follow this discussion.
The Topic Sentence at the Beginning In the following paragraph the topic sentence is at the beginning of the
paragraph. It follows the deductive method. Keeping the topic sentence at the beginning helps the readers
by giving them a clear idea of what is going to be discussed in the paragraph. Stating the central idea at
the beginning of the paragraph also helps the writers keep clearly in mind the central idea they are going
to develop.
The first sentence of this paragraph is the topic sentence, which is a sentence that expresses the central
idea of the paragraph. All other sentences add supporting details.
The tea-plant, a native of Southern China, was known from very early times to Chinese botany and
medicine. It is alluded to in the classics under the various names of Tou, Tseh, Chung, Kha and Ming,
and was highly prized for possessing the virtues of relieving fatigue, delighting the soul, strengthening
the will, and repairing the eyesight. It was not only administered as an internal dose, but often applied
externally in the form of paste to alleviate rheumatic pains. The Taoists claimed it as an important
ingredient of the elixir of immortality. The Buddhists used it extensively to prevent drowsiness during
their long hours of meditation.
OKAKURA KAKUZO, The Book of Tea.
The Topic Sentence at the Beginning and at the End The topic sentence may be the first sentence and the
last sentence of the paragraph. In such paragraphs the last sentence repeats the idea of the first sentence.
The last sentence restates the topic sentence written as the first sentence of the paragraph. While restating
the topic sentence at the end of the paragraph, it amplifies the details. There will be difference in emphasis
in the light of the intervening details or discussion.
Clarity as a prerequisite to validity is the basic principle of effective writing. It is observed that
statements may be grammatically correct and the flow of thought process may be smooth. It is also
observed that statements sometimes are utterly devoid of factual meaning or meaningful but vague or
precise but invalid. For the writing to be effective, in the sense in which we are using this term, that the
statement may or may not be grammatically correct, but must be both clear and valid. It can be clear
and effective without having validity, but if it is unclear its validity cannot well be determined. It must,
then, first of all, be clear; before the discussion of its validity arises. When we analyse the message of
the passage, we ask the writer, “What do you mean?” before we ask, “How do you know?” Until we
get clarity of what he is writing about, we cannot possibly think as to whether, or in what degree, his
statements are true.
The Topic Sentence Implied When you read you will notice that some paragraphs may not have a topic
sentence. Often the topic sentence is implied or suggested. If the central idea is clearly developed in the
paragraph, the reader understands what it is even though it is not directly stated in a topic sentence. Most
narrative paragraphs have no topic sentence. Rather, they imply to the reader, “this is what happened and
this is what happened next.”
In the following paragraph, the topic sentence may be implicit in the details given. After reading the para-
graph, the reader can easily infer the topic sentence. The paragraph given here, for example, is a description
of the Grand Ball at Bath, England in the late eighteenth century.
The hour is just on nine. At six, with the playing of a minuet; the dancing had started; now there is the
usual pause for the gentlemen to hand tea to the ladies, and for the musicians to wet their tired throats.
Tonight being something of an occasion there will be supper as well, and behind screens footmen are
busily laying a long table with cold ham and pheasant, biscuits, sweet meats, jellies and wine. And now
the Master of Ceremonies in plum satin and paste buckles offers his arm to the ranking lady present,
Her Grace the Duchess of Marlborough, and together they swing across the room. Behind them rustle
the others, Her Grace’s inferiors. Countesses and ladyships, wealthy tradesmen’s wives and daughters,
the mothers and mistresses of bone-setters and shipbuilders and swindling gamesters, all come to Bath
to taste the salubrious “spaw” waters at the Pump Room, to take the cure, to ogle their partners at balls
at the Assembly Rooms – and best of all, to be stared at themselves in return.
– Alice Glasgow, Sheridan of Drury Lane.
The Topic and Restriction Sentences Sometimes writers use two sentences to state a paragraph’s main idea.
The first sentence expresses the paragraph’s main idea and the second sentence limits the topic by express-
ing what exactly the paragraph is about. These two sentences are called topic and restriction sentences.
Generally by virtue of their function, they appear at the beginning of a paragraph.
COHERENCE IN THE PARAGRAPH

A paragraph is coherent when the sentences are logically and clearly related to each other. The writer should
write a paragraph that sounds coherent. It is not enough if you write syntactic structures that are grammati-
cally correct. A paragraph may be unified without being coherent. Unity is concerned with singleness, that
is, with the main idea. Coherence is concerned with relatedness, that is, how the words, the sentences and the
paragraphs are connected. Irrelevant details and ideas disturb the unity of a paragraph whereas improperly
linked words and ideas disturb its coherence. Unity depends upon selecting details and ideas relevant to the
paragraph topic. Coherence depends upon organising these details and ideas so that the reader can easily
understand how they are relevant.
Although all sentences of a paragraph bear upon a single point it is not unless they tie together and ensure
smooth flow of ideas into one another to establish the relationship will they be coherent. Unity is essential
but not a sufficient condition to ensure coherence of a paragraph. Just as one word in a sentence naturally
leads to another, one sentence in a paragraph should lead to another. At each level, there should be enough
markers to understand the relationship. Such organisation promotes quick comprehension which is important
in effective communication. Abrupt stops and starts should be avoided because they mar the readability and
comprehensibility of a paragraph.
One method of achieving coherence is by linking sentences and ideas together. We can achieve this by
means of pronouns, references to ideas previously mentioned and transitional words and expressions. The
second method of achieving coherence in a paragraph is to arrange the details in a clear and logical order so
that the reader can easily catch the writer’s thought process. It establishes the relationship among sentences.
Coherence requires not only that the sentences within a paragraph be related to each other, but also that their
relationship be made clear. You can achieve clear relationship among sentences by:
being consistent in point of view
repeating words or ideas
using parallel grammatical structures
using transitional words and phrases.
Consistency in Point of View

To maintain coherence of the paragraph maintain consistent point of view. Avoid unnecessary shifts in person,
tense or number within a paragraph.
Parallel Grammatical Structure

Using parallel grammatical structure in successive sentences is one of the most important ways of connecting
them. Just as a parallel grammatical form in coordinate parts of a single sentence emphasises the coordinate
relation of the ideas, so parallel structures, from sentence to sentence within a paragraph emphasises the
relation of these sentences to the single idea of the paragraph.
Repeat Key Words or Phrases

Well-constructed paragraphs depend heavily upon the repetition of key words and phrases. Repetition of
words or phrases emphasise the main idea of the paragraph and also carry the thought from sentence to
sentence and produce a closely integrated paragraph.
Use Transitional Words

A transitional word or expression – sometimes also called a linking expression or a connective – is a word or
phrase that makes a specific and logical connection between ideas. A transitional word or phrase is placed at or
near the beginning of the sentence to indicate its relation to the preceding sentence. A well-written paragraph
demands well-designed sentences. A paragraph however needs more than just well-written sentences in a well-
arranged sequence. Transitional words provide a smooth flow of thought from one sentence to another sentence.
To reinforce the connection between the sentences and to help the reader appreciate their ordering, the writer
draws on a repertoire of special words or phrases, as suggested below. Transitional words or expressions
may be grouped according to the ideas they express. They link similar ideas or add an idea to one already
stated. Here is a table that illustrates it.
Table 19.1 Transitional Words
To Indicate To Indicate To Indicate To Indicate To Indicate To Indicate To Indicate To Indicate

Summary Concession Addition Comparison Cause and Contrast special Time
Effect Features, Relations
Examples
to sum up, naturally, I again, also, similarly, as a result, and., yet, to illustrate, as soon as,
to sum- admit, besides, likewise, in a hence, in at the for example, later, after-
marise in I accept, and, and like manner, short, there- same time, in fact, in wards, since,
brief , in even though, then, again, in the same fore, truly, after all, but, particular, after a short
short, in of course, equally way, accordingly, however, al- that is, spe- time, as long
conclusion, after all, at important, consequently though, true, cifically, in as, of late,
to conclude, the same finally, first, otherwise, for all that, other words, at that time,
on the time in addition, then, thus in contrast, for instance, when, at the
whole. last, further, in spite of, incidentally, same time,
next, further not-with- indeed immedi-
more, last, standing, ately, while,
second, on the other temporarily,
third, like- hand, on the until, in the
wise, more- contrary, mean time,
over, too, still, never- before, ear-
theless lier, lately,
mean while,
shortly,
soon, pres-
ently,
thereafter,
thereupon.
These words may be called as ‘linkwords’ or ‘signpost words’ according to their functions. These link
words serve two useful purposes. First, as ‘linkwords’, they bring the unity of the paragraph. Secondly, as
linkwords, they guide the reader along with the writer’s intended meaning.
Pronouns tie sentences by referring to a noun or a phrase in a preceding sentence. Synonyms are also
used to refer to a key word or phrase mentioned earlier in the paragraph. This kind of referring back to
preceding ideas helps the reader follow the writer’s train of thought process.
In the following paragraphs the pronoun and other expressions that refer to a preceding idea have been
boldfaced. Try to analyse what does the boldfaced word or the phrase refers to:
One effect of television on the language must be observed. There is no doubt that this media of
information have cut considerably the time that used to be devoted to reading books and new papers.
This means that it enhances the spoken language but it reduces the reading skill.
Another way to achieve coherence is by using synonyms. Pay attention to the number of ways in which
Gandhiji is referred to in the following paragraph. These referred words are boldfaced.
Gandhiji was primarily a saint. That is why, people called him a Mahatma. The Mahatma led Indians
to achieve freedom. He worked hard to make people understand the importance of the simple living,
social awareness, social equality, and uprightness. Some of his contemporaries misunderstood him that
some called him contemptuously ‘a half-naked fakir.’ Another one thoroughly misguided, attempted to
extinguish the light that illuminated the world by shooting him dead. He was honoured with the title
‘the father of the nation’ as he gave his nation everything he had, included his life.
The use of pronominal forms and synonyms make the idea of the passage very clear.
In these two paragraphs the boldfaced words refer to preceding ideas. They are not a mere repetition.
The main idea is supported by further information.
PARAGRAPH DEVELOPMENT
Decide the topic sentence and develop the idea in a paragraph around the topic sentence. Give reasons to
explain it, examples, quotations, facts, statistics, details and ideas to clarify it. Then, the length of a para-
graph is determined by:
The nature of the content
The type of topic sentence
The intention of the writer
The nature of the intended message
The nature of audience
Finally, you must determine the length of a paragraph. As a general practice, however, avoid a paragraph
that contains less than four or more than twelve sentences. If the paragraph is too short, it may mean that
you are not developing your topic sentence adequately. If the paragraph is too long; it may mean that you
are permitting excessive details to obscure your central aim. You can revise excessively long paragraphs
by:
pruning the details
dividing the material into small units of thought based on information
paying attention to details
identifying unnecessary details
identifying digressions of thought processes
having a command over the central idea of the paragraph
The best development of a paragraph depends upon the nature of its topic. The well-written paragraphs
depend on one of the following organisational principles or some slight variation of it. These are:
Chronological order
Spatial order
Logical order.
Chronological Order
Chronological order uses time order as the central organisational component of the message. Use chrono-
logical order to describe events or processes in the sequence of time or events or steps in which they took
place. This structure is appropriate when time or a sequence of events or a sequence of steps is an essential
ingredient for understanding the main idea. You can use linkwords as well to signal the sequence.
Read the following paragraph:
We made a hole in a cork and pushed it into glass tube. Then we inserted this into the neck of a bottle
which we had already filled with coloured water. When we did this, some of the coloured water went up
into the tube. We marked the level of the coloured water in the tube. Then we kept the bottle in a pan of
hot water. At once, the water level in the tube went down a little, but then it started to go up, until the
water came out over the top.
In the paragraph, if the sentences are not in a sequence they would not make sense. Since all sentences are
in a sequence they make sense. There are some other words as well that signal sequence. These words are
‘sequence signals’. These words are words like ‘then’, ‘when’, ‘but’. We cannot use these words to begin
a new idea. We can use these words to signal the sequence. Another sequence signal is clarity in meaning
of the paragraph.
Spacial Order
Spacial order is appropriate when you want to present the material in terms of geographic units. Those units
may be as large as continents or nations or as small as areas of a parking lot or a room. Use the spacial
order to describe physical relationships among persons, places or things. Spacial order is well suited to
stating such relationships as east to west, north to south, up to down, front to back, center to circumference
and so on. You may, for example, wish to analyse the layout of an office and parking lot assignments. The
author of the passage here, which gives an elementary but clear guide to a map of the British Isles, follows
an east-to-west organisation.
On the east, England is bounded by the North sea, which is really nothing but an old depression which
has gradually run with full of water. Again a single glimpse at the map will tell you more than a
thousand words. There on the right (the east) is France. Then we get something that looks like a trench
across a road, the British channel and the North sea. Then, there is the great central plain of England
with London in the deepest hollow. Then, there are the high mountains of Wales. Another depression,
the Irish sea, the great Central Irish Plain, the hills of Ireland, a few lonely rocks further, toward the
west, rearing their tops above the shallow sea. Finally the rock of St. Kilda (uninhabited as it was too
hard to reach) and then suddenly down we go, down, down, down, for there the real ocean begins and
the last of the vast European and Asiatic continent, both submerged and semi-submerged, here comes
to an end.
–HENDRIK WILLEM VAN LOON, Van Loon’s Geography.
Logical Order
The appropriate structure of a paragraph depends upon various factors such as content, purpose, context and
intention of the writer. Use the logical order to present details or reasons in support of the topic sentence.
There are several methods to demonstrate logical order. The principal methods of logical development are
given here:
(i) Details, examples
(ii) Comparison and contrast
(iii) Cause-effect
(iv) Definition
(v) Analysis and classification
(vi) Climactic sequence
Details, Examples and Illustrations One of the most common ways to develop a paragraph is to pro-
vide concrete and specific details or illustrations. Such a para conveys the meaning clearly to the reader. You
may support your topic sentence by amassing a variety of specific details or by providing a few examples
each stated in a sentence or two (see the example given for unity of the paragraph).
Comparison and Contrast Writing paragraphs that compare experiences, concepts, ideas, people or
places is a useful kind of writing practice. It will help you strengthen your ability to develop and analyse
various topics. Comparison and contrast structure examines two or more items in terms of a common
criterion. Comparison implies examining the qualities of items to discover similarities and differences.
Contrasts focuses primarily on differences. An experienced writer should be able to make clear, thought-
ful comparisons whenever necessary. When you compare, be sure to discuss both subjects together. Begin
your paragraph with a topic sentence that mentions both the subjects, not just one. By this method you can
avoid the trap of discussing one than the other, and leaving the readers in confusion of how the subjects
are similar or different.
Broadly speaking there are three methods of comparisons. These are:
Parallel → Pointing out the similarities between the two
Contrast → Pointing out the differences between the two
Comparison-Contrast → Pointing out both the similarities and the differences between the two.
Depending on the subject find the suitable method of comparison. The following three paragraphs
demonstrate the three methods of comparison. The first paragraph discusses the similarities between two
countries, the second contrasts with the wide range of expressive features in the spoken language and the
third explores both the similarities and the differences between two jobs a person held. In these paragraphs
the topic sentences are focused and that they all make comparative statements.
Two Similar Subjects
Japan and Great Britain have much in common as island monarchies. Both are heavily populated and
the land area is small. For food and imports both depend on the sea. Each has a big capital city that has
played a major role in world affairs and each has been in the fore front of the industrial development.
The surrounding ocean has enabled both to remain culturally isolated during some periods in history.
Even then the nearness of the continent has been the source of many wars over the centuries. Their
languages also have close ties to continental languages. Japanese to Chinese picture writing and
English to German and French. Over the centuries, both nations have presided over great empires,
both of which have declined.
Two Different or Contrasting Subjects Here is an example of this method.

The spoken language is backed by expressive features which are lacking in the written language: the
rise or fall of the voice at the ends of phrases and sentences; the application of vocal loudness to this
or that word or the syllable of a multi-syllable word; the use of gestures; the meaningful drawling or
clipping; aspirating or whispering; whining or breaking; squeaky or muting; rasp or liquidity; melody
or husky or hoarse; muffled or rich resonant imparted to the quality of the voice. Written English,
lacking clear indication of such features, must be so managed that it compensates for what it lacks.
It must be most carefully organised than speech in order to overcome its communicative deficiencies
as compared with speech. In speech, we safeguard meaning by the use of intonation, stress, gesture
and voice qualities. In writing, we must deal with our medium in such a way that the meaning cannot
possibly be misunderstood. In the absence of an actual hearer capable of interrupting and demanding
further explanation, a clear writer is always conscious of a reader. All this despite the fact that writing
– being permanent as compared with speech, which is evanescent, allows not only reading but also
rereading.
Two Subjects; both Similar and also Different

My two jobs as a coach of an amateur football team and as a bartender required some of the skills but
offer different rewards. In both jobs I had to understand the psychology of the people. Both needed my
counseling. The players needed cheering up when the team was losing and customers expected me to
be their psychoanalyst when they were in depression. Both jobs demanded cool control when tempers
flared or fights broke out. Despite these similarities, the satisfaction from the two jobs was different.
Besides the high pay, tending bar gave me the feeling that I had helped a few individuals and may be
given them a better outlook. Coaching, on the other hand, gave me the satisfaction of inspiring them
and helping them to develop team spirit.
Cause-Effect A ‘cause’ is an event or a situation that produces a result and an effect is anything brought
about by a cause. The logical development of a paragraph sometimes calls for a statement of the forces that
produce a situation or the results produced by one. When using the cause-effect structure, writer identifies and
discusses conditions (causes) and a predicted outcome (effect) of those conditions. This structure is similar
to the inductive method. It moves from specific facts to generalisations based on these facts. This method is
appropriate when you want to report your perception of a direct relationship between two or more events.
Basically cause-effect paragraphs are of two types. In one type, you begin by stating an effect and then
mention the cause or causes. This type of paragraph answers the question “why?” The second type of cause-
effect paragraphs does not answer the question “why?” Rather it states a particular cause and goes on to
describe the effects of that cause. In the following paragraph, the writer presents several different causes
and their effects.
Strong gases and toxic fumes from such things as – cause 1
paint solvents and industrial chemicals may be absorbed
in the soft-contact-lens plastic causing eye irritation if the – effect 1
concentration is strong enough. Cosmetics, lotions, soaps
and creams, hair sprays or any aerosol discharges – cause 2
that come in contact with the lenses may also stick. Eye – effect 2
irritation may also result, and the lenses may get
coated to a point where they have to be replaced. – cause 3
Chemicals such as iron in ordinary tap water can also – cause 3
damage soft lenses. Hands should be washed and rinsed – effect 3
thoroughly and dried on a lint-free towel, before

soft lenses are handled.
From “soft contact lenses – How Good Are they?”
James H. Winchester
Definition The subject being defined must first be identified as part of a general class. This usually oc-
curs in the paragraph’s topic sentence. In succeeding sentences, specific information and details are given
to show how the subject is different from the other members of that general class.
This method requires key objects or terms to be defined. In this method, it is necessary to set the limits
within which a topic or a term is used. When we are dealing with abstract matters, this method is highly
effective. In this method, sometimes, you can use techniques of comparison and contrast, details, examples
in order to ensure clarity. Here is an example:
Induction is the kind of reasoning by which we examine a number of particular or specific instances
and on the basis of them arrive at a conclusion. The scientific method is inductive when the scientist
observes a recurrent phenomenon and arrives at the conclusion or hypothesis that under certain
conditions this phenomenon will always take place; if in the course of time further observation supports
his hypothesis and if no exceptions are observed, his conclusion is generally accepted as truth and is
sometimes called a Law. In everyday living, too, we arrive at conclusions by induction. Every cat
we encounter has claws; we conclude that all cats have claws. Every rose we smell is fragrant; we
conclude that all roses are fragrant. An acquaintance has, on various occasions, paid back money he
has borrowed; we conclude that he is frequently out of funds but that he pays his debts. Every Saturday
morning for six weeks the news paper boy is late in delivering the paper; we conclude that he sleeps
on Saturday mornings and we no longer look for the paper before nine ‘0’clock. In each case we have
reasoned induction from a number of instances; we have moved from an observation of something to a
generalization about all things in the same category.
– Newman and Genevieve Birk, ‘Understanding and Using English’.
The writer defines Braille in the following paragraph by giving information that distinguishes it from all
other types of alphabet.
Many think that Braille is merely conventional letters, figures and symbols raised so that they can be
perceived by the fingers. It isn’t; it is quite unlike any conventional alphabet, consisting rather of raised
dots bearing no physical resemblance to actual letters or figures. When written by hand, the dots are
punched out of stiff paper with the help of a template and a small tool resembling an awl. Because it
would be virtually impossible to punch out the dots from underneath, Braille is written backwards so
that for most European languages it can be “read” with the fingers in normal left-to-right order when
the page is turned over.
– Tom Burnam
Analysis and Classification This method often requires the division of the subject into components.
Dividing information into classes is a way of organising ideas. Items placed in each class must share com-
mon features. Classification is more than simply dividing information into groups. It is also a way of using
the information and understanding it. Relationships among the classes are analysed. Sometimes we group
things together on the basis of their differences or similarities. The two processes are closely interrelated.
Topics that are easily separable into chronological, spatial and structural components are especially useful for
analysis. A careful analysis or classification is often particularly useful in providing an organisational pattern.
The example given here divides the language into three classes on the basis of three different functions.
Language has more than one purpose. Based on the purpose we shall deal with three functions: the
informative, the expressive and the directive. To say that language has these three functions is to say
that there are three different reasons for speaking. One reason or purpose is to communicate factual
information. This is the informative function. We speak in order to express our feelings, as well as to stir
the feelings and attitudes of the person we are talking to. We shall call this the expressive or “emotive”
function. And, finally, we speak in order to get people to act. This is the directive function.
Climactic Sequence A paragraph which deals with the climax follows a climactic sequence. In this type
of paragraphs, sentences build to a climax. They start with less important or less emphatic statements and end
with the most important and most emphatic statements. Climactic sequence is effective in paragraphs that
discuss an idea rather than describe places. A paragraph in a climactic sequence may give a series of facts,
reasons or examples to support a point. When you plan to write such paragraphs, be sure include enough
facts, ideas and reasons to support your point. Write each sentence that supports the idea of the previous
one and build it to a climax. Here is a paragraph that demonstrates a climactic sequence:
Learning other languages requires your efforts but it has many benefits. First, it provides an intellectual
exercise that makes your analysis clear and writing more effective. It also teaches you a grammatical
structure that helps you understand the parts of speech and how they work in your mother-tongue. In
addition, it can make travelling more interesting because you can understand the culture of the country
better when you speak the native language of that country. In today’s global economy, where business
is conducted in many languages, being able to speak other languages can make it more enjoyable as
well. Even more important point is knowing that other languages allow you to appreciate great works
of literature, films and research articles in that language. Otherwise people have to rely on translations
which can’t suffice your needs. Above all, learning a second language means acquiring another culture
and knowledge, which makes you more open-minded and a wiser human being.
TYPES OF PARAGRAPHS
Broadly speaking there are four types of paragraphs. These are expository paragraphs, persuasive paragraphs,
descriptive paragraphs and narrative paragraphs. Every piece of writing has a purpose – sometimes more than
one purpose. If you are writing about the origin of any game, your purpose is to give information and explain
it. If you write a paragraph of what happened when you climbed the hill, your purpose would be to narrate
a series of events or to describe it. If you write a memo about suggestions for reducing lunch hours, your
purpose is to convince the reader. Description, for example, is combined with the narration and persuasive
paragraphs often contain some exposition in this case. For each of these four types of paragraphs certain
types of order and a particular method of paragraph development are appropriate. The type of paragraph
you write often depends upon your purpose for writing.
An Expository Paragraph
An expository paragraph may give information, explain something, clarify something or define the mean-
ing of something. It analyses the topic objectively. It may be developed with facts, examples, cause-effect
or definitions. You should be able to distinguish between fact and opinion. Fact is a statement that can be
proved to be true. It is a fact, for example, if you say:
“Days are shorter and nights are longer in winter in North India.”
Most essays in composition classes are expository. The goal of expository writing is to explain and thereby
reveal your knowledge of a subject. The topic of an expository paragraph is both factual and unemotional.
The tone is achieved by using clear and precise language. An expository type of writing is always objective
rather than subjective.
For writing an expository paragraph the following guidelines may be useful:
Should be limited to the main idea
Should express the paragraph’s main idea in the topic sentence
Should have sufficient details to support the main idea of the topic sentence
Should contain the necessary background information to understand the main idea
Should contain transitional and reference words or expressions that make the content of the paragraph
easy to follow
Should use objective and precise language.
Persuasive Paragraph
A persuasive paragraph is written in support of an opinion or in an effort to persuade the reader to follow a
certain course of action. The basis of a persuasive paragraph should be a limited topic that states an opinion
about a debatable issue. It deals with an important and meaningful issue. The topic sentence of a persuasive
paragraph should clearly and concisely state the writer’s opinion or persuade the reader to perform the desired
action. It is developed with reasons. A reason is a statement that supports the opinion. An opinion states a
judgement or a belief. In most cases opinion cannot be proved either true or false. Both as a listener and
reader you should know what an accurate, true and verifiable fact is. As a writer the ability to distinguish
between a fact and an opinion is reasoning and thinking skill that you master. Here is an example that dis-
tinguishes fact and opinion.
Fact: Twenty-six students in this class have bought a particular brand of laptops.
Opinion: This is the best brand of laptop.
Opinions often use words that indicate some kind of judgement words such as best, greatest, most, worst,
should, shouldn’t, unique etc.
In persuasive paragraphs, reasons are usually presented in the order of importance, so that the reader is
able to distinguish the most important from the less important. The tone of a persuasive paragraph should be
reasonable, fair and unemotional. Persuasive paragraphs are a result of the logical presentation of reasons to
support your opinion. You should try to be specific, clear and forceful in the presentation of the information.
The goal of persuasive writing is to sway your audience’s emotional attitude towards a topic. Persuasive
type of language is always subjective rather than objective. It contains literary frills, pompous jargon and
clichés.
Here is an example of a persuasive paragraph. It expresses an opinion: You can create an argument in
support of your opinion and you can also create an equally effective argument in support of the opposite
opinion. The following paragraph analyses the pros (arguments for) and cons (arguments against) of working
part-time while you are in college under the programme of earn-while-you-learn.
Working part-time while in college has many advantages and some disadvantages. On one hand, part-
time work can offer you an interesting and useful work-experience that contributes to your education.
It improves your soft-skills so that your communication skills will be effective. The experience that
you gain through part-time work may be of great help to you in making a decision about your future
career. On the other hand, you may have some disadvantages at the expense of values which are more
important from a long-range point of view. For example, you may not get time for sleep, rest, study and
for other activities. As a result you find it difficult to adjust to academic activities as well as duties at the
work-place. Work-experience is most desirable but you have to balance between college and the job.
The above paragraph presents the arguments for both the sides. The following guidelines may be useful
for writing an effective persuasive paragraph. The paragraph:
should select a debatable topic
should express the writer’s opinion clearly and succinctly in the topic sentence
should support the opinion by giving at least two reasons
should present reasons based on importance
should use language effectively to influence the reader.
Descriptive Paragraph
The writer describes the event, object, his experience, a particular person or a place. It helps the reader to
share an experience or to gain knowledge from an experienced person. Description appears in all types of
writings: expository, narrative and persuasive. It is developed with concrete examples. When you describe
something, you must describe it vividly and precisely; otherwise it will be uninteresting and dull. You will
have to choose salient features and write about them so that they generate interest. Let us analyse the fol-
lowing passage from D.H. Lawrence’s The White Peacock:
Suddenly, as we went by the pond-side, we were startled by the great, swishing black shadows that
swept just above our heads. The swans were flying up for shelter, now that a cold wind had begun to
fret Nethermere. They swung down onto the glassy mild-pond, shaking the moonlight in flecks across
the deep shadows; the night rang with the clacking of their wings on the water; the stillness and calm
were broken; the moonlight was furrowed and scattered and broken.
This is an effective description of a placid pond suddenly disturbed by swans. Every word here contributes
to the total effect of this paragraph. The paragraph begins with ‘suddenly’ and says that they were startled
by the swishing black shadows. ‘Startled’ is the most appropriate because it also means sudden alarm. The
word swishing is onomatopoeic word. It conveys how the swans flew in the air audibly cutting the air with
their body. They could not see the swans, so Lawrence refers to them as “black shadows.” The intensity of
the cold wind is succinctly conveyed by the word ‘fret’. The stillness and brightness of the pond are conveyed
by the word ‘glassy’. The pond reflects the moonlight. The writer describes the arrival of swans, how they
shake the moonlight, and how it appears when they set on the pond. The complete contrast between the
situation before and after the swans is revealed by the use of the word ‘rang.’ He further describes how the
stillness was broken and how the moonlight on the surface of the pond became furrowed and scattered and
broken. The use of the word ‘broken’ twice is significant. The quiet spell cast by nature was rudely broken
by the sudden descent of the swans.
The description of the whole paragraph is vivid and clear. The following guidelines may be useful to
write a descriptive paragraph:
Limit the topic to describe the event, object, place or process
Should clearly identify the topic to be discussed
Should select concrete examples
Should arrange the details in a logical order
Should present the reader vivid images of the subject under discussion
Should make the reader feel your uniqueness in the writing
Should arrest the attention of the reader
Should use precise and simple language.
Narrative Paragraph
A narrative paragraph tells a story or narrates events. Usually, a narrative paragraph is developed with an
incident or an anecdote. Occasionally, a narrative writing is combined with other kinds of writing. Writers
often combine narration and description and present the information in a paragraph. Sometimes writers use
an incident to illustrate a point by combining a descriptive and a narrative method of writing. Otherwise it
is an expository paragraph. A narrative paragraph:
Must arouse the interest of the reader and establish the tone
Must organise the material logically and in easy to understand fashion
Must convey personal feelings about the experience through the tone of narration
Must include a personal commentary or a summary of the experience
Must maintain a first person point of view consistently through out the narration
Must contribute to the reader’s understanding of the personal experience
Summary
Writing a unified, coherent and well-constructed paragraph is more than a mere assembly of words, however impressive,
and sentences, however grammatical. A well-written paragraph gives clarity to the reader. The essential purpose of the
paragraph is to convey the message directly and clearly. In order to achieve this you have to follow certain principles
such as that the paragraph should be about one single main idea; it should have no other competing idea which is more
important than the main idea; it should have a sense of direction; it should show the clarity of thought process of the
writer; it should group the ideas in a skilful manner; i.e., each line should contribute to strengthen the main idea; it
should not confuse the writer and the reader; it should give the complete idea to the readers; it should express the main
idea in the topic sentence; and finally it should develop the idea effectively based on the purpose. Any writing skill
which does not follow these principles ceases to be purposive, distracts the reader’s attention and wastes the time of the
reader. It is true that there is no ready-made recipe or formula for successful writing. However, paying attention to the
discussion of this chapter would greatly improve your writing skill.
Review Questions
1. Discuss the unity and coherence of the paragraph.
2. What is the topic sentence in a paragraph?
3. Where do you prefer to keep the topic sentence in a paragraph? Give reasons.
4. What is meant by transitional words? What functions do they play in the paragraph?
5. Discuss the organisational principles for writing paragraphs.
6. What are the various types of paragraphs? Discuss the details of each type of paragraph.
7. Discuss the main features of a topic sentence.
8. What guidelines would you like to give for writing various types of paragraphs?
9. Discuss the various types of paragraphs.
Exercises
1. Develop each of the following topic sentences into a paragraph using the method of explanation:
(a) Heat from the sun travels by radiation.
(b) A photographic dark room should be free of dust.

(c) Corrosion is a serious economic problem.
(d) Penicillin and Streptomycin are useful antibiotics.
(e) Artificial satellites are important for the solution of several problems.
2. Develop each of the following topic sentences into a paragraph using the method of classification:
(a) Technical education provides courses for several different types of students.
(b) There are three qualities essential for the really successful engineer.
(c) The traffic engineer can use several different methods for preventing chaos at traffic intersections.
3. Develop each of the following topic sentences into a paragraph by using the principle of ‘contrast’:
(a) Heat and temperature are two different things.
(b) Heating by electricity is more efficient than heating by coal or coke.
(c) Some people prefer having spare time to working overtime.
(d) What a person is often is not what he says.
(e) Chemistry and biology differ in emphasis rather than in their fields of study.
4. Develop each of the following topic sentences into a paragraph by using the principle of ‘comparison’:
(a) Sailing and gliding have something in common.
(b) Sand can act like a liquid.
(c) Poor spelling is almost a national disease.
(d) A cyclone can be described as an atmospheric whirlpool.
(e) The modern computer is based on the operations of the human brain.
5. Develop each of the following topic sentences into a paragraph by providing reasons or proof:
(a) Warm air rises.
(b) Animal life is dependent on the plant world.
(c) Heat is a form of energy.
(d) Efficient computers were made possible by the development of electronic devices.
(e) Human knowledge is cumulative.
(f) Mass-production is a mixed blessing.
6. Develop the following topic sentences in ways that you consider suitable. Specify the method you have
used.
(a) Communication is a two-way process.
(b) High speed is a factor in the high accident rate.
(c) There is a difference between a building and architecture.
(d) Television is a blessing.
(e) It is easier to be unreasonable than to be reasonable.
7. Choose from one of the following topics a topic sentence and write a paragraph using cause and effect as
the method of development:
(a) Effects of increasing the interest rate.
(b) Effects of depression.
(c) Effects of a cold virus.
(d) Causes of hiccups.
(e) Effects of sibling rivalry.
8. or each of the following lists of details, write an effective topic sentence that will be the first sentence in the
paragraph. You need not use all the details in a paragraph.
(A) Details
(i) Israeli scientists using inexpensive technique for measuring air pollution.
(ii) Using vegetable plants that are sensitive to different kinds of air pollution.
(iii) Tomato, cucumber and lettuce plants measuring the amount of nitrates in the air.
(iv) Alfalfa plants are sensitive to Sulphur dioxide.
(v) Eggplant is sensitive to ozone and the nitrates.
(vi) Measure air quality by planting these plants at certain distances from industrial sites and measuring the
damage to the plants.
(B) Details
(i) Human beings need sunlight to generate vitamin D.
(ii) Exposing skin to sunlight generates vitamin D.
(iii) Young and light-skinned people can expose approximately 15 minutes in midsummer.
(iv) Elderly people, dark-skinned people need to expose to sunlight more.
(v) Vitamin D is necessary for the body to absorb calcium, and to maintain strong healthy bones.
(vi) During the winter when the sunlight is weaker, people need to spend time outdoors to get vitamin D.
(vii) Doctors suggest people a half-hour walk to get exposure to the sunlight.
(viii) Recent discovery is that the lack of sunlight in winter causes some kind of depression.
9. Select one of the topic sentences given here and develop it into a paragraph of about 120 words. Be sure that
every sentence you include should support the topic sentence. You may reword the following topic sentences
any way you wish:
(i) People who are born and brought up in cities learn some valuable lessons early in their lives.
(ii) The best type of television advertisement.
(iii) One of the most important qualities of a good friendship is loyalty which is evident in many different
ways.
(iv) The benefits of having a part-time job.
(v) This is what I envisage for my life ten years from now.
(vi) Our school’s athletic program puts too much or too little emphasis on competition.
(vii) Preventive health care is to help oneself avoid serious health problems.
(viii) What you can learn from a person’s body language.
10. For each of the following topics, choose which kind of order would you like to use in developing a paragraph.
Based on the topic more than one order is possible. Discuss why you chose a particular order.
(a) Compare and contrast.
(b) Chronological order.
(c) Spatial order.
The topics are
(i) City and village life.
(ii) Advertisement on the TV and in print media. (Newspapers and Magazines)
(iii) The place where you would like to live.
(iv) A promise that was broken.
(v) Your earliest interesting memory.
(vi) Difference between a savings account and a current account.
(vii) The accident which you witnessed.
(viii) The bomb-blast which you witnessed from a distance.
11. Choose one of the topics given here and write a descriptive paragraph. Invent concrete details that will ap-
peal to the readers. Arrange the details in either a chronological or spatial order.
(i) Two people arguing on the hike of land values.
(ii) A picnic that you remembered.
(iii) An unexpected guest.
(iv) An alley-way.
(v) The experience of your first seminar.
12. For each of the following topic sentences, one or two supporting details have been given. List as many details
as you can think that can be used to support the topic sentence. Try to have at least five details for each of
the topic sentences.
(i) Preparing for a final exam need not be such a traumatic experience if you organise the task into a series of
orderly steps.
(a) Preparing the outline of every topic.
(b) Learning the definitions of key words and terms.
(ii) Topic and restriction sentences.

At any given moment of time, every individual has to make choices about how to spend his/her leisure time.
The possibilities are almost endless and vary from individual to individual.
(a) Jogging
(b) Talking on the phone
(c) Reading books
(d) Painting
(e) Solving puzzles
13. Write a paragraph that is an extended definition of one of the following words:
(i) sculpture
(ii) success
(iii) a democracy
(iv) terrorism
14. Identify the purpose you would have in writing about each of the following topics and write it. Some topics
may have more than one purpose.
(i) To narrate a story related to a series of events.
(ii) To explain or give information.
(iii) To describe a person, place or object.
(iv) To persuade someone that your opinion is correct.
The topics are:
(a) The history of the city of Hyderabad.
(b) How students should volunteer to help people in the community.
(c) Why we should visit a dentist every six months.
(d) Why we should go to doctor to get complete checkup once in a year.
(e) What is the difference between psychiatrist and psychologist?
15. Each of the following paragraphs is weak because it does not contain enough specific information to support
the topic sentence. Rewrite each paragraph, adding additional supporting information.
(i) Each of the sun’s nine plants is vastly different in size, temperatures and terrain. The Earth has moderate
temperature and lots of water. Mars is very dry. (Tell something about what is known about the size, tem-
perature and terrain of each of the planets.)
(ii) Psychologists and interior decorators know that colours can influence people’s moods. White gives peace
of mind. Yellow is supposed to stimulate mental activity. Analyse other colours and give more information
about each colour’s effect.
16. Test your understanding of the principles of good paragraphs by a close study of as many of the following
paragraphs as possible. Analyse each to determine the main points, the topic sentence, the transitions from
sentence to sentence, the method or methods of paragraph development and organisation and the tone.
(A) When we talk about intelligence, we do not mean the ability to get a good score on a certain kind of test,
or even the ability to do well in school. These are at best only indicators of something larger, deeper, and
far more important. By intelligence we mean a style of life, a way of behaving in various situations, and
particularly in new, strange, and perplexing situations. The true test of intelligence is not how much we know
how to do, but how we behave when we do not know what to do.
The intelligent person, young or old, meeting a new situation or problem, opens himself up to it; he tries
to take in with mind and senses everything he can about it; he thinks about it, instead of about himself or
what it might cause to happen to him; he grapples with it boldly, imaginatively, resourcefully and if not
confidently at least hopefully; if he fails to master it, he looks without shame or fear at his mistakes and
learns what he can from them. This is intelligence. Clearly its roots lie in a certain feeling about life and
one’s self with respect to life. Just as clearly, unintelligence is not what most psychologists seem to suppose,
the same thing as intelligence only less of it. It is an entirely different style of behavior, arising out of an
entirely different set of attitudes.
– John Holt,
‘Why Children Fail’.
(B) Some types of writings are: Creative writing, Expressive writing, Expository writing, Persuasive writing and
Technical writing.
1. Creative writing includes poetry, short stories, plays and novels. The authors might draw on experience
to create their text, but the writing is imaginative. Creative writing often employs figurative word usage,
imaginative imagery, dialect, symbolism and fictitious characters to present a message.
2. Expressive writing records a subjective and an emotional response to a personal experience (an incident,
a place, a person, a phase etc.). Journal and diary entries are expressive. The goal of expressive writing is
to express one’s feelings through description and narration. Students in composition classes often write
expressive essays, drawing and narration and description to develop ideas.
3. Expository writing analyses a topic objectively. Most essays in composition classes are expository. The
goal of an expository writing is to explain, and thereby reveal your knowledge of a subject. Once you
explain the topic you do not expect a response from the reader.
4. Persuasive writing in some ways combines the emotionalism of expressive writing with the analytical
traits of expository writing. Editorials are a good example of persuasive writing. The goal of persuasive
writing is to sway your audience’s emotional attitude toward a topic.
5. Technical writing requires give-and-take, a dialogue, a follow-up and/or input and action. Technical
writing creates action. It can accomplish much more than just getting the job done. A well-constructed
memo, letter or report reveals to your readers not only that you know the technical field of expertise but
also that you know how to communicate your knowledge thoroughly, accurately, clearly and concisely.
Through good technical writing you reveal to your audience that you can tell people what to do and can
motivate them to do.
(C) The whole aim of good teaching is to turn the young learner, by nature a little copycat, into an independent,
self-propelling creature, who cannot merely learn but study – that is, work as his own boss to the limit of
his powers. This is to turn pupils into students, and it can be on any run of the ladder of learning. When
I was a child, the multiplication table was taught from a printed sheet which had to be memorized one
“square” at a time – the one’s and the two’s and so on up to nine. It never occurred to the teacher to show
us how the answers could be arrived at also by addition, which we already knew. No one said, “Look: if
four times four is sixteen, you ought to be able to figure out, without aid from memory, what five times four
is, because that amounts to four more one’s added to the sixteen.” This would at first have been puzzling,
more complicated and difficult than, memory work, but once explained and grasped, it would have been
an instrument for learning and checking the whole business of multiplication. We could temporarily have
dispensed with the teacher and cut loose from the printed table.
– Jacques Barzun,
Teacher in America
Chapter 20
Writing an Essay

Develop an idea into a meaningful essay.
Identify the purpose of writing an essay.
Write a thesis statement which reflects the main idea and purpose of the whole essay.
Know the various modes of writing an essay.
Know the structure of an essay.
Develop the critical thinking for writing an essay.
Know the features of writing an effective essay.
Know the techniques of revising and proofreading an essay.
INTRODUCTION
An essay is a piece of writing, usually short, on any chosen subject. It is written from an author’s personal
point of view. The word essay is derived from the French infinitive essayer, which means to try or to at-
tempt. The essay is properly speaking, an attempt at expressing your thoughts on a given topic. You
have already developed the ability to develop a specific point in a paragraph form. Paragraphs are the building
blocks of essays. Now you are ready to compose a whole essay. Writing an essay is a creative activity. To
create good essays, you must combine the skills you have been acquiring: developing the subject, support-
ing your point, organising material and thinking critically. There is no hard and fast rule about the length
of an essay. Like paragraphs, essays too vary in length based on the subject, audience and the purpose and
also are written in different modes. Some essays, however, fit entirely into a single mode, but most of them
combine several modes depending on the nature of the subject.
Writing an Essay 343
FEATURES OF AN ESSAY
A successful essay contains the same elements as a good paragraph. An essay runs into several pages of
organised writing but deals with one idea. It can be very long, but the essay you practice will be about
five to eight paragraphs, or about 500 to 1200 words. Every college student should be able to plan, develop,
organise, compose, revise and proofread essays. An essay should deal with one topic, and should have clear,
limited main points, logical arrangement, smooth and varied sentences; spellings of words and grammar
should also be correct. Like a paragraph it should contain transitional words to signal relationships. Nor-
mally, it should have a recognisable beginning, middle and an end—an introduction, the main body of the
essay and a conclusion. However it is not just a series of paragraphs strung together. The first paragraph
makes a short introduction, the paragraphs of the main body (there may be 3 to 8) discuss, illustrate and
support the content and the last paragraph briefly sums up and reaffirms the main point. An essay should
have coherence. The main theme should be kept in view throughout and nothing that is not relevant should
be allowed to creep in. There should be an orderly development of thought from one paragraph to another,
logical sequence of ideas, and one point leading naturally to another. The style and treatment should be
adapted to the subject. The essay should reflect the opinions and thoughts of the writer.
How one should design an essay is hard to explain for the procedure is largely based on creative think-
ing. Developing the essay requires the ability to organise the material and relate the information to the main
subject. It involves logical thinking and imagination. One good way of organising the essay is to develop a
thesis statement.
THESIS STATEMENT
The thesis statement is the sentence that explains the main idea, limitations of the subject and the
purpose of an essay as the topic sentence explains the main idea of a paragraph. Since the principles
in writing a thesis statement are similar to those used in writing a topic sentence in a paragraph, this might
be a good time to review the topic sentence in Chapter 19. Like a topic sentence, a thesis statement can be
just a simple and precise sentence stating the main aspects of the subject, indicating the boundaries of the
subject and expressing the opinion of the writer. A thesis statement is broader than a topic sentence in a
paragraph since the thesis statement must cover the material for the whole essay. Thesis statement helps the
reader to understand the broader significance of the subject.
A thesis statement should accomplish the goals such as:
test your ideas what your essay contains
organise the subject matter effectively
develop your argument in the main body
identify the issue you would like to explore
provide your reader with a guide to your argument
The thesis statement is the result of lengthy thinking process. It distills the whole assignment into a simple
statement. Thesis statement should provide a map for the rest of the essay and thus guide the reader more.
It should guide the writer as well to make the thesis statement for the paragraph in the body of the essay.
A thesis statement must be broad enough to state this whole purpose of the essay. It should not be fuzzy or
confusing. Do not use vague and ambiguous words. Use precise, short and simple words. Catch-all words
like, nice, good, bad, great, easy and interesting are not precise though they are simple words. What is easy
to one person is difficult to another; what one finds interesting the other finds tedious. Try to find key words
for your thesis statements. To make an effective thesis statement, the following guidelines may be useful:
Take the subject and explore extensively.
Deal with a subject that can be treated given the nature of the assignment.
Express one main idea.
Assert your conclusion about a subject.
Should indicate the point of discussion.

Should justify the discussion.
Should be specific.
Make sure your thesis statement explains everything about what you write in the essay. It should also be
no longer than one sentence.
ORGANISATION OF THE MATERIAL

Many people find it difficult to start an essay. Once you know the features of the essay, the purpose of the
thesis statement and the structure of an essay you can keep on writing essays effectively. An essay serves
many purposes. Its main purpose is to let the reader know what the essay is about. It usually reflects in the
thesis statement. They lead up a thesis statement in various ways. For the beginners of essay writing the
planning of a three-step device is very useful. That is lead-in, tie-in and write down the thesis statement.
Lead up thesis statement introduce subject (lead-in) connect it to the development of thought process (tie-
in) and write the final document.
The Structure of an Essay

The basic structure of an essay contains an introduction; the main body of an essay and a conclusion sum-
marising the main thesis of the essay.
The Introduction of an Essay Begin your introductory paragraph with an effective lead-in. This attention-
getter must be relevant to the subject of an essay. It can be one of several types given below:
A catchy remark
A definition
A quotation
A question
An anecdote
A reminiscence
A thought provoking statement
A surprising fact
A proverb
A problem or a riddle
If you start your essay with the attention-getter device, the reader would immediately get interested. The
reader’s attention is at once gripped and arrested by this device.
Be creative when you compose an introductory paragraph of an essay. The introduction briefly states the
main points of an essay and the related features to be used in the essay to establish the thesis statement in
such a way as to engage the reader’s attention. Begin with a lively lead-in to capture the reader’s interest,
and then find a logical way to focus that interest on the subject. The two or three sentences in which you
focus your reader’s interest are your tie-in. Finally, it must flow smoothly from tie-in to your main body.
The lead-in and tie-in will help you begin your essay successfully. As you become more experienced you
will find other effective ways to arrange.
A Simple organisation of the material does not suffice the need to write effectively. You must do
plenty of prewriting to identify the purpose and the supporting details. Then prepare a rough draft of an
introductory paragraph. Before you compose your final version, think critically and revise it. It will be then
that your introductory paragraph will be effective. Introductory paragraphs should be very brief and at the
same time should cover all the necessary information. It is a good idea to end the introduction with a sentence
introducing the main point of the first paragraph in the main body as a transition. This ensures a smooth flow
of thought process from introduction to the main body of the essay. Your introduction should:
introduce the topic

provide context
background information
limit the scope of discussion
define the subject
present the plan of coverage including your line of argument
provide direction to understand your argument
indicate the conclusion
Do not use generalised statements such as “_______ is the most important problem facing the country
today.” Your reader may agree or may not agree with your generalised statement. On the other hand, if you
say, “_____ is one of the most important problems facing the world today.” This statement is at least argu-
able. In short your essay should tell your readers what you are going to tell them (introduction), tell them
that (in paragraphs of the body), and tell them what you just told them (conclusion).
Figure 20.1
The Main Body of an Essay The main body is the central part of your essay. However effective the
introduction may be, your effort will be a failure if the main body of the essay is not well-planned and well-
written. So you must spend substantial time in planning the main body of your essay. As usual it consists of
several points. Identify the main points that support and/or explain your thesis statement. Each point should
be supported by specific evidence, examples or arguments. Certainly, it is not an easy task; nevertheless it
can be accomplished successfully once you have decided on the order of presenting your material. After
you write all your points, arrange them logically so that the thought process goes smoothly from one to the
next. Hence, you prepare an outline including all the main and supporting points. In shorter essays (3 to
6 paragraphed essays), each point should be supported by a single paragraph; but in longer essays, some
transitional paragraphs might be required to demonstrate a point.
The first paragraph of the main body contains the point that the writer considers primary to the thesis.
This should be stated strongly and with convincing supporting evidence. This paragraph should follow
the transition which the introduction ended with to maintain the flow of the argument and also end with a
similar transition to lead into paragraph two. The second paragraph contains the second strongest point or
a follow-up to the point made in paragraph one, extending and enlarging it. It will again contain evidence
to support points made and a transition leading into the third paragraph.
The final paragraph follows the pattern established in paragraphs one and two i.e., point or continuation
plus supplementary evidence. As in the previous paragraphs it will begin by following the transition from
the previous paragraph and lead to the transition into the conclusion. It should signal the reader the inten-
tion that this is drawing the arguments to a close. It is always useful to give an indication of summation in
this way. Order and arrangement of points is very important. Hence, each main point should be developed
in a separate paragraph and one paragraph should logically lead to another. The use of these transitions
throughout enhances the overall cohesion. Thus there should be unity and continuity of thought in the essay.
You should also see that no aspect of the subject is unduly stressed or elaborated at the expense of another.
There should thus be a certain balance and proportion in the development of ideas. It can be presented
diagrammatically.
Conclusion of an Essay A concluding paragraph like an introductory paragraph is usually short. It
briefly summarises your points or ideas that you have developed in the course of the essay. You can draw
your conclusions on the basis of these arguments. The conclusions should be stated briefly but forcefully.
You can suggest ways in which your conclusion can be thought of in a larger sense. What are the implica-
tions of your thesis statement being true? What is the next step? What questions remain unanswered? If you
cover these aspects your summary will be effective. This is not the place to introduce any new information.
Like the opening of an essay you can follow several ways of ending your essay. Your conclusion should be
dramatic, imaginative, amusing or thought provoking. It might be:
a prediction
a quotation
a question
an anecdote or recapitulation
It should remind the reader of something you said at the beginning, but should not merely repeat the
information of the introductory paragraph. Think of the concluding paragraph as an upside-down version of
the introductory paragraph. It may begin by reemphasising the main idea but not restating the thesis state-
ment word for word. It is imperative to end with statements that wrap up the discussion with humour or
remarkable statement. It should indicate the direction of the subject. It is a good idea to end the essay with
a strong statement that leaves the reader with the impression that the essay has fulfilled the thesis statement
within the limitation of the specific parameters and a sense of completion. Rethink the concluding paragraph
to make it fit in the essay you have. You may use the following guidelines to write an effective concluding
paragraph:
Do not use the concluding paragraph to introduce the main ideas that are not supported in the essay.
Emphasise the writer’s plan and his point of view.
Focus should be on the topic.
Give the reader a logical order of your ideas.
Make some reference to your opening.
Do not overdo the repetition.
Do not write the mechanical summary.
Reaffirm your main thesis and borders to suggest the direction for further thought on the subject.
End with a lively thought, or a thought-provoking finale.
MODES OF DEVELOPING ESSAYS

You already practiced writing paragraphs in the rhetorical modes: descriptive, narrative, expository and
persuasive. Now you can apply the skills of development and organisation you practised in this chapter in
composing the essay. The writer should develop the material extensively within a mode while writing an
essay. Sometimes the writer shifts from one mode to another. A narrative essay may contain some descrip-
tion or analysis, just as a persuasive essay may contain elements of narration or description. The modes of
developing essays are: descriptive, narrative, expository and persuasive.
The Descriptive Mode

The descriptive mode informs about a person, a place or an object. Descriptive writing mainly deals with
sensory details which appeal to the physical senses. Details of the essay appeal to the reader’s emotional,
physical or intellectual sensibilities. Descriptive essays, although, may contain elements of other kinds of
writing, are intended mainly to paint a mental picture of a place, person or object. The key to write a good
descriptive essay is to provide vivid and specific details to help the reader create a mental picture of what
is being written about.
Each paragraph, except the introduction and the conclusion, will concentrate on one part or feature of the
subject you are discussing. As usual the thesis statement should state an idea that holds the whole description
together. It will indicate what features or parts of the subject the essay discusses. It requires thought, organi-
sation and supply details. Therefore you should expect to go through the stages of the writing process. You
have to group the details into spatial categories either by outlining, making a list or clustering. You should
do this pre-writing activity repeatedly until you get clarity in grouping the related elements. The writer with
his own perspective presents the information and the reader with his own perspective comprehends it.
Identify the purpose of your description. If you do not get the main idea about the subject you are discuss-
ing, try to focus on pre-writing activities to explore your thoughts before you compose an organised essay.
Determining the purpose, considering the audience, creating a dominant impression, using a descriptive
language and organising the description are the rhetorical choices to be considered when using a description.
A description is usually arranged spatially, but can be chronological or emphatic.
The Narrative Mode

Narration means it informs about an event. You may start your essay with some general statements or you
may use any attention getting device. It will reflect the essence of the subject you are going to narrate. This
statement helps the reader to get the main idea of the whole narration. Like narrative paragraphs, narrative
essays are arranged in time sequence; each paragraph presents one stage of the action. If you are telling
about a trip you have taken, for instance, one paragraph might tell about your planning, the next about what
you did there and another about your return.
In narration use the first person, as it ensures a closer contact with the reader and adds a personal touch
to the subject. The way of your narration should involve the reader as an active participant. If you share your
points of view with the reader, it will capture the reader’s interest. You should embellish your subject with
real-life situations and vivid details to produce a lasting impression on your audience. In the conclusion of
your narrative essay you must come to some meaningful conclusion resulting from your description. The
following points may be useful to draft the narrative essay:
Identify the purpose of your subject and write it in your thesis statement.
Be sure of your purpose clearly while revising.
Be sure it should arouse interest of the reader.
Use simple language and establish the tone of your writing.
Be sure that every paragraph should indicate its stage in your narration.
Be sure that every paragraph should contribute to develop the main point.
Be sure that your organisation of the material is logical and easy to comprehend.
Suggest your main idea in your title and thesis statement.
Be sure that the main idea comes across to the reader.
The Expository Mode
The expository mode of the essay deals with an issue. It may also contain a narration, a description and a
persuasion. You have been practicing these modes separately, but it is well to remember that in an expository
writing you will often combine several of them to support your points. The expository essay is also used
in the case of reportage, for instance, in journalism. The subject is presented in close analytical details. It
presents the factual information. However, a good expository essay also seeks to explain the issue and in
this way it differs from mere reportage. The use of linguistic devices such as analogies is common in the
expository essay. Analysis of evidence is the fundamental method which governs the expository essay. Aided
by analysis, the expository essay gives full facts about the subject. It states the facts clearly. Inference plays
little or no part in the expository essay. Hence inference is considered inappropriate to this type of an essay.
The reader and the writer need not do any guess work. The expository essay should aid the comprehension
of the reader not by personal opinion but by logical and formal objective analysis. As an expository writer
you need to use simple and precise language. You can write the expository essay effectively, if you have
the ability:
to identify the main point of your subject
to express the main point clearly
to write intelligently using your own experience and your knowledge of the subject
to organise your ideas effectively
How you organise your material depends on the kind of essay you are writing. There are several common
patterns for expository essays. We will look at a few examples:
Essay Based on Examples One of the simplest methods of developing an expository essay is by using
multiple illustrations and enumerations. This means supporting the main point with a series of examples
that illustrate it. The evidence is largely provided by the inclusion of examples or illustrations. This method
allows you to draw examples of your own experience or the experience of others or to furnish examples
from your reading. Each example should prove your main idea.
A few following points may be useful while writing this kind of an essay:
Be sure that all your examples support the main point.
Be sure that your examples should not interrupt the thought process.
Think about the order of your examples – the most important and dramatic one should always be used
at the end for emphasis.
Vary your examples – although they all support the main idea, the way they do it should differ in order
to hold the interest of the reader.
Use transitional phrases to establish the link between the examples.
Use transitional phrases such as for example, another example, the most interesting fact is, still more
exciting case, a third incident that illustrate the point, the meaningful example that demonstrate the
point and so on.
Be sure the focus of the essay is based on the way you use the examples and illustrations.
The quality and relevance of illustrations is the foundation of an illustrative essay. Therefore use ap-
propriate illustrations frequently.
Vary the length and depth of your illustration to add interest and variety to your argument depending
upon the relative complexity at different points in your essay.
In conclusion, bring all the main points together and produce a synthesis of the thesis.
Try to pre-empt possible objections to your arguments or illustrations that you have used by suggesting
an open-ended debate simply drawing to a temporary impasse.
Create interesting, informative, well-evidenced examples or illustrations to build the picture of the
topic in your reader’s mind.
Problem-Solution Essay Problem-solution essay involves careful thinking, requires a clear understanding
and an organised writing of the problem. These types of essays may give solutions to problems. Writing a
successful essay of this kind requires critical thinking as part of your pre-writing and composing process.
While writing a problem-solution essay, be sure you have explored the whole range of the subject before
writing your essay. Ask yourself the questions like the following:
1. What kind of problem am I going to solve in this essay?
2. Is this a psychological, social, economic, academic political or an ethical problem?
3. Why does this problem have to be solved?
4. What will happen if it is not solved?
5. What are the possible ways of trying to solve this problem?
6. Which is the best solution?
7. Why will the other ones not be effective?
8. Why will mine prove the most successful one?
Based on this you have to think about writing an essay on this type. Generally, in this pattern you can
divide your material in two main points. First you explain the existence and seriousness of a problem and
then you give the workable solution to it. While discussing the problem, try to explain the problem and its
seriousness and effects. When you give the solution, you should be able to prove or convince your readers
to your solution as the best one. For example, if you have to write an essay on the problem of employees
wasting their time during a tea-break in a factory, you should be able to show the workers how the loss of
man-hours affects the productivity and ultimately reduces the bonus and therefore you suggest the restricted
hours for tea-breaks.
Problem-solution essays are more demanding in their content than the essays based on personal experi-
ence, even though the writing process involved is similar. The essays of this kind often can be organised
into three main parts.
These are:
Understanding the seriousness of the problem and establishing the need for a solution
Considering various proposals
Stating and defending the best proposal
If you leave any of these parts it will inevitably weaken your essay. An outline for a problem-solution
essay might be like the following:
I. Introductory Paragraph: Focusing on the seriousness and the urgency of the problem and indicating
the kind of solution you will propose.
II. Main Body Paragraphs:
Paragraph explaining the need at length and possibly analysing how the problem arose.
Paragraph(s) discussing other proposed solutions and showing why they will/might not work.
Paragraph(s) explaining your solution in detail and showing why it will work successfully.
III. Concluding Paragraph: Reemphasising the need for a change and stressing the effectiveness of your
solution, possibly advising what will happen if your proposal is not implemented.
Guidelines for Critical Analysis for Expository Writing Expository writing, in order to be effective,
must be based on critical analysis. Read the following guidelines and check your essays for effective content
based on clear, open-minded thinking as well as free from biases and illogical thinking.
1. Be Clear About Your Main Point: Distinguish carefully between your main idea and the supporting
ideas. Establish the boundaries of your discussion based on the coverage of your subject. Every time
ask one question to yourself to check the subject. The question is: Does this include all aspects of the
subject?
2. Evaluate the Evidence: Collect all facts you can for evidence. See how suitable these facts are to
prove your main point. Find that your evidence really supports the main point you are making and
select only those facts. Beware of over generalising from minor evidence.
3. Consider All Possible Alternatives: For selecting the main point, you consider all possible points
of view and then choose your main point eliminating the others. If you are selecting a solution to the
problem, consider all possible solutions first and then exercise your selection of suitability.
4. Divide Your Topic into Various Components: Break your topic into various components to discuss
it carefully in all its complexity and to give clarity to your readers. Ask yourself some questions such
as:
What are the various aspects of this problem?
Why must I solve this problem?
What suggestions have already been thought of?
Why will my solution succeed?
Explore all possible ways of the topic and suggest the solution. Do not, however, over simplify it.
5. Be Objective in Your Analysis: Objective analysis will give the best solution. Try to avoid subjective
analysis. Every one has biases – some of them favourable, some are unfavourable and some are neutral.
Since, it is a natural feature of human being, we cannot avoid them. However, biased impressions
hinder effective writing. It makes us to fix our focus on only one part of a problem and to analyse
the problem from one perspective. As a result you cannot give a competent argument. Readers will
usually respond negatively to biased arguments.
6. Use Suitable Language: Select suitable words to suit to your strong emotion, force the arguments
you make and give evidence that you use to support them. Usually use simple and precise language
so that your reader can understand easily.
The Persuasive Mode

Writing an effective persuasive essay takes time and effort. The persuasive mode means enumerating the
subject with ample convincing reasons. Before you start writing this essay, you should have a sound knowl-
edge of the subject. It is then that you could defend your ideas better and make your essay sound convincing.
The point that you are making needs to have enough depth and be worthy of support. One reliable pattern
of organisation for persuasive essay is giving a series of reasons. Begin your essay by stating your views.
Leave the details for later. Just lay out your main idea and opinion. You express your main idea in the thesis
statement. So your first sentence should be a thesis sentence and have the basic ideas that encompass all
that you will say in the rest of the essay.
Each paragraph in the main body of your essay should cover a main point to back up your argument
and opinion. You may want to support each main point in a different way – a small story for one, facts for
another, analysis of cause and effect for the other. The over-all plan, in other words, should be simple and
easily comprehensible to the reader. You will need to be careful about making smooth transitions between
paragraphs of the main body. That is, that your last sentence of the paragraph should be a transition that
leads up to the next paragraph to help keep the reading smooth. The reasons and evidence you provide in
each of your paragraphs should really support your thesis statement. A final concern is the sequence of
reasons: which comes first? second? last? Usually the most convincing reason should come last, in the most
emphatic position. In the conclusion restate each of your points and end the whole with a very well-written
sentence that leaves the reader with an imprint of the essay. Make it in such a way that your readers cannot
forget easily.
The main aim of a persuasive essay is to show that your argument is correct and reasonable. It attempts
to convince the reader that your point of view is more legitimate than others. Once you have developed some
argument, you should back it up with available evidence and examples. The planning of the persuasive essay
is not an easy task. The following steps will facilitate the process:
Have a thorough knowledge about the subject.
Be aware of the prospective audience.
Examine the subject closely.
Provide reliable evidence.
Your evidence should be reasonable.
Provide reasonable and suitable examples.
Plan your essay logically.
REVISE AND PROOFREAD THE ESSAY

In the process of writing an essay, revising is almost as important as composing itself. So after writing an
essay you should revise it. Revise the essay in the following way:
Revise the thesis statement to give the essay a clear focus.
Revise the development of the essay to be sure that the essay covers the main purpose.
Revise for critical thinking to be sure that your arguments are logical and persuasive.
Revise for unity and coherence to make sure that everything in the essay supports the thesis statement,
purpose, the main point, and that the sentences and paragraphs are in the right order.
Revise the whole essay to make sure that the introduction and conclusion match the main body of
your essay.
Revise the whole essay for reasonable evidence and suitable examples to match the subject of your
essay.
Revise the essay for effective use of transitional phrases. Read the essay from the beginning to the end
to see how your thought process moves smoothly. Each sentence should lead smoothly to the next and
each paragraph flow logically into the other. Each statement should be connected or related somehow
to one before it and not written randomly. There are many ways to connect transition from one idea
to the next as given here:
— One happens before or after the other
— One elaborates the other
— One contrast with other
— One is caused and affected by the other
— One is similar to the other
Revise and proofread for other errors.
Check for spelling errors
Avoid for repetitive words
Check for suitable language
Avoid using colloquial language
Avoid contractions such as: won’t, can’t, etc
Avoid punctuation errors
Summary
Build the essay with short introductory and concluding paragraphs and well-developed concluding paragraphs. Be sure
that you can explain your main thesis in every part of the essay. Learn to write effective thesis statements that will guide
the reader and make the main purpose clear. An effective thesis statement should be broad enough to be divided into
subtopics and developed in several paragraphs but specific enough for you to discuss it thoroughly in your essay. Narra-
tive essays present a personal experience or public events in a chronological order. Make each paragraph carry the reader
one step further in time and use transitional expressions between and within paragraphs to create continuity. Descriptive
essays portray persons or places, using vivid details and varied supporting paragraphs. Do prewriting activities to write
effective paragraphs. Each paragraph should make a distinct contribution to the overall purpose. Descriptive writing usu-
ally requires multiple revisions to improve descriptive wording and organisation. Expository essays should explain and
analyse the issues so that the reader understands them better. Principles of critical thinking are important in expository
writing. Avoid oversimplifying complex issues and be sure to include steps in analysis and explanation. Persuasive es-
says should present strong arguments based on several kinds of support. Learn to employ several methods, enumerating
examples and enumerating reasons to organise these arguments. Avoid over simplification and over generalisations.
Writing is a skill, and like any other skill, requires practice to become a master of it. One easy way to practise is
to read more essays to acquire the skill. In short, to your readers, your essay should tell them what you are going to
tell them (introduction), tell them that (body paragraphs) and to tell them what you just told them (conclusion). This
chapter covered the general overview, but you can learn about the expectations associated with various kinds of essays
by further reading.
Review Questions
1. What are the main features of an essay? Discuss.
2. What is a thesis statement? How is it useful to write a thesis statement?
3. Discuss the structure of an essay.
4. What is the three–step device? Explain it.
5. How do you prepare an introduction, the main body and the conclusion of an essay?
6. What is meant by a descriptive essay? Discuss.
7. Discuss the features of a narrative essay in detail.
8. Explain what an expository essay is. Discuss in detail.
9. What is a persuasive essay? Discuss.
10. What guidelines would you like to give for the critical analysis of expository writing? Discuss.
11. What suggestions do you give for revising and proofreading an essay?
12. What are the various modes of developing an essay?
Exercises
1. Revise the following thesis statements and write the effective thesis statement for each:
(i) People can use the Internet for serious purposes.
(ii) Kavitha’s first year in college was an important time in her life.
(iii) Working while pursuing college education is a good idea.
(iv) The courses at my graduation are useful.
(v) I do not like television.
(vi) The college where I studied is a good college.
2. A pair of thesis statements is given here. Identify which sentence in each pair makes an effective thesis statement
for an essay.
(i) (a) My vacation to Mumbai was wonderful because I met some remarkable people and visited the mu-
seum.
(b) I visited Mumbai for two weeks in March 2008.
(ii) (a) The present orphanage homes lack adequate means for rehabilitation, medical treatment and psychiatric
counseling.
(b) The orphanage home at capital city contains 800 inmates.
(iii) (a) I had a good job last year.
(b) I had a good job last year as a soft skills trainer at Nalanda University.
3. Read some books and collect some essays. Analyse them in terms of structure of the essay.
(a) Identify the shortcomings of the essay.
(b) What suggestions would you like to give for improving an essay?
Unit VI
Business Communication
Chapter 21
Structure and Style of
Business Correspondence

Know the various elements of a letter.
Learn how to prepare the various elements of a letter.
Differentiate between the compulsory and the optional elements of the structure of a letter.
Know the layout of a letter.
Know the various styles of presentation of matter in a letter such as Indented style, Semi-block
style, Block style and Full-block style.
Express facts and opinions clearly.
Write naturally, courteously, concisely and precisely.
Express the negative information positively using positive language.
INTRODUCTION
A business letter is a form of communication and so must be clear, well-organised, and coherent, written
in a standard format, by an authorised person of an organisation, to fulfill a predetermined purpose. In the
professional field, you will have to write many letters everyday as part of your routine work. Though a letter
is a means of contact between two individuals, it also establishes a relationship between two organisations.
In fact, you will be writing letters which perform certain functions such as establish a business relationship
without personal contact, create friendly relationships with another organisation, achieve the specific pur-
pose of your organisation, provide record for subsequent reference, and create a good impression about the
writer’s firm and also of the writer. Such letters are called business letters. Thus, the letter may be interpreted
as “a message in the written form addressed to someone for a specific purpose.” It communicates message
as well as the attitude to the reader.
Generally, the main reasons for writing letters are to seek or to provide information, to persuade for ac-
tion, to furnish evidence of transactions entered into, to provide a record for future reference and to build
goodwill.
A business letter aims to accomplish its purpose – one that achieves the intended result. Some of the
purposes for which a business letter is written are as follows:
Exhibit 21.1 Purpose of a Business Letter
Giving or seeking information

Making or answering an enquiry
Placing an order
Acknowledging the order
Demanding or refusing credit
Mollifying the injured feeling of a customer
Selling goods and service
Making, accepting or refusing a request
Making or responding to complaints, and creating goodwill etc.
The main objective of business letters is to achieve a definite purpose. It assists you in sustaining busi-
ness relationship at the workplace. Therefore, a business letter must impress the reader. It should have the
necessary built-in attraction. To achieve this, we should pay attention to the various components of a letter,
to its structure, to its layout and to its form and function. The selection of necessary elements, the suitable
layout and the structure enhance the overall effectiveness of a business letter and helps it to arrange all the
elements in an organised way.
Custom, convention, practice and requirement have more or less standardised the elements that constitute
a business letter and established the pattern. Let us now discuss these in detail. Broadly, these are structure,
layout and style of presentation.
STRUCTURE
The structure of a business letter has a number of elements. Generally, following elements constitute the
structure of a business letter. Each of these elements has a definite place and specified position as shown
in Exhibit 21.1.
Elements of Structure of a Letter are:
1. Heading
2. Date
3. Reference
4. Inside Address
5. Attention Line
6. Salutation
7. Subject
8. Body
9. Complimentary Close
10. Signature
Structure and Style of Business Corespondence 359
11. Identification Marks

12. Enclosure
Compulsory elements normally appear in every letter. These are:
Heading
Date
Inside Address
Salutation
Body
Complimentary Close and
Typed Signature
Optional elements which appear in some letters are:
Your Reference
Our Reference
Attention
Subject
Identification Marks and
Enclosures
Let us now briefly discuss each element.
Compulsory Elements
The elements that normally appear in every letter are compulsory elements.
Heading Generally, business organisations use printed letterheads for correspondence. The letterhead
includes the name and address of the sender, his telephone number and the e-mail address. The heading is
normally printed in the middle of the page just below the top margin as shown in Exhibit 21.2.
Exhibit 21.2
EXCELLENT UNIVERSITY
Road No.5. Banzara Hills
Hyderabad
Date Some letterheads contain a line indicating where the date should be written. In others, the program-
mer chooses the right place for it. It should be written two places below the last line of the letterhead. The
date, month and year should be written as shown in Exhibit 21.3.
Exhibit 21.3
9 April 2006
or
April 9, 2006
Both methods are acceptable. However, the first method is more preferable than the second one. It proceeds
in the logical order of day, month and year. The point to note is that no suffix as ‘rd’ or ‘th’ (3rd or 5th) is
added to the day.
Inside Address In a business letter, the inside address is the address of the person to whom the letter
is written. Name and full address of the person should be typed on separate lines as it would appear on an
envelope. Single spaced, it should start with the left margin of the letter about two lines below the date and
two spaces above the attention line, or if there is no attention line, two spaces above the salutation. The
other details like the name of the company and street should be written as indicated in the source. These
details should not be abbreviated. Special care should be taken to address the name of the person exactly as
they sign in their letters. If a person’s designation is known, it should be used in this section immediately
after the name.
While addressing a firm, ‘Messrs’ is used in case (i) there is a personal element in the name of the firm,
and (ii) the name itself does not include a courtesy title or introduce the word ‘The’ as shown in Exhibit
21.4.
Exhibit 21.4
Dr. V. Kumar
Vice-chancellor
Excellent University
The Ravi Trading Company
Kukatpally
Hyderabad
Messrs Rao and Sons
3, Banzara Hills
Hyderabad
Salutation It is a formal greeting of the addressee. Flush with left hand margin, it is placed two spaces
below the last line of the inside address. The choice of salutation depends upon the personal relationship
between the writer and the reader or the form of the inside address and the purpose and the nature of the
letter. If the person’s name has been used in the inside address, it is common practice to use a personal
salutation.
Exhibit 21.5
Dear Mr. Ravi

Dear Ms. Shanthi
If you write a letter to an officer by designation, the salutation ‘Dear Sir’ or ‘Dear Madam’ is used. If
your letter is addressed to the head of an organisation whose name is not known, then the salutation ‘Dear
Sir’ or ‘Dear Madam’ or ‘Dear Sir/Madam’ would be used. If your letter is addressed to a friend, the saluta-
tion, ‘My Dear Ravi’ or ‘Dear Ravi’, or ‘Dear Shanthi’ may be used. Sometimes circular and sales letters
are addressed as ‘Dear Customer’, ‘Dear Member’, ‘Dear Reader’ etc.
Body Generally, many business letters are short and precise. The body of the letter should contain the
message that the writer wants to convey. The main purpose of the message is to produce a suitable response
from the reader. As a general rule however, the body of the letter should flow logically from the beginning
to the end. It is, therefore, important to organise and arrange the material very carefully. It should be clear,
direct, coherent and courteous.
The first paragraph acknowledges any previous correspondence or provides an introduction to the matter
being discussed and in the second the main message should be stated. The paragraphs that follow should
contain further details, if necessary. In the closing paragraph, you must state clearly what action you expect
the reader to take or you may end the letter indicating your expectations. Alternatively, you may state what
action you will take as a result. A simple one line close is usually all that is required to finish off your let-
ter.
Examples:
I look forward to hearing from you soon.
A prompt letter would be appreciated.
If you require any further information, please let me know.
Complimentary Close Like the salutation, the complimentary close is simply a matter of custom and
a polite way of closing a letter. It is typed two spaces below the last line of the body of the letter. The first
letter of the first word is capitalised. The expression used for the complimentary close must match the situ-
ation, as shown in Exhibit 21.6.
Exhibit 21.6
The Salutation The Complimentary Close

Sir Yours faithfully
Madam
Dear Sir Yours sincerely
Dear Sirs or
Dear Madam Yours faithfully
Dear Sir/Madam
Dear Shanthi Yours sincerely
Dear Ravi or
Dear Mr. Murali Yours truly
Dear Reader
Dear Customer Yours sincerely
Dear Share-holder
Dear Member
Signature The signature is placed below the complimentary close. After leaving 4/5 blank lines for a
signature, the name of the sender should be written either with initial capitals or in uppercase as preferred.
The writer’s designation or department should be shown immediately beneath the name. When signing on
behalf of an employer, it is a general practice to write ‘for’.
Exhibit 21.7
Yours sincerely
V. Ravi
General Manager
Optional Elements
Reference Some letterheads have ‘our ref’ and ‘your ref’ printed on them. A reference will normally
include the initials of the writer. A file or department may also be included. In a reply letter, the correspon-
dent’s reference is given against the first line and your reference against the second line. Some companies
and some writers prefer to indicate the reference of the correspondent in the body of the letter.
Attention Line An attention line may be used if you wish to address the letter to a particular member
of the company. This should be placed one clear line space above or below the inside address as preferred.
It should be typed in initial capitals/underscore as shown in Exhibit 21.8.
Exhibit 21.8
Attention: The Finance Manager

Attention: Sri V. K. Kumar
General Manager
Subject Line Some organisations do not write the subject, but in India we do write it. The main purpose
of the subject line is to help the reader know immediately what the message is about. Like the attention and
reference lines, it saves time. The common practice is to write the subject between the opening salutation
and the body of the letter and leave a double space above and below. There are, however, some organisa-
tions which prefer to have the subject line between the inside address and the salutation. If the writer uses
the attention line, then the subject line is placed between the attention line and the salutation. It should be
worded accurately. Subject is followed by a colon and words constituting the subject should be capitalised.
If an open punctuation is used in the heading and in the address, no period follows the subject line unless
it ends with an abbreviation. Examples of both types are given in Exhibit 21.9.
Exhibit 21.9
Dear Sir
Subject: Supply of Raw Material
Acropolice Constructions
16 Madhapur
Hyderabad
Attention : Shri V. Kumar
Subject : Supply of Raw Material
Dear Sir
Identification Marks These marks are initials of the typist put in the left margin, one or two spaces
below the signature and just above the ‘Enclosure’. For example, if the letter has been typed by Ms Padma
Sundari, her identification would be indicated as:
DPS
Enclosures Since an enclosure is sent along with the letter, it must be indicated against the enclosure line
which is typed two spaces below the identification marks. Generally, the abbreviated form ‘Enc’ or ‘Encs’
is typed at the bottom of the letter against which the number of enclosures is indicated.
Enc: 2
If, however, copies are important they are specified as given here:
Encs:
1. Guidelines for oral presentation
2. Uses of Audio Visual Aids
We now give the layout of a business letter indicating the position of all elements we discussed so far. It
is laid out in the Full-Block Form Style.
Exhibit 21.10 Layout of a Business Letter
__________________________
__________________________ Heading
__________________________
Date : 22 Sep 2006.
Your Reference :
Our Reference :
Arunodaya Trust
Inside
Madhapur
address
Hyderabad
Attention:
Subject:
Dear Sir
_________________________________________ Body of the
_________________________________________ letter
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
_________________________________________ Paragraph 1
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
_________________________________________ Paragraph 2
_________________________________________ Body of the
_________________________________________ letter
_________________________________________ Closing
sentence
(Contd)
(Contd)
Yours faithfully Closing

salutation
__________________ Typed signature
__________________ Designation
DPS Identification
mark
Encs: Enclosure
1. Enclosures
2. specified
LAYOUT OF A BUSINESS LETTER

Neatly typed on the best stationery with proper punctuation, carefully laid out letters create a good impres-
sion.
Stationery
In order to create an initial impression, it is essential to choose good quality paper. The paper the company
uses for business letters creates the impression of that company. Generally, white is the standard colour for
practically any type of business organisation. Some firms use tinted paper to suit their activity. In case such
paper is used it should be of a light shade and the ribbon of the typewriter should also be chosen in harmony
with it. The nature of the company probably would determine the color of the paper used. The standard size
of paper used for most business letters is 8½ by 11 inches. This size is suitable for any kind of business.
Smaller sizes like 8 by 10 inches, 5½ by 8½ inches, and 7½ by 8½ inches might be used depending on the
custom of the organisation.
Margins
Margins in a letter give a neat appearance and add to its attractiveness. Generally, leave an inch and a half
to two inches on the left hand and at the top (if there is no letterhead), one to one and a half inches on the
right hand and at the bottom. The content of the letter should be set within the space thus left, so as to give
it a neat appearance.
Punctuation
Proper punctuation is an essential ingredient for writing effective business letters. Proper punctuation makes
the meaning clear and the material easy to read. The general practice is to leave a double space between the
different parts of the letters and between paragraphs; and to leave a single space within the parts and within
the paragraphs. Generally, there are three recognised styles of punctuation for the parts of a letter – Open
punctuation, Closed punctuation and Mixed punctuation.
Open Punctuation As the name indicates that there are no punctuation marks used in any part of the
letter except in the body in which the usual punctuation marks are used. It means the end punctuation marks
are omitted.
Closed Punctuation In conventional punctuation the period follows the date line, the end line of inside
address, and the signature, while all preceding lines in the inside address, salutation, complimentary close
are set off by commas.
Here is an example for a closed punctuation:
Date : 22 Sept, 06.
Inside Address : Dr. V. K. Kumar,
Principal,
Excellent University,
Madhapur,
Hyderabad – 500082.
Salutation : Dear Kumar,
Complimentary Close : Yours sincerely.
Mixed Punctuation In this punctuation the comma is used after the date line, street name (if any), the
salutation and a complimentary close and a period follows the last line of the inside address.
Of all these three styles of punctuations, the mixed punctuation style is used very commonly. After decid-
ing the punctuation the next step is to decide the style of presentation of the letter. There are various styles
of presentation. We will discuss these styles of presentation in detail.
STYLES OF PRESENTATION
There are several styles which are used for writing business letters. No one can say that one specific form
for a business letter is the correct one. Instead there are certain forms which are widely used in today’s cor-
respondence. These forms, however, constantly change. Hence, students ought to know that there are differ-
ent styles in letter writing. Generally, your choice will be governed in most instances by the practice of the
company that you will work for and the type of reader to whom the letter would be addressed. A selection
of suitable form for your letter can be made intelligently only if you know the various styles.
For this purpose, you may consider the following patterns:
The Indented Style
The Semi-block Style
The Block Style
The Complete-Block Style
The Indented Style

It is perhaps one of the oldest styles of writing a business letter. This style harmonises well with the indented
design of a letterhead. A specimen of this style is given in Exhibit 21.11.
Exhibit 21.11 The Indented Style
ICFAI Business School

Plot # 63, Nagarjuna Hills
Hyderabad – 500 082
22 Sept, 2006.
Mr. V. K. Kumar,
103, Srinivasam Apartments,
Arunodaya Colony,
Madhapur,
Hyderabad – 500081.
Dear Mr. V. K. Kumar,
Subject: Indented Letter Style.
The indented letter style of letter writing is the most conventional and perhaps one of the oldest
forms of letter writing. In this form, each new element is indented from three to five spaces.
The date line is on the top right-hand corner, below the letterhead details. Notice how the inside
name and address, complimentary close, signature and designation elements and all first lines of
each paragraph in the body of a letter are indented.
Generally closed punctuation is used in this form. Conservative business firms like this style. It
harmonises well with the indented design of a letterhead.
Naturally the indented form with a closed punctuation requires a bit more time for typing because
the layout requires it. However, some correspondents feel that the extra time taken is justified. The
form is consistent and pleasing to the eye.
Yours sincerely,
xxx
The Semi-Block Style

This form is a compromise between the block form and the indented form. It combines the advantages of
both forms. A specimen of this form is illustrated and presented in Exhibit 21.12.
Exhibit 21.12 Semi-block Style
ICFAI Business School

Plot # 63, Nagarjuna Hills
Hyderabad – 500 082
22 Sept. 2006.
Mr. V.K. Kumar
103, Srinivasam Apartments
Madhapur
Hyderabad – 500 081.
Dear Kumar,
Subject: Semi-block Style.
This is an example of semi-block style. It is a combination of the block and the indented style.
The semi-block style of a business letter with mixed punctuation is widely used. It differs from the
block form only in five to ten spaces indention of paragraphs.
It combines the advantage of the block form and the indented form. Place the inside address in
block form against the left-hand margin of the letter. The complimentary close and signature are in
block form and placed at the right-hand side.
The semi-block form makes for rapid typing and paragraph indention makes for an easy read. This
combination produces an attractive appearance that pleases many professionals.
The combination form goes well with any basic design of a letterhead.
Yours sincerely,
xxxx
The Block Style

This is a widely used form today. It takes its name from the fact that the inside address, the salutation and
the paragraphs are arranged in blocks without indention (see Exhibit 21.13). The advantage of the block form
is that it saves stenographic time because each part of the letter except the date, the complimentary close
and the signature is aligned with the left margin so that no time is consumed by indention. An illustrated
specimen is provided in Exhibit 21.13.
Exhibit 21.13 Block Form
COLLEGE OF COMMERCE
BANJARA HILLS
HYDERABAD
22 August 2007
V. Kalyan
Sanathnagar
Hyderabad.
Dear Kalyan,
This is an example of a block form of a letter using mixed punctuation. Every line begins with
the left-hand margin except those for the dates, the complimentary close, and the signature and
designation. The signature and designation are blocked under the complimentary close. The
date is in keeping with the format of the letter and is placed in line with the complimentary
close and typed signature line. In order to show separation of paragraphs and division between
different parts of letter leave double space. Within the inside address and within the individual
paragraph leave a single line.
The block form goes well with the block panel design of the letterhead. It may also be used
with personal letterhead as used in this example.
Many professionals use this form of a letter because of its clear-cut appearance. The blocked
paragraphs save time in typing and the placement of the signature balances the position of the
inside address.
It is commonly used because it saves time in typing and combined with the balance makes
it an attractive form.
Yours sincerely,
xxx
Full Block Style

Another variation of the block form is the complete or full block form. A specimen of this style is given
in Exhibit 21.14.
Exhibit 21.14 Full Block Form
COLLEGE OF COMMERCE
BANJARA HILLS
HYDERABAD
22 January 2007
V. Kalyan
Sanathnagar
Hyderabad
Dear Mr. Kalyan,
This is an example of a full block form of a business letter, using open punc-
tuation. It means no punctuation marks are necessary except in the body of a
letter. Notice how the date line, the inside name and address, the salutation, each
paragraph in the body of the letter, the complimentary close and the signature
element and designation are all blocked beginning with the left-hand margin.
This full block form goes very well with the letterhead of a blocked panel design.
The form itself is preferred by some firms because it saves the typing time.
All elements begin at the left-hand margin, thus making for a rapid typing. How-
ever, the letter is lopsided and imbalanced. The letter appears heavy on the left
side. This full-block form is used in many organisations. Its popularity may be
growing despite its lack of balance.
Yours sincerely,
xxx
STYLE OF WRITING
Objectives, predetermined purpose and reasons for writing a business letter determine the content and the
style of writing. The primary requirement of a letter is to communicate clearly and effectively. Its aim is to
get the information or to give it. No competent executive would quarrel about this. There is another qual-
ity that may be equally important and that is to maintain a healthy public relation. Hence, a business letter
contains information that attempts to influence its readers.
Since business letters carry the information, the writer has to compose the message clearly and succinctly
in such a manner that the reader receives the message or the idea entirely. In a word, you must be quite
clear about what you want to say before you begin to write. If the message of the letter is not clear in your
mind, you cannot expect it to be clear to your readers. If you devote a few minutes to think what you are
going to say and how you are going to say it, it gives the letter individuality and makes it more effective. In
fact, an effective writer is always aware that his message has a specific purpose to accomplish. The writer
begins his letter with a purpose and uses the ideas with a purpose and words to influence the reader towards
his objective. If the message is to be understood and accepted, it must be tailored to the reader’s intellectual
capacity and technical competence. A business letter, must therefore, appeal to the reader’s interest and
induce in him the proper mood. Thus, a business letter aims to accomplish its objective of clear writing. To
achieve the predetermined purpose and the intended results, a business letter writer has to acquire specific
features of effective writing. These are: be natural, be courteous, be specific, be concise, be precise and be
positive.
Be Natural
Since a business letter is a communication from one person to another, you must make your letters sound
natural for optimum public effect, that is, you should write in words that have the effect of a good conver-
sation. So an essential feature of business correspondence is ‘be natural in expression’. Write naturally as
if you are having a conversation. After all, letter writing is a ‘piece of conversation by post’. This does not
mean that you should write letters exactly as you would talk to your friends. There is no argument over
the point that writing demands more correctness of language. The words you use should come from your
speaking vocabulary; and the tone of your writing should simulate a friendly conversation. Natural writing
reflects the originality of the use of language. You can arrest the reader’s interest if you write expressions
naturally as in a conversation. Such writing produces warmth that appeals to everyone. Since it uses familiar
words, it communicates the message effectively. Natural approach encompasses the aspects such as: You –
approach or Reader’s point of view, Conversational tone, Avoid trite expressions, Avoid long phrases, Avoid
adjectives and Avoid clichés.
You – Approach or Reader’s Point of View Concern towards the reader’s interests, needs, and de-
sires is known as the ‘’you – approach or reader’s point of view’ in business correspondence. An effective
business letter must appeal to the reader’s interest and induce in him the proper action. It must be realised
that one of the greatest barriers to successful business communication is self-centeredness. Due to our
self-centeredness, we tend to see each situation from our own point of view. In a business correspondence
situations, this attitude may lead us to a writer-oriented, that is, a ‘we – approach’. Its emphasis is on the
writer and his interests rather than on the reader and his interests. Such an approach obviously does not
elicit a positive response from the reader.
The result is not conducive to building goodwill. It does not help get your readers to do things you want
them to. Remember that self-centeredness is one of the chief barriers to successful communication. You
would, therefore, put yourself in your reader’s place and try to sense his feelings and anticipate his reactions
of your message. After having written the letter, ask yourself, “What would be my reaction if I receive such
a letter?” It enables the writer to consider from the reader’s point of view and make the necessary changes.
Effective business communication focuses on the ‘you-approach’. The use of pronoun ‘you’ can be very
helpful in directing the letter to the reader’s point of view. The ability to adapt oneself to the reader’s point
of view is the essential requirement of a good letter. Through out your letter, keep your sentences, reader –
centered’ by keeping in your mind, your reader, his needs and his interests. The ‘you – approach’ may be
best explained through illustrations given in Table 21.1.
Table 21.1 Reader’s Point of View
Writer’s Point of View Reader’s Point of View

S. No.
(We approach) (You approach)
1. I am happy to inform ….. You will be happy to know….
2. We will be pleased to announce… You will be glad to hear …..
(Contd)
(Contd)
3. We wish to point out… You will be interested to know….

4. We are enclosing our check… You will find your check enclosed…
5. When we receive … When you send…
6. We are pleased to say that this course will You will be glad to know that this course
help you improve your speaking skill will help you improve your speaking
skill
Considering the reader’s point of view implies no forfeit of the writer’s own interests but simply recogni-
tion of the fact that a business transaction is a two-way affair. Accordingly, it is to be viewed from the other
person’s standpoint as well as his own. Finally, the ability to say what has to be said in an effective, finished
and graceful way is a cardinal part of the art of business letter writing.
Conversational Tone You should write your business letters using a natural style. Select words from
common vocabulary. You should write in words that have the effect of a good conversation. Earlier writers
of business letters used the language specifically which was highly formal and unnatural style. It is known
as the ‘language of business’. It was a highly stereotyped and unnatural style. These stereotyped and trite
expressions were roundabout and old fashioned phrases that added nothing to the sense of your message.
They may have been used in business letters several decades ago, but they have no place in today’s modern
business language. Such trite, stereotyped and rubber stamp expressions failed to impress readers simply
because there is no originality in the writing. It is difficult to grasp the meaning of these expressions. These
expressions are used automatically in certain types of situations. They are expressions we use without thought.
You need to write the language of conversation. The worn out words and expressions are not part of your
everyday vocabulary. So if you rely on your conversational vocabulary you will automatically write in a
style that will make a favourable impression on your reader. For example, “we are sorry to tell you” sounds
more natural than “we regret to inform you”; “we are sending separately” is better than “we are sending
under separate covers”; “as soon as possible” is certainly preferable to “at your earliest convenience”; “we
have received…” is effective rather than “we are in receipt of …”
The difference between stilted and conversational writing style is perhaps best explained with the fol-
lowing illustrations. As you read the following examples you may notice marked differences.
Table 21.2 Conversation Style
S.No. Stilted Expression Conversational Style

1. It is advisable… I suggest….
2. I hope this meets with your approval I hope you approve…
3. Kindly advice at an early date … Please let me know soon…
4. The undersigned wishes to advise that the aforementioned I have the report…
report is at hand
5. Please be advised that you should sign the form before You should sign the form before
fifteenth of every month fifteenth of every month
Thus, an effective business letter will not use more words than are necessary to convey a clear and accurate
message.
Avoid Trite Expressions Trite and stereotyped expressions are roundabout and old-fashioned phrases that
added nothing to the sense of the message. They may have been used in business letters several decades ago,
but they have no place in today’s modern business language. Such trite and stereotyped expressions fail to
impress readers simply because there is no originality in the writing. It is difficult to grasp their meaning.
Thus, an effective business letter writer will not use more words than are necessary to convey a clear
and accurate message. Some trite and stereotyped expressions with their suggested substitutes are given in
Table 21.3.
Table 21.3 Trite Expressions
Instead of Say
I have pleasure in informing you I am pleased to tell you
you will be happy to know
The writer wishes to acknowledge. . .
We are in receipt of . . . Thank you for your letter
We beg to acknowledge receipt of. . .
We beg to thank you for your letter of . . .
Assuring you of our prompt attention
Awaiting the favour of your early reply
Assuring you of our best attention of all times Omit all this
Assuring you of our interest in the matter
As in the above This part/policy/service
Complying with your request I have done what you asked
Attached find
Attached please find Attached
Attached hereto
Attached herewith
Beg to acknowledge
Beg to advise
Beg to announce Omit the word “beg”
Beg to assure
Beg to call to your attention
Contents carefully noted While giving a reply to a letter he has to say that
he has read it
Contents duly noted
Contents noted
Enclosed please find
Enclosed find Enclosed
Enclosed you will find
Favour us with an answer
(Contd)
(Contd)
Favour us with an order We shall appreciate a reply from
Favour us with your reply you
Furnish us with Send us
Herewith enclosed I have enclosed or
Herewith please find enclosed Enclosed
Herewith Omit
I remain (preceding the complimentary close) Omit
In regard to Avoid
In relation to Rewrite the sentence so that the
most important part of the
sentence comes first.
Instant (This expression is used to indicate the present Give the specific month when you are referring
month) to it.
Aforesaid
Furthersome Omit
Whereas
Undermentioned
We are in receipt of We received
Valued favours Omit
Esteemed enquiries
This is to thank you . . . Thank you
Wish to acknowledge acknowledge
Wish to thank Thank
Your favour of Aug ‘96 Your letter of August ‘96
Please be good enough to advise us Please tell us
Your esteemed favour Your letter
Avoid Long Phrases Another common failure in writing business letters naturally and effectively is the
use of phrases where a single word would do. Phrases particularly ending with prepositions are often lengthy.
These can be replaced by single words. The following are examples of unnecessary use of such phrases.
(i) We have increased price in order to reduce our losses.
Revised: We have increased price to reduce our losses.
(ii) The furniture is needed in connection with the new office.
Revised: The furniture is needed for the new office.
(iii) I have received your letter on the subject of the new machinery.
Revised: I have received your letter concerning the new machinery.
Avoid Adjectives and Adverbs Adjectives and Adverbs are words of opinion. For most purposes, business
correspondence should sound factual and objective, not opinionated and subjective. Do not use adjectives
and adverbs unless they increase the reader’s understanding. Sometimes, we use strong adjectives – such as
‘awfully sorry’, ‘terribly inconvenient’, and ‘tremendous effect’ etc. – to attract attention. Such expres-
sions have no place in business letters. Try to avoid such type of expressions. In business correspondence,
clarity of expression is more important than the use of strong adjectives. Choose the words which express
just what you mean. Here is an example:
The cold wave caused immeasurable damage to the crops this year.
Revised: The cold wave caused severe damage this year.
Other strong words may have similar effects.
Exhibit 21.15 Strong Words
extraordinary
stupendous
delicious
sensational
terrific
revolutionary
colossal
perfection
Such words cause problems. Superlative words indicate exaggerated comments. We all use them, and they
rarely are reasonable. Exaggerations, of course, are overstatements of facts. Words such as greatest, most
amazing, finest, healthiest and strongest are seldom appropriate and often disbelieved.
Avoid Clichés The use of a cliché indicates the unnatural way of presenting ideas. These must be avoided
in business correspondence. Cliché is a French word used in English to denote a phrase that has become
stereotyped or an expression which has worn out through excessive use. A few clichés which find their way
into business correspondence are given in Exhibit 21.16.
Exhibit 21.16 Cliches
On the contrary Face facts

On the above Unparalleled success
Acid test conspicuous by absence
Inclined to think By and large
In the near future Intents and purposes
For your kind information Last but not the least
In view of the fact
Needless to say
However, if you think the use of a cliché is the best way of expressing your thought, then there is no objec-
tion to it. It should, otherwise, always be avoided.
Be Courteous
Courtesy is consideration for others. Courteous writing involves a respect for the other person’s feelings. If
you develop a courteous relationship with your readers, you will have the ideal atmosphere for success in most
letter situations. Courteous writing helps to eliminate friction, establishes a good relation, creates goodwill
and produces a favourable response. It can be acquired through practice, training and experience.
Some terms are customarily associated with courtesy. An effective writer makes use of these terms to
make his language courteous. Some examples are given in Exhibit 21.17.
Exhibit 21.17 Courteous Expressions
Thank you for your letter of…

We appreciate your writing to us so promptly
We are glad to note that…
Please let us know when the goods arrive…
We are sorry for the inconvenience
Kindly accept our apology
Many thanks for your order of…
We are sorry that you did not receive…
You will be pleased to know that…
We will appreciate if you…
Some of the following phrases either curt or rude, avoid using such phrases.
Exhibit 21.18 Curt and Rude Expressions
Your complaint that

Your claim that
We are compelled to refuse
We are forced to refuse
We are of the firm view
Your statement that
You are wrong in saying
I cannot do
Your persistent request
It is not possible to accept your proposal.
You are absolutely wrong in asserting….
Avoid Curtness Every business letter is situation-specific. Therefore, a careful analysis of the situation is
required to write a courteous letter. While analysing the situation you initiate, visualise clearly the reader’s
interest need and the action you wish him to take. You should then decide what language and tone is to be
used while writing a business letter. Write briefly with a pleasing tone but avoid curtness. Curtness means
rude behaviour which spoils goodwill. It creates an impression that the writer is impatient and lacks consid-
eration for the reader. Suppose you receive a letter where the language is curt, keep yourself balanced and
pleasant. Do not show your anger. Instead you write a very courteous letter, after all, your aim is to achieve
your specific goal and not to hurt others. In this context, it is worth remembering Sir Ernest Grower’s advice
about handling official correspondence.
“If he (the person to whom you are giving reply) is rude, be specifically courteous. If he is muddle-
headed, be specially lucid. If he is pig-headed be patient. If he is helpful, be appreciative. If he convicts
you of a mistake, acknowledge it freely and even with gratitude.”
Hence much of unpleasantness and curtness generated can be eliminated with this approach. To get more
clarification, look at the phrases given in Exhibit 21.19.
Exhibit 21.19 Suggested Courteous Expressions
Your claim – Your letter stated

Surely you must realise – We are sure you realise
We must absolutely refuse – We are sorry we can’t
We are forced to decline your offer – We appreciate your offer given though we
cannot accept it
Avoid a Demanding Tone In business correspondence a demanding tone does not give any result. So,
it should be avoided in your letters. Instead of writing “please stop doing this work” if you write “will you
please stop doing this work” or “I would appreciate if you stop doing this work”, it will be courteous. Here
is an example:
Since we have received no response from you, we must insist that you pay your bill at once.
Revised: We would appreciate you if you could pay your bill at once.
Avoid a Bragging Tone Send your cheque in today’s mail since your payment is 20 days due.
Revised: Since your payment is 20 days due, please mail us your cheque today.
Avoid an Angry Tone An angry tone destroys goodwill. Most statements made in anger in business letter
do not achieve their goals. Anger may be expressed in many ways – sarcasm, insults or exclamations. Even
if you receive an angry and a rude letter, specifically give a courteous reply. For a confused letter, give a
lucid reply. Here is an example of an angry tone:
(i) You should never use that kind of paper in the copy machine.
Revised: That type of paper does not work very well in the copy machine.
(ii) If you had read section VI of your medical insurance policy that you are not covered on accidents that
occur on water.
The effective and tactful writer revises it and writes it in a positive and impersonal way.
Revised: As a review of section VI of your medical insurance policy indicates that you are covered only
on accidents that occur on the ground.
Here are some expressions of anger. It is better to avoid them in your writings.
Exhibit 21.20 Expressions of Anger
We have no intention of permitting this condition to continue.

We will not accept your order.
We will not tolerate this condition.
I cannot understand your negligence.
Your careless attitude has caused us a loss in sales.
Be Specific
Business writing is marked by specific words. Words that form specific, direct and clear meaning in your
reader’s mind are called concrete words. These words catch the reader’s attention quickly and induce the
right action, whereas abstract words give a general and a vague meaning. It expresses a concept, quality
or characteristic instead of a precise and specific meaning. Abstractions are usually broad and encompass
a category of ideas. Words like civilisation, freedom, culture, honour, love, democracy, traditions etc. are
abstractions. These words carry the emotional overtones in their meaning. They evoke different meanings
in different situations among different classes of people. The interpretation of abstract words and phrases
depends on your reader’s purpose and their experience and frame of reference. Use of specific words helps
in creating a proper image of what you are saying. With it you can reach your goal easily. For example,
if you say: “This product is inexpensive”, it would be difficult to understand what you mean by the words
‘product’ and ‘inexpensive’. Instead if you say:
The price of automatic washing machine is Rs.18,000/- and its guarantee period is one year.
Its meaning is specific and it conveys the message quickly. Here are a few more examples:
(i) Abstract: I am contemplating making a purchase of a new flat.
Concrete: I am thinking of buying a new flat.
(ii) Abstract: You will get a substantial discount if you pay promptly.
Concrete: You will get a discount of 20% if you pay by 26 July, 2006.
Be Concise
Providing maximum information while using minimum words should be your aim in business communication.
If you clearly and concisely write what you wish to say, you will be able to draw the attention of the reader
and you can focus his attention on the message. Avoid unnecessary details and roundabout expressions. Write
short and simple sentences. To make writing concise and effective avoid redundancy and gobbledygook.
Researches show that there is a lot of redundancy or deadwood and gobbledygook.
Avoid Redundancy To convey the message clearly and directly the effective writer will write to the
point and will use no more words than necessary. To illustrate this principle of writing, look at the following
examples and their suggested revisions:
Exhibit 21.21 Suggested Expressions for Redundancy
S.No. Instead of Say

1. We should esteem it a favour if you would kindly send Will you please send…?
2. Please do send the reply at your earliest convenience Please reply as soon as possible
3. I would like to take this opportunity to say thank you for Thank you for promptly responding to
responding to our request in the way you did our request
Avoid Gobbledygook Gobbledygook in writing is similar to redundancy but is somewhat different. It

refers to the kind of grandiose writing; sometimes people resort to gobbledygook when they cannot think
of anything pertinent to say. To avoid gobbledygook in your writing, think before what you want to say,
and write it using simple language. To convey the message directly to your readers delete all unnecessary
words which may tend to confuse your readers.
Conciseness requires you to delete redundancy and gobbledygook. Here are some examples:
1. At present time now the consensus of opinion is that the company’s turnover will increase during the
month of August.
In this sentence, we find words and expressions which are useless and could be deleted. The expres-
sion ‘At present time now’ can be replaced by ‘At present’. Since the word ‘consensus’ includes the
concept of ‘opinion’, so it is unnecessary to use the word ‘opinion’. The expression ‘the month of’ is
not needed since the month indicated. Hence the sentence can be revised as follows:
Revised: At present the consensus is that the company’s turnover will increase during August.
2. We would like to express our regret at being unable to fulfill your requirement.
Revised: We are sorry we cannot meet your requirement.
Research studies in business correspondence show that there is a lot of verbosity in it. Here is a col-
lection of such expressions with their substitutes.
Table 21.4 Concise Expressions in Place of Verbosity
Verbose Concise Expression

As regards About
As advised in our communication As stated in our letter
As per your instructions As you instructed
At all times Always
Attached here with Attached
At the time of writing At present
Attached please find Attached is
At your earliest convenience As soon as you can
Along the lines of Like
Be in a position to Can
By reason of the fact that Because
Due to the fact that Because
Enclosed please find
Enclosed you will find Enclosed
Enclosed here will please find
For the month of July For July
For the purpose of For
Come to a decision Decide
For the reason that Since/because
In order that So
In order to To
In accordance with your request As you requested
Inasmuch as Since, because
In the event that If
In the majority of instances Usually,
Make necessary adjustments Adjust
Not withstanding the fact that Although
Take into consideration Consider
With the exception of Except
With the result that So
Clarity in thinking, simple expression and direct communication are the most important virtues of
conciseness.
Be Precise
Precision and clarity are often interdependent. Clarity in writing is the quality of being unambiguous and
easily understood by the reader. Precise expression and clear thinking are the two most important virtues of
effective writing. Precision in expression is the result of clear thinking. Precise and clear writing requires
suitable selection of words. The arrangement of words into sentences, sentences into paragraphs and para-
graphs into the whole should be in a logical way. The message will be clear if you present the ideas and
facts in a logical and orderly fashion. This type of writing will then be effective.
The secret of clear expression is clear thinking. Here we can recall Aristotle’s words. He once said that
for ‘writing well in any tongue one should speak as the common people do and think as the wise
men do’. This piece of advice is still applicable. Clarity is achieved when the writer has communicated
his meaning to the reader. Precision is attained when the writer has expressed clearly whatever he wants
to be communicated. Thus the ability to communicate clearly and precisely is a skill. To acquire this skill,
the writer has to use simple, short and familiar words and a simple language. As an effective writer, your
aim should be to express the idea clearly and effectively rather than to display your vocabulary. There is no
argument over the point that clear writing comes from consistent practice and experience. Before putting it
on a paper, think about the message. It then crystallises and is shorn of all ambiguities. Lack of clarity in
thinking often creates amusing sentences. Here is an example taken from the letter written to a customer:
Example:
We do not like dissatisfied customer.
This sentence is not only negative but also confusing. Surely, the writer did not mean that he does not
like people who complain. What he meant was:
Revised: We do not want customers to be dissatisfied.
Choose short, simple and common words. Avoid pompous jargon and high sounding words. Every word
you use should help you in conveying the meaning that you have in mind. If two words convey more or less
the same meaning, select the one which is more common. The word ‘see’ is more common than ‘visualise’,
‘do’ is more common than ‘perform’, ‘buy’ is more common than purchase and ‘Received your letter’ is
more precise than ‘Received your communication’.
Arrange your words logically. Put words or phrases carrying the desired emphasis in the beginning with-
out, of course, violating the rules of sentence construction.
Generally, a business letter contains only one main idea or thought. However, if your letter deals with a
number of points, express each of them in small and distinct paragraphs.
Table 21.5 Use of Simple Words
Instead of Say
Conversed with Spoke to
Communication Letter
Purchase Buy
Terminate End
Utilise Use
Advert Refer
State, inform, acquired Say/tell
Regarding, respecting, concerning About
(Contd)
(Contd)
Obtain Got
Substantiation Proof
Require Need
Illustrates Shows
Appointed Named
Employ Use
Assist Aid/help
Allege Claim
Cognisant Know or aware
Encounter Meet
Peruse Read
Despatch Send
Inform Tell
Consider Think
Procure Get
Advent Coming or arrival
Aggregate Total
Approximately About
Endeavour Try
Eventual Happen
Forward Send
Initiate Begin
Inquire Ask
Intermingle Mingle
Modification Change
Necessitate Require, need
Cogitate Think
Compensate Pay
Conjecture Guess
Contemplate Consider
Corroborate Confirm
Demonstrate Show/prove
Discrepancy Difference
Disclosure Payout
Dwell Live
Originate Start, begin
Ratify Approve, confirm
Remunerate Pay
Scrutinise Examine
Transpire Happen
(Contd)
(Contd)
Ultimate Final
Utilise Use
Reimburse Repay
Subsequent Next
Subsequent to After
Transmit Send
Transpire Happen/occur
Clarity also depends on the words you use and the way you use them. First, you must have a clear idea of
what you want to say. Then you must decide how you are going to say it. In this context, Mathew Arnold
rightly advised: “Have something to say and say it as clearly as you can. That is the only secret of style.”
When you write a letter you certainly have something to say and you wish to say it clearly. In general, use
the simple everyday expressions and those the reader will surely understand.
Be Positive
One of the qualities of any effective letter is to establish goodwill. It shows a person’s politeness and favor-
able attitude towards another person. It is an attitude of mutual respect. In a business correspondence, how
you say is more important than what you say. You should put all your efforts to organise your message in
as pleasant and as cheerful language as possible. One of the ways of doing this is the use of words which
create a positive image in the mind of the reader. Remember that even if you have to convey a negative idea,
you can say it in a positive way with a positive tone. Tone in writing refers to the way you express yourself.
What you decide to say and how you say it determines your tone. In business correspondence, the tone of
your writing expresses not only your personality but also of your company. Use friendly, conversational,
objective and pleasant tone which leads to positive attitude and achieves the purpose of correspondence.
Writing positively has two aspects basically. They are: (i) Organisation of your message in as positive
way as possible and (ii) Selection of words that have a pleasant and optimistic view.
Mark how a negative statement is written in a positive way in Table 21.6.
Table 21.6 Positive Approach
S. No Instead of… Say

1. You have paid no attention to our complaints. We appreciate if you could look into our complaints.
2. You failed to send us your monthly report, so we Please send us your monthly report Mr. Ravi, so we
cannot… can…
3. You will never find me uncooperative on the job. You always will find me cooperative on the job.
4. These dinner sets are not made of inferior quality. These dinner sets are made of porcelain.
5. We have not heard from you despite repeated remind- We are eagerly waiting to hear from you.
ers.
6. It is impossible to repair your vacuum cleaner today. Your vacuum cleaner will be ready by tomorrow.
7. We regret to inform you that we must deny your For the time being we can serve you only on cash
request for credit. basis.
8. We cannot deliver the goods until Saturday. We can deliver the goods on Saturday.
Positive attitude establishes goodwill and you can reach your goal. Business correspondents should analyse
the semantic aspects of words and then select words or phrases to suit the situation. Selecting words which
bring forth positive images can be rather tedious. The rewards are, however, great in terms of influencing
your readers the way you wish. Studies in business correspondence have indicated that some words naturally
provide a negative reaction in the mind of the ‘reader’. Here, let us analyse some words. The word ‘hope’,
for example, suggests ‘doubt’ and does not convey a positive attitude. The word ‘if’ also implies ‘doubt’.
Words such as regret, neglect, carelessness, disappointment, etc. are typical examples for negative tone
whereas care, enthusiasm, simplicity, cheer, etc. are examples for positive words.
Here are some statements which are likely to make your letter more pleasant and positive.
Exhibit 21.22 Positive Expressions
You are very kind to inform us…

We are most grateful…
We are glad to know that…
We appreciate your attempt at expressing the problem…
We are very happy to know that…
We surely appreciate your statement but…
It would be a pleasure to…
Please look into our complaint…
Please let us know…
We would be pleased to help you…
We suggest that…
We appreciate hearing from you…
Try to avoid negative expressions as given in Exhibit 21.23.
Exhibit 21.23 Negative Expressions
We cannot do…
We have not heard from you…
You failed to tell us…
You have not paid attention to our complaint…
We cannot help you unless…
We have not heard from you…
Summary
Appearance of the letter creates an impression. It reflects the image of your organisation. Each element of the structure of
a letter performs a specific function. Many years of practice, convenience and easiness in approach determine the layout
and style of presentation of the letter. Since they serve a permanent record and are a valuable repository of information,
we have to use a suitable and impressive layout.
Above all, remember that writing an effective business letter is an acquired skill. It can be acquired through consistent
self-effort. Intensive practice will give you that natural ease of expression. A business letter is characterised by courtesy,
clarity, conciseness and preciseness. ‘You-attitude’ in business correspondence would ensure quick transmission of the
message and evoke the desired response. Negative attitude, angry and a bragging tone and curtness exude rudeness and
so should be meticulously avoided.
Review Questions
1. What are the main purposes for which business letters are written?
2. What are the compulsory elements in the structure of a business letter? Discuss each one of them.
3. What are the optional elements in the structure of a business letter? Discuss each one of them.
4. How do business letters differ from personal letters?
5. What do you understand by ‘Mixed Punctuation’? How does it differ from ‘Open punctuation’ and ‘Closed punc-
tuation’?
6. What are the different styles of presentation? Which one would you recommend for use in business letters? Give
reasons.
7. Define a Business Letter. Describe the characteristic features of a business letter.
8. Why do we write a Business Letter?
9. A basic feature of business correspondence is “Be Natural in Expression”. Explain.
10. Explain what is meant by “Reader’s Point of View.”
11. Why do you prefer a conversational tone in business letters?
12. What is meant by a ‘trite expression’?
(a) Do you prefer to use them?
(b) If ‘yes’, Why? Give reasons.
(c) If ‘No’, Why? Give reasons.
13. How do you say ‘No’ positively and tactfully? Give your reasons.
14. “Clarity in Expression” is essential in business letters. Why? Give reasons.
Exercises
1. Prepare a write-up on ‘Structure and Layout’ of a business letter to be included in the office manual of a
professional organisation.
2. Make the following sentences more concise and direct.
(i) It will be compulsory for you to fill in and complete the enclosed form and return it to us before your request
can be considered.
(ii) Your letter of August 26th has been received and the contents duly noted. We wish to say that we are refer-
ring your question to our sales department.
(iii) I have your letter of August 4th at hand. I am sending the samples you requested.
(iv) I was delighted on receipt of your letter this morning offering me the post of a programmer in your office at
Kukatpally, Hyderabad. I had been expecting this offer ever since I was interviewed four weeks ago. I really
appreciate this thoughtful gesture on your part and with gratitude I accept to work for your company…
(v) In the event that you would like from us to return your cheque in the amount of Rs.3,000, please say so by
returning the enclosed self-addressed and stamped envelope.
3. The following sentences are taken from letters. They are negative in approach. Change them into positive
approach.
(i) We are sorry to hear of the delay in the delivery of your purchase order 4509.
(ii) Please accept our apologies for sending you goods which were unsatisfactory.
(iii) We regret to inform you that your application for the post of Finance Manager has been rejected.
(iv) We regret to inform you that we are not able to complete the printing of all the pages of your bulletin. In
fact, there has been a labour problem and this has caused the delay. The result is that we would not be able to
supply the bulletin on 23 July, 2006 as we had promised. It would take at least fifteen days more to complete
the job. We are sorry for the inconvenience caused.
4. In the following expressions change the “We” approach to the “you” approach:
(i) We are sending the brochure…
(ii) We will be pleased to announce…
(iii) We wish to inform you…
(iv) When we receive order…
5. Write the conversational language in place of each of the following habit phrases:
(i) In the event that: ________________________
(ii) In the near future: ________________________
(iii) In view of the above: ________________________
(iv) The reason is due to: ________________________
(v) We are of the opinion that: ________________________
6. “Consensus of opinion” and “Identically the same” is examples of what?
7. In the following list of words, some are positive and some are negative. Classify them under two categories
namely ‘Positive words’ and ‘Negative words’.
hope neglect vindictiveness

unfair carelessness enthusiasm
disgust care simplicity
appreciation happy indifference
irritation fairness
problem
8. Change the following sentences so that they are more precise and clear:
(i) Thank you for your letter.
(ii) Please endeavor to terminate the investigation as expeditiously as possible.
(iii) Evaluate the condition of the illumination facilities.
(iv) It is absolutely essential that all delinquent payments be forwarded within 20 days to avoid substantial penalty
charges.
(v) From the following list of words, identify concrete and abstract words and arrange them under two categories
such as given in the example.
Example:
Concrete Word Abstract Word
civilisation progress company’s publication

condition book
pen beauty
product truck
road transport
(vi) For the following words suggest a precise and a simple word:
dwell originate utilise remunerate

demonstrate ultimate ratify subsequent
transmit scrutinise originate
subsequent transpire discrepancy
Chapter 22
Various Types of Letters

Write enquiry and quotation letters.
Order and acknowledgement of order letters.
Write complaint and adjustment letters.
Know the points to be covered in each of these letters.
Write effective beginnings and closings of these letters.
Know what is meant by circular letters.
Know what points have to be covered in circular letters.
Learn to use ‘you-approach’.
Develop the skill of drafting these letters.
INTRODUCTION
We have already discussed the structure and style of business correspondence in the previous chapter. Now,
we shall look at certain basic types of business letters. At the workplace you are required to write many
types of business letters. Thus, we will discuss only those which are more frequently used in business cor-
respondence such as enquiry letter, quotation letter, orders and acknowledgment of an order, complaint and
adjustment letters and circulars.
ENQUIRY LETTER
At the workplace the most frequent letter written by a business person is the letter of enquiry. It is a general
practice for organisations to invite quotations from several sellers before placing an order. The main purpose
of this letter is to find the best sources of supply of goods or the extension of services. Hence, enquiries for
information about goods or services are sent and received in the business field all the time. Thus, in busi-
ness correspondence, a letter of enquiry contains general information about goods, estimates, availability of
specific goods to obtain quotations and services. The enquiry letter must be simple, clear and specific.
IMPORTANT POINTS
Draft this letter carefully, so that you can get the information promptly and quickly. To achieve the purpose,
you must follow the points given here:
State the purpose of the letter in the beginning
State reasons and the need for enquiry
State the nature of enquiry
State clearly and precisely your requirement – general information, a catalogue, sample, price list,
quotation, etc.
Give an idea of quantity you intend to buy
Request them to give information about the terms of payment
Request them to mention discounts, concessions, guarantee period and other facilities offered by their
company
Ask them about installation charges if required
Ask them about if they provide any repair facilities
Find out what accessories, if any, would be supplied and how much would they cost
SOME USEFUL EXPRESSIONS

A few expressions of opening and closing of enquiry letters are given in this section. These expressions may
help you in drafting an enquiry letter. These expressions are as follows:
Opening Expressions
We have seen your advertisement in… We would like to know details about…
We would be thankful if you could kindly send us your recent catalogue…
We intend to buy the following items for our new branch in… and we should like to receive your
current catalogue.
We are interested in … and we should be glad if you would send us the recent catalogue.
We should be glad if you send us your recent catalogue and kindly inform us the terms and conditions
for the supply of …
We understand you are the manufactures of … so we would like to receive your recent catalogue.
Please send your catalogue and the price of the following items.
Kindly send your recent catalogue and we shall be happy if you quote your lowest price for the fol-
lowing items.
May we request you to let us have your catalogue and your price list for the following items which
we require in the next month?
Closing Expressions
We appreciate your early reply as we need these goods urgently.
We look forward to hearing from you soon. If your quotation is reasonable to us, we shall buy all our
requirements from you.
When sending your catalogue, please include delivery details as well.
After receiving the catalogue from you, we shall place an order.
An early reply would be appreciated.
Various Types of Letters 387
Please state whether you could supply the goods from stock as we need them urgently.
We appreciate if you supply goods promptly and quickly. We may also place regular orders for large
quantities.
Sample Enquiry Letter

Here is an example of enquiry letter.
Exhibit 22.1 Enquiry Letter
Dear Sir/Madam
We read your advertisement for overhead projector in the current issue of Business India.
We would be glad to receive a copy of your current catalogue of overhead projector. We
appreciate it if you include price list also.
We need a model suitable for classroom presentations.
We will be thankful if you send us immediately.
Yours sincerely
xxx
QUOTATION LETTER
A quotation letter is a ‘reply’ to an enquiry letter. It provides an opportunity for promoting sales. It is a
promise to supply goods on the terms stated. Since it is an answer to an enquiry it is necessary to give
prompt attention to it. It should be carefully drafted and should fully take note of each item in the enquiry.
Draft it with proper care and attention so that you can get the order surely and quickly.
Enquiries mean potential business so you must acknowledge it promptly and carefully. Express your ap-
preciation if the enquiry is from an established customer. Express your happiness upon receiving an enquiry
letter from a prospective customer. You should also express hope of a friendly business relationship and
extend your cooperation so that you can gain goodwill.
IMPORTANT POINTS
An intensive study of business correspondence reveals that a good quotation should include certain important
points. These points are:
Write an expression of thanks for the enquiry
Give details of price, discounts and concessions
Express clearly the terms of payment
Give details of packing, carriage and insurance
Mention the possible date of delivery
Write the mode of dispatch or transport
Mention the place of delivery
Mention charges on account of sales tax, octroi, freight and insurance
Write the details regarding the stock of goods available with you
Give information regarding the period for which the quotation is valid
Write an expression of hope that the quotation will be accepted
All these points may help you draft a reply to an enquiry promptly, concisely and courteously. Begin the
reply to an enquiry letter with a friendly statement and acknowledgement. Then provide complete and exact
information that was requested. If the required information cannot be provided, indicate this fact. It should
be accompanied by an expression of regret and an explanation of the reasons why the complete information
cannot be given. End your reply with a polite and courteous tone.

The following expressions of opening and closing statements may be useful for drafting an effective quota-
tion letter.
Opening Expressions
We were pleased to know from your enquiry of … for …
We were pleased to receive your enquiry of …
We were glad to know from your letter of … that you are interested in our ….
Many thanks for your letter of …. As requested, we enclose …
I have pleasure in enclosing the catalogue of … which you requested in your letter on the 22nd of
September.
We thank you for your enquiry of …
We look forward to hearing from you soon.
With reference to your enquiry of … we shall be glad to supply … at the price of …
Closing Expressions
We hope you will find these terms satisfactory and we look forward to your order.
We believe you will find our quotation satisfactory and we look forward to receiving your order.
We shall be pleased to send you any further information you may need.
Whatever orders you place with us will have our prompt and careful attention.
We believe the samples reached safely and look forward to receiving your order.
We have quoted prices which are exceptionally low and likely to rise for different items. We would
advise you to place your order without delay.
Our stocks of these goods are limited; we suggest you place an order immediately.
Sample Quotation Letter

Here is an example of quotation as a reply for an enquiry letter.
Exhibit 22.2 Quotation Letter
Dear Ravi
It is my pleasure to reply your enquiry. Here I am enclosing the catalogue of overhead projector
which you requested in your letter of August. This catalogue includes details of a number of OHP’s
by various manufacturers.
We have these machines in stock. If you would like to have demonstrations on any of these models
in the catalogue, we would be glad to arrange our representative for this purpose. We instruct our
representative to call you whenever convenient.
We look forward to your order.
Yours sincerely
xxx
Here we give an example of enquiry letter and a quotation letter in response to the enquiry letter in Ex-
hibits 22.3 and 22.4.
Enquiry Letter
Sample 2
Exhibit 22.3 Enquiry Letter
Dear Sir
We are planning to set up a branch office at Madhapur, Hyderabad. We want to furnish it
with good quality modern furniture.
We understand that your organisation supplies the best quality modern office furniture.
We believe that the price which you quote is also very reasonable.
Hence we would like to know from you whether the following items are readily available
with you. If you do, kindly provide details in terms of price, the number of items available
right now and the terms and conditions of payment.
The details are as follows:
S. No. Items Quantity Specifications

1. Wooden table 2 60” × 40” × 30”
2. Double pedestal steel grey-coloured 30 50” × 30” × 20”
desks
3. Computer table with revolving chair with 4 standard size
cushioned seat
4. Steel almirahs 2 standard size
5. File racks 2 big one
6. Office table with revolving chair with 1 standard size
cushioned seat and arms.
Please give us the information as early as possible. On hearing from you we shall place
an order.
Since we want to open our branch by next month, we would be thankful if you send us
the quotation early.
Yours faithfully
xxx
Quotation Letter
Exhibit 22.4 Quotation Letter
Dear Sir
We thank you very much for your letter No. _____, dated _____.
All your required items are readily available in our stock. We are glad to supply all your
required items at a short notice. Kindly note the price of each item given below:
S. No. Items Quantity Specifications Price

1. Wooden table 2 60” ´ 40” x 30” Rs.___
2. Double pedestal steel grey-coloured 30 50” x 30” x 20” Rs.___
desks
3. Computer table with revolving chair 4 standard size Rs.___
with cushioned seat
4. Steel almirahs 2 standard size Rs.___
5. File racks 2 big size Rs.___
6. Office table with revolving chair with 1 standard size
cushioned seat and arms.
Terms and Conditions
Discount @ 15% on an order of Rs.20,000 and above.
Packaging and transport free.
Dispatch of goods within 10 days of the receipt of order.
We are enclosing a brochure which gives details of all the items which we generally sup-
ply. If you have an interest in any other item, please let us know. We can then supply your
requirements immediately.
We hope we receive your order soon and we will be glad to help you furnish your new
branch office without delay.
We would be very grateful if you kindly send your order. We enclose a form for placing an
order. You just have to fill in the quantity required.
Yours sincerely
xxx
ORDERS AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENT OF AN ORDER

In business correspondence, a letter of enquiry is written to seek general information about goods or services.
A quotation letter is written in response to an enquiry; this letter provides an opportunity for the seller to
obtain an order from the prospective buyer. Generally, the buyer makes the enquiries and receives quotations
from the seller and places an order. The seller writes to acknowledge the order.
ORDERS
A business letter may place orders to buy goods or it may be an acceptance of offers to sell goods. The
order letter is a kind of a contract between the buyer and the seller and has a legal significance. Therefore
the writer must draft it effectively and carefully.
IMPORTANT POINTS
The order letter should include certain basic and specific information in order to avoid confusion between
the buyer and the seller. To ensure an efficient and expeditious handling of the purchase, the order letter
should include the following information:
Must thank the supplier for his quotation
Make a clear and specific offer of purchase as it avoids confusion
Give a detailed, accurate and complete description of the items you wish to buy
Provide the following specifications clearly:
— The description of goods
— Name of the item
— Its trade name
— Quality
— Materials
— Size
— Colour
Design and style:
— Order number
— Price with reference to the catalogue number
— Discounts
— Gifts
— Catalogue numbers
Make sure these descriptions do not vary from those given in the original letter inviting the quota-
tions
Specify the exact quantity desired for each item
State the price per unit or item or the estimated total price
Indicate clearly the item, method and terms of payment – Cash, cheque, draft or credit card etc. agreed
in preliminary negotiations
Indicate delivery requirements – address, date, mode of transport, whether the order is carriage forward
or carriage backward etc.
Give special instructions about the insurance of goods, if needed
Specifically ask after-sales services if needed
Provide information on acceptable substitutes
Give special instructions for packaging.
You may make changes or add to the elements listed above as circumstances dictate.

Some expressions of openings and closings are given here. You may use them for placing an order.
Opening Expressions
Please accept our order for the following items…
I wish to place an order for…
We thank you for your quotation of …
We appreciate you for your quotation of …
We have received your quotation of … and enclosed is our order form.
After my discussion with your representative I would like to place an order for… .
Closing Expressions
Quick and prompt delivery would be appreciated as we need the goods urgently.
Please acknowledge the receipt of this order and we will be glad if you confirm our order…
We appreciate if you could dispatch the goods quickly and promptly.
Exhibit 22.5 Sample Order Letter
Dear _____________
We thank you for your quotation of 4th of August and are sending our order number
215 for 8 items. All these items are urgently required by our customers. I would
appreciate if you understand my problem and dispatch the goods promptly.
We look forward to receive your consignment.
Yours sincerely
xxxx
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT OF AN ORDER
An acknowledgement letter confirms that the order has been received by the seller and it gives information
to the buyer about the details of dispatch and the description of goods and other terms and services. An
acknowledgement letter helps the buyer to check the goods against his order. If there is any discrepancy, he
can immediately detect it. Acknowledgement letters, therefore, are not only desirable but also necessary. An
invoice which states the amount payable by the buyer and the description of the goods in the consignment
should be attached to this letter.
IMPORTANT POINTS
An effective acknowledgement letter may contain the following elements:
Inform the buyers that his order has been received
Appreciate the buyer for placing an order
Provide specifications regarding the dispatch of goods
Inform the date on which the consignment has been/is going to be dispatched
Inform the buyer the mode of dispatch or transport
Give reasons if the goods ordered cannot be supplied
State the quality of items, special applications and the worth of the purchased items to confirm the
order
Seek classification if any item is not clearly described or is erroneously described
Contain the statements explaining delays or necessary revisions or substitutions for any of the ordered
items
Finally, write an expression of appreciation for the order.

To draft an effective letter for acknowledging the order the following expressions of openings and closings
of the letter may be useful:
Opening Expressions
Thank you for your order of …
Received your order and we would like to welcome you as one of our customers.
We are glad for your order.
We thank you for your order of … and we will dispatch the goods by…
We were pleased to receive your order of 26th of August for …
We appreciate you for your order number and we will dispatch the goods by …
We are sorry to inform you that the goods ordered on … cannot be supplied.
We like to inform you that the goods ordered on … is delayed.
Closing Expressions
We are glad to inform you that these goods have been dispatched today.
We hope the goods reach you safely and you will be happy of our prompt supply.
We hope you will find the goods satisfactory and that you will be pleased with them.
We hope you will find the prices of goods are reasonable and we look forward to receiving further
orders.
We are sorry we are not able to meet your present orders immediately but…
We are sorry for this unavoidable delay and hope you will understand our problem.
We apologise for this delay and hope it will not cause a serious problem.
We are extremely sorry for the delay and hope it will not cause any inconvenience.
Here are some examples for acknowledgement for an order which would guide you to draft effective
letters.
Exhibit 22.6 Sample for Acknowledgement of an Order
Dear _________
Order number ____________
We are pleased to inform you that ____ Overhead Projector which you ordered on 26th
of August is packed in five special waterproof cases and dispatched today by passenger
train and should reach you by _______ August.
We hope you will find the price of your goods reasonable. We are sure that you will
find the consignment supports and justifies our claim to sell the best overhead projector
of its kind.
We hope we may look forward to further orders from you.
Yours Sincerely
xxxxx
Exhibit 22.7 Sample for Acknowledgement of an Order
Dear _______
Order Number __________
We are pleased to confirm that the books which you ordered on _____ August is now
packed and ready for dispatch.
The consignment awaits collection at our warehouse and consists of four cases, each
weighing about 30 kg.
Arrangements for transport have already been made with Royal Transport Company
Ltd. by our forwarding agents. As soon as we receive their statement of charges, we
will arrange for transport documents to be sent to you through Punjab National Bank
against the overdraft for acceptance, as agreed. We are glad to take this opportunity to
serve you and look forward to further business.
Yours Sincerely
xxxxx
COMPLAINT AND ADJUSTMENT LETTERS

In our day-to-day life, however efficient an organisation may be, we come across many situations where
the customer is not satisfied with the product or service he has received. This dissatisfaction is due to many
reasons – the consignment of goods reaching a wrong destination or too late; sometimes less or more than
required quantities; and sometimes other quality of goods than the actual order. This may be the result of
poor communication between the seller and the customer. Occasionally goods reach the destination in a
damaged condition because of faulty packaging or improper handling in transit.
COMPLAINT LETTER
Letters written to sellers or suppliers to bring forth the problems faced by buyers are called claim or com-
plaint letters. Now-a-days organisations look at complaints as opportunities to learn or improve their quality.
They come to know what went wrong with their operations that caused customer dissatisfaction. Thus, your
purpose in writing a complaint letter is not to criticise someone but to sort out the problem. Your objective
is to secure the services or products you need and which are due to you. To achieve this purpose you should
be objective, forthright, precise and clear in preparing your claim letter. Some common situations for which
complaint letters are written are as follows:
Late delivery
Delivery of wrong goods
Delivery of unsatisfactory quality of goods
Delivery of damaged merchandise
Delivery of unsuitable substitute merchandise
Price not as agreed
Poor service
Generally, when a situation becomes inconvenient or you have to pay because of somebody else’s mistake,
your immediate and natural reaction is of dissatisfaction and anger. You should not, however, show your anger
in the complaint letter. If you do so you may not get a proper response. In many cases the inconvenience
is accidental. A second thought will guide you that those explosive reactions do not help you. Thus, write
a complaint letter objectively and clearly. Criticism, accusations and sarcasm put obstacles in the way and
make the adjustment difficult.
IMPORTANT POINTS
To write an effective complaint letter the following points may be useful:
Give a clear explanation of the situation of what has gone wrong
Act promptly
Give full information for quick identification of the defective product
Give information of the ineffective services or mistakes
Specifically refer to the order number, the exact date of purchase and arrival, the amount paid, colour,
size, and model number for easy rechecking
State the faults briefly, exactly and clearly
Make an effort to motivate the supplier to take the necessary action promptly
Avoid rudeness
Suggest desired results or action
Give a clear statement of what adjustments you would consider fair
Write a courteous conclusion that tempts the supplier to take an action.

Here are some useful expressions which are useful for writing complaint letters.
Opening Expressions Here are some useful expressions for opening of a complaint letter:
We expected to receive the ordered goods around … but unfortunately we have not received them
yet…
We would like to inform you that one of the cases of your consignment was badly damaged when
delivered on … We would appreciate it if you pay attention to this problem.
We feel bad that the goods we ordered on …. have not yet been delivered.
We felt badly, when we have received a number of complaints from several customers regarding the
… supplied by you on …
We would appreciate it if you pay attention before dispatching the goods. When we examined the
goods dispatched by you on… we found that …
Closing Expressions
We would like to know the reason for this delay.
We feel that there must be strong reasons for this unusual delay. Please let us know of these
reasons.
We came to know that you are prepared to make an allowance in these conditions.
We would appreciate if you pay attention to our complaint.
Exhibit 22.8 may help you write an effective complaint letter.
Exhibit 22.8 Complaint Letter
Dear Sir/Madam,
We have recently received several complaints from our customers about dictionaries which
are supplied to us. Some pages are missing and some pages are repeated. The details are
as follows:
Publication details of the Dictionary:
Title: Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary by A.S. Hornby.
Edition: 5th edition.
Pages missing: 990 to 1007.
Pages repeated: 1007 to 1015.
The order was placed on the basis of a complimentary copy given to us by your
representative. The defective dictionaries are from the batch of 100 supplied against our
order number 99 dated 26th of August. We have ourselves checked the page numbers. We
found the pages missing.
The complaints we have received relate only to dictionaries from the batch mentioned
above. Whatever goods supplied to us earlier have always been satisfactory.
We therefore request you to accept the return of the unsold 50 dictionaries and replace
them with flawless dictionaries.
Please let us know the arrangements you wish us to make for the return of these
dictionaries.
Yours sincerely
xxx
Here is another example of a complaint concerning goods. The writer of this letter points out the damage
which was discovered while checking the consignment.
Exhibit 22.9 Complaint Letter
Dear Sir/Madam,
Our order Number = K 747
We ordered 200 overhead projectors on 4th of August 2008. Today upon the arrival of
the consignment we checked its contents and found that 100 of them were damaged.
The package appeared to be in perfect condition. I accepted and signed for it without
question. It was while unpacking the parcel that the damage was discovered inside the
parcel in one of the cases. It seems that it was not packed properly or some heavy load
had been placed over it during transit.
There is a great demand for this overhead projector during this season in this town. It
appears we will have to disappoint some of our customers. I hope you can understand
the situation. Kindly send 100 overhead projectors immediately by quick transit service.
As regards the damaged overhead projectors we would want your advice. There are
two alternatives: either you allow us to sell them at a reduced price or permit us to return
them to you at your cost for replacement.
We hope to hear from you soon.
Yours sincerely,
xxx
ADJUSTMENT LETTER
Now-a-days successful business organisations do not consider a claim letter as a nuisance. On the other hand,
they welcome it because it gives them a feedback and provides them with an opportunity to re-examine
their working abilities. In this way goodwill may be preserved. It helps them bring about new changes which
makes the organisation function more efficiently. That is why a claim letter must be answered promptly.
Thus, an adjustment letter in simple terms can be defined as a reply to the complaint or the claim letter
to take the necessary action. In big business houses a separate department is also maintained for handling
customer’s grievances. These departments respond to the customers through adjustment letters. Every business
firm has its own specific business policy. The company can therefore respond to the customers within the
policy limits. It is, however, not possible to accept every claim; each is examined on its merits. An attempt
is made in every case to give maximum satisfaction to the customers.
When the claim is accepted and the adjustments offered are either partial or complete. This is an oppor-
tunity to build good business relationship with the customer. A brief explanation for the error occurred is
also included in the offer of adjustment. One should use effective phrases so that the customer is convinced.
Some examples of such phrases are:
We are pleased to return the amount…
We appreciate your attempt of informing us…
We are grateful to you because you gave us opportunity to correct our mistake.
Thank you for bringing this information to our notice.
We are glad to receive the information from you because we can correct our mistake.
When the complaint is rejected, write a convincing reply to the customer. You should convey the refusal
positively and courteously. The customer should be convinced that this claim is thoroughly and courteously
examined from the view-point of the decision. A brief explanation of facts because of which the organisation
is not able to grant the adjustment must be given. The phrases useful in writing such letters are:
We would feel the same way if …
You are quite right when you say …
We do not blame you for …

You should certainly receive …
If the complaint is unreasonable, point this out politely and courteously so that it does not offend the
customer. Thank the customer for informing you about the matter.
Investigate the complaint promptly. If unreasonable, be firm but polite and try not to offend the customer.
If you are at fault, express apologies and admit the mistake. Explain how the issue will be settled. Never
blame the staff. In either case the adjustment letter should have a pleasant impact on the customer.
The main objectives of an adjustment letter are:
To satisfy the customer
To safeguard the reputation of the organisation
To establish a pleasant relationship with the customer
Thus, in drafting an adjustment letter, great care and attention is needed. It means that you should be
able:
To restore the customer’s confidence in your organisation
To convince him that the mistake or defect was a rare instance
To influence him to accommodate your point of view
To make him feel certain that your regret was genuine
It is only then that you can get the customer back for your organisation. A few practical hints which may
be useful to you in drafting such letters are given here.
IMPORTANT POINTS
For writing an effective adjustment letter use the following points:
Give reply promptly to the claim letter
Address your letter personally to the particular customer
Thank the customer for calling your attention to the problem, defect, damage or mistake
Apologise for the trouble and inconvenience caused and explain briefly how it was caused
Indicate the precautions taken by you and assure the customer that he will not be put through any such
inconvenience in future
Offer further cooperation and an assurance of satisfaction
Establish goodwill for your organisation and maintain your relationship with the customer
Inform the customer about the adjustments
State clearly why you are refusing or only partially accepting his claim – if it is unreasonable
Do not express a surprise about a complaint
Show importance to the customer’s views
Convince the customer of the justness of your decision
Give a pleasing reply even if you received the letter with a sarcastic or an angry tone
.In writing adjustment letters certain words and phrases should not be used. The following are some
examples:
1. Expression suggesting that the customer asking for adjustment is careless:
You neglected to specify …
You overlooked enclosing …
You failed to include …
2. Words that imply the customer is lying:
Your claim that …
You state that …
3. Expressions that imply the customer is ignorant:
We cannot see how you …
We are at loss to know …

We fail to understand ….
4. Demanding phrases that annoy customers:
We must ask you …
We ought to …
We must insist …
You must use proper verification methods …
You must check properly…
5. Phrases that seem to be polite from the seller’s point of view but may sound as sarcastic or harsh from
the customer’s point of view:
We are confident of our service…
We have no doubt about our goods …
We didn’t receive any complaints on our service
CIRCULAR LETTER
Circular letters are meant to be read by a large number of people. They are also used to send the same in-
formation to a number of people. A circular should always be written concisely and positively. The purpose
must be clear, logical and descriptive. The writer must not use pompous language. The content must be
factual and relevant.
A circular must have an individual character. In other words, the reader must feel that it is meant specifi-
cally for him or her. The ‘you’ attitude should be used. We prefer circulars for giving general information
to customers, for advertising purposes to boost sales or turnover, for announcing important developments in
business, such as extension, reorganisation, changes of address and for promoting a new product. They are
also used in academic institutions for informing general rules and regulations, instructions and also changes
in policies. Ensure the given features while drafting a circular:
Be brief
Do not write lengthy circulars
Use simple language
Communicate directly
Create interest in the recipient by giving personal touch
Give information completely
Use ‘you-approach’ as given below
Exhibit 22.10 You-approach
Instead of Say
1. We are pleased to inform changes to all our customers You will be glad to know -------------------
----------
2. We are aware that everyone will be interested to know You will be interested to know ---------
----------
3. We are sure that our customers will appreciate ---------- You will surely appreciate -----------
Exhibits 22.11, 22.12 and 22.13 are examples of circulars.

Exhibit 22.11 Circular
Dear _________
You will be glad to know that we are opening a new branch on Thursday –– August
2008.
Mrs. ______________________ has been appointed as the Principal. She has 30 years
of experience and is very efficient in administration. For any clarification regarding admis-
sions can be discussed with her.
Signature
Dear Shareholder,
It has come to our notice that pay orders of late are being intercepted in transit and are
being fraudulently encashed.
In order to avoid such fraudulent encashments, we suggest that your pay orders be drawn
in favour of the Bank and Branch, for credit to your Account, as specified by you.
For your convenience, a printed FORM has been enclosed. This FORM is to be filled
in and returned to the company’s Registrars. It should be signed by all shareholders.
We request that you cooperate with us in this regard in order to help the company to
safeguard your interests against the malpractice of fraudulent encashments. Please take
note of the following points before filling in the FORM:
1. If you wish your pay order to be credited to, say, your Savings Bank Account No.
_________ with the State Bank of India, Hyderabad. The pay order will be drawn
payable to the State Bank of India, __________ branch, Hyderabad _______ A/C Sole/
First holder of ___________ S/B A/C No. _____________.
2. The bank particulars of the sole/first holder are only to be furnished since the pay orders
will be made payable to the sole/first holder, as is the normal practice.
3. The pay orders will be sent to your address as recorded with the company.
4. Any change in the bank particulars furnished by you will have to be intimated to the Reg-
istrars before the commencement of the relevant book closure for future payments.
5. The bank particulars that you will write on the FORM will be recorded only in respect
of the Folio Number mentioned. Please do not mention any other Folio numbers on
the same form.
___________________________
Name
Company Secretary
The Share Registry Ltd.

Unit:
Post Box No.
Bombay GPO
Bombay 400 001
Dear Sir,
I refer to the Company’s circular dated 26th of August 1995.
With regard to my Folio No. specified on the FORM, you are requested to incorporate
the details of the Bank, Branch and the Account Number of the Sole/First holder, as
indicated in the FORM.
I hereby undertake to intimate you of any changes in the said particulars before the
commencement of the relevant book closures.
Date: ____________
Signature of
Sole/First holder
Summary
For business firms, it is a general practice to enquire and invite quotations from several sellers before placing an order.
The purpose here is to find out the best source of supply of goods required. It is generally believed that ‘goods well
bought are half sold’. So, draft the letter with great care so that you can get the information quickly which you wish to
get. It also helps you locate the right seller. Your quotation letter should take note of each item in the enquiry.
The purpose of writing an order letter is to get the best quality at a reasonable price and services from reliable
sources. Acknowledgement letters ensure goodwill. In writing these letters, you should take more care so that there will
not be any confusion. A well-organised structure and clarity of expression help you write any type of business letter.
The basic objective of a complaint letter is not to criticise but to sort out the problem. Successful business organisations
appreciate these letters because they get feedback with which they can improve their organisation. The main purpose
of an adjustment letter is providing satisfaction to the customer. Draft them clearly with simple language.
Circulars are used to send information to a large number of people. Any change in procedure or in policy is preferred
to be written in the form of a circular and circulated among the targeted people. Since it contains general information
and is circulated among a large number of people, you should use simple and precise language. You should follow
‘you-approach’ in drafting a circular.
Review Questions
1. What is the difference between an enquiry and a quotation letter?
2. What factors should be borne in mind in writing a quotation letter?
3. What qualities would you like to suggest for drafting an enquiry letter.
4. Discuss in detail the quotation letter.
5. What points should be borne in mind while writing an order letter?
6. What factors should be considered for writing an acknowledgment letter as a reply to an order.
7. What is the importance of an acknowledgement letter?

8. What guidelines would you like to give for placing an order?
9. When do you write a complaint letter?
10. What are the points do you have to bear in mind while drafting a complaint letter?
11. Write some useful expressions for openings and closings of complaint letters.
12. What phrases would you use to convince the customer in drafting an adjustment letter?
13. What are the main objectives of writing an adjustment letter?
14. In writing an adjustment letter what precautions do you take to convince the customers?
15. Write some useful expressions of openings and closings of an adjustment letter?
16. ‘In drafting an adjustment letter, you should avoid certain phrases and words’. Discuss.
17. What is the difference between a circular and a notice?
18. What guidelines should you bear in mind while drafting a circular?
Exercises
1. Assume that you are an office-in-charge. Your boss has asked you to modernise the office with the latest electronic
equipment.
(i) Now write an Enquiry letter to Bharat Electronics Ltd. Invent necessary details.
(ii) As a seller, write a Quotation letter in response to the Enquiry letter.
(iii) As a buyer in response to a Quotation letter write an order letter.
(iv) As a seller, write an Acknowledgment letter in response to placing the order.
2. Dandy garments showroom Hyderabad, is interested in buying thirty computers to be placed in different parts of
the office for the use of employees. Now write a letter of enquiry to be sent to five firms inviting quotations.
3. Assuming that you are the Administrative Officer of Finesse Garments, Kondapur, Hyderabad, write an enquiry
letter for the following items with the Royal Furniture Mart, Ameerpet, Hyderabad.
Office Chairs – 40
Office Tables – 20
File Racks – 25
Steel Almirahs – 10
Open Shelf – 5
4. Draft a letter inviting quotations for the above mentioned items. Invent the necessary details regarding the size,
shape and color etc.
5. As a Purchase Manager of Global Computers, Hyderabad, place an order for thirty Water-Coolers with Cool Re-
frigeration Corporation, Hyderabad giving all specifications. Invent necessary details.
6. Give a reply to the order in the previous exercise. Invent the necessary details.
7. Assuming that you are the Purchase Officer of ‘Speak Well’ training institute of Madhapur, Hyderabad, place an
order for the following items with ‘Suitable Furniture Mart’, Ameerpet, Hyderabad:
Office Tables and Chairs 5

Ordinary chairs 20
Wooden desks 30
Steel almirahs 5
File racks 20
Computer tables 10
8. Draft an acknowledgement letter for the order mentioned in the previous exercise. Invent the necessary details.
9. As a Librarian of your organisation write a letter claiming a compensation for 70 books of English Language
Skills-II which arrived in a damaged condition or as an alternative request a replacement at the publishers’ cost.
10. Write a suitable reply to Exercise 1 promising a replacement depending on the damage.
11. As the purchasing officer of your organisation you bought 200 Laptops from a local dealer. When you received them
you discovered damage in all items. Your dealer promptly replaced all the items. In these items too you noticed the
identical defects. Write a letter to the manufacturing company asking for its replacement. Invent details.
12. Write an interim reply to Exercise 3 promising an investigation and replacement if it is a manufacturing defect.
13. As the Manager of Q-Mart you have received from one of your customers a letter complaining of delay in delivery
and inattention when he visited your Q-Mart. Draft a reply expressing regret and promising an investigation.
14. As a wholesaler write a letter to the manufacturer informing him that the retailers, to whom you supplied 200
computers, have been complaining about them. Inform the manufacturer that you have advised the retailers not to
sell the remaining stock till the investigation is over.
15. Reply to the letter to Exercise 6. Express your apology, promise an investigation and offer a replacement of the
unsold stock.
16. Assume that you are the secretary for a charity organisation which wants to help the people in Maharashtra who
suffered from the effects of earthquake. Write a letter to be circulated or printed in a newspaper appealing for help.
Describe the disaster and its effects, the condition of the people and their needs. Ask for urgent help in the form
of money, food and clothes, and medicine.
17. Comfortable Household Goods Ltd. has produced a new Wet Grinder. As a Sales Manager you have been asked to
promote its sale. Draft a circular to be sent to the ladies’ club and hotels in Hyderabad.
18. As a secretary of Welfare Association of your company, you have been asked to inform the employees of the changes
in policies and procedure. Now, draft a circular to be circulated to all members.
Chapter 23
Sales Letter

Know the structure of a sales letter.
Features of a sales letter.
Arrest the attention of the buyers towards your product.
Arouse interest in the minds of the prospective buyer.
Convert the reader of your letter into a buyer of your product.
Know how to write an introductory paragraph of a sales letter.
Know how to develop the body of a sales letter.
Know how to conclude a sales letter.
INTRODUCTION
A sales letter is a specific form of advertisement. Of all the forms of advertising, a sales letter is the most
selective form. A good sales letter is like a successful advertisement. Now-a-days the production of con-
sumer goods has increased enormously. Due to this there is a need for capturing the market and business
houses have devised many ways to increase their sales. Basically they depend on mass media advertisement,
sales letters and personal contacts. Mass media advertisement reaches to a large and varied audience. To
advertise the product and to provide a service you can use personal contacts and sales letters. You can give
more information about the product through a sales letter. It also reaches to a large number of people at a
low-cost. It achieves a greater degree of success. Personal contact can be effective, but it is expensive and
time-consuming.
Sales letter, unlike other forms of advertising, aims at selling a particular kind of product or offer
special services to selected customers. Since a sales letter is a selective form of advertisement, it catches
the attention of the reader, excites his interest and curiosity and induces him to buy the goods or to take the
services offered. Thus, sales letters are written to a selected class of customers to tell them about particular
kind of goods and services. The main purpose of a sales letter is to increase the sale of products and mate-
rial; to offer services; to get the acceptance of an idea or approach; to promote a company or an organisation
or a product; to persuade the customer; to convince the buyer; to introduce detailed literature describing or
explaining the product; to make direct sales; to encourage enquiries about products and services; to announce
and gauge reaction to new products and services; to create goodwill. This letter contains the description of
special features, merits and uses of the products and services. Its primary job is to educate the prospective
customer or user. It presents the important points of products and services from the reader’s point of view.
It helps to select the right type of product or service. The writer of sales letter always keeps in view the cus-
tomer’s needs and requirements. In order to write an effective sales letter you must understand its structure.
Now, let us discuss these two fundamental aspects of a sales letter. First, we shall discuss the main features
of a sales letter.
FEATURES OF A SALES LETTER

Generally, a sales letter contains the following four features which are interrelated. A sales letter basically
aims at persuading the reader to take a favourable action. Hence, a sales letter is written in steps to produce
the following reactions in the reader. These steps are:
Arrest attention
Arouse interest or desire
Instill conviction
Induce action
Arrest Attention
Generally layout, illustrations, catchy phrases, striking statements, anecdotes, questions etc. attract the atten-
tion of the readers. Your opening paragraph must attract the attention of the reader. Find the unique selling
point of the product and start the letter with that point. You may begin with a question, appeal, an instruction
or a quotation. Here is an example:
An appeal: The common allergy; says Dr. Kavitha, ‘Probably causes more inconvenience and time waste
at workplace in a year than all other illnesses. Here is a remedy.’
Arouse Interest or Desire

After having arrested the attention in the opening paragraph, you must now create a desire for the product.
Description of the desirable performance, specific features of the product, benefits and its economy along
with the usefulness arouse the interest and the desire to buy the product. To achieve this describe the product
in detail, give a clear idea of what it is, what it can do and how is it useful than other similar types. Give
the main features which are superior to others of its kind. Stress the main features from the reader’s point of
view; simply saying the “best” in the market or the “latest” in technology is of little use. These are stereo-
typed expressions. Instead; stress such points as quality of the material used, special features that improves
efficiency and advanced technology that increases fastness, easy to handle and economical.
Instill Conviction
You must convince your reader that the product is what you claim it to be. Conviction is instilled by provid-
ing evidence, graphs, testimonials, statistics, test results, case studies etc. However, do not make false or
exaggerated claims. It creates a poor impression and it is against the law.
Sales Letter 405
Induce Action
Your closing paragraph must induce the reader to take the action that you want. Provide readers with a sound
reason as to why they should give a response. Give special reasons why the reader should act immediately.
You must persuade your readers of the benefits of what you are selling and tell what it can do for them.
For example:
Offering special gifts
Offering special discounts before a particular time
Announcing limited offers
Informing advantages with a specific period
These four basic steps are essential for increasing sales effectively. Often the division of these steps is not
clear. Frequently, the components shade each other because the development of the succeeding step flows
directly from the preceding step. Often it is very difficult to determine where we have to end the step for
creating an interest and where we have to begin with the steps for instilling conviction. The basic principle
is that the components in the final letter are fused into an even whole.
STRUCTURE OF A SALES LETTER

In order to get clear idea and a complete understanding of a sales letter, analyse the structure of some of
the effective advertisements in technical magazines and you will find that these three basic structural steps
are in operation.
Now, let us analyse in detail the structure of a sales letter to get a clear idea. The structure of a sales
letter consists of three parts, namely; introductory paragraph, the body and the concluding paragraph.
Introductory Paragraph
It is natural that we go through the beginning sentences of each letter we receive with some curiosity and
interest. When we write a sales letter, we must take advantage of this inherent trait of human nature. The
effective opening plays a major role in creating an interest of the reader. Thus, create an initial interest to
attract and appeal the reader to follow your message from the beginning to the end of your letter.
Since the sales letter is meant for a selected audience, the appeal should be to the professional interest
and the working need of the reader. Hence by effective opening you must attract the attention of the reader.
In fact, it determines whether your entire letter will be read or thrown unceremoniously in the litter basket
or relegated to the junk mail.
There are several ways of catching the reader’s attention. Let us look at some of them.
Make a Striking Statement If you write a striking statement in catchy phrases, it attracts the attention
of the readers immediately. Here are some examples:
(a) For the last two years we have been working to design the model you want. Ultimately, we brought
out this design successfully.
(b) To suit your budget we have specially devised a new scheme. Give us your precious time to go through
the enclosed literature.
(c) Get a new car at a 10 year old price. It includes an exchange discount.
State the Significant Point You identify significant point of your product. If you state this point, it
directs explicitly towards the need of the reader. Look at the examples given here:
(a) Our new device helps you save 20 percent of your fuel consumption.
(b) Our new savings scheme takes care of your old age problem.
Use a Slogan The purpose of a sales letter is to catch the attention of the reader. If you start with a
slogan, proverb, epigram or a quotation, it attracts the attention of your reader. The following examples
illustrate this point:
Visit and win. The offer is only for a few days.
Touch, feel and experience ––––––––– only at –––––––––
Deal of the day.
Quality is always prime issue for our product.
Relate to an Anecdote, a Joke or a Story It is a frequently used attention arousing device. Besides
being entertaining to the reader, it must be pertinent to the message of the letter.
Focus on the Central Setting Point Think about a central setting point and focus on it to draw the
attention of the reader. The following example gives you some idea.
Pride! A feeling often experienced at homes from ________. The luxury of unique living spaces that
set you apart from the ordinary. The luxury of world-class homes, top-notch neighbourhoods and
well-chosen locations.
Announce Special Offers Special offers always attract the readers. It motivates the customer to buy the
product immediately. The examples given here give us an idea.
You will have a special gift on our product, because you are one of our loyal customers. Read
this …
A special offer on our products to the customers who visit our showroom during the Dussera
festival.
If you buy any two items in our showroom you will get one item free. This is only for one day.
Make a Special Appeal Identify the special features of your product and make an appeal to the customer.
Your appeal may be in terms of reducing the budget of every month, advice to raise the self-esteem, or to
improve health. The following examples can illustrate these points:
Would you like to reduce your electricity consumption by 15 percent? If you are interested read our
sales letter…
You would like to feel proud to give fresh and hot food to your family though you are working. Here
it is. Read this and take a decision.
Ask a Question Asking a question frequently proves to be the most successful device to arouse curios-
ity and attention. Psychologically, the reader pauses and reads further to find the answer. Here are some
examples:
Do you throw away your pen because the ink does not flow continuously? There is a solution to your
problem.
Are you scared of your old age because your children are abroad?
Do you want to make a coffee in seconds? We are providing a new …
Do you prefer healthy living? Visit our restaurant…
Are you looking for world class products under one roof direct from the manufactures? No more
waiting. Choose your favourite product from the brands showcasing their entire range of cutting edge
technology.
Use Conditional Clauses Use of conditional clauses arouses the curiosity of the reader. Conditional
clause is a condition or action necessary for the validity or the occurrence of the statement of the message.
The word ‘and’ is the most common conjunction used in conditional clauses. Others are ‘whether’, ‘in the
Sales Letter 407
event that’; ‘on condition that’, ‘provided that’, ‘as’ and ‘in case.’ The following examples will give you a
clear idea:
Your search for a tutor ends here...
Your search for the perfect property ends here as … parents … at ….
MAIN BODY OF THE LETTER

After having arrested the reader’s attention in the introductory paragraph you must now arouse his interest
in or a desire for the product and convince him to buy it. To achieve this you must focus on the special
qualities of the product and its specific features and convince him that your claims are valid and true. The
body of a sales letters discusses these two components.
To arouse the reader’s interest and desire, you inform the reader how your product meets his requirements.
Write the main points of your product, analyse these points and highlight the most important selling points
and tell the reader how these satisfy his requirements. In explaining, you tell him how it is made, how it
works, how effective it is, how fast it is and what are the facilities it offers. While explaining, give only the
fundamental points that make your product unique or desirable. In the accompanying literature, provide the
information about the production detail. Make a subjective appeal to the reader in the consumer-product
situation. This appeal is based on an emotional and psychological plan. Make an objective appeal to the
reader’s knowledge and requirements.
Effective means for producing conviction on the part of the reader substantiates your claims by providing
facts, logic or expert testimony. These are several effective devices for convincing the reader. Selection of
these devices depends on the product. These are:
Trial offer
Guarantee period
Testimonials
Statistical data
Proof of test results
Statements of benefits
Enclosures of literature
Also, additional literature can be provided in the form of performance, characteristic feature and diagrams
describing structures, tables, reports and case histories.
CONCLUDING PARAGRAPH
The introductory paragraph and the body in a sales letter will be successful only if the closing paragraph is
able to motivate an action and if it is able to convert the reader into a prospective customer. Before making
the final appeal it is better to recapitulate your main points such as:
Special incentives
Special features
Special gifts
Special inducements
Easy for action
Convenience for placing order
Special bargains

Here are some expressions which may be useful for opening and closing of a sales letter.
Opening Expressions
You would find this very interesting and tempting.
You will be glad to receive a copy of our latest catalogue and price list along with this letter.
Since you are our regular customer, we would like to offer you very reasonable price on goods which
we have recently introduced.
You will be glad to know our new… and we are sure that you will find it very interesting.
You will receive our special offer as you are one of our loyal customers.
You will appreciate our new product for its efficiency.
Reports from all our customers confirm that….
Closing Expressions
This is an exceptional opportunity for you to buy a stock of high quality products at a low price.
We are sure you will agree that our product is not only of the highest quality but also very reasonably
priced.
We are confident you will find a ready sale for this excellent material and that your customers will be
well satisfied with it.
We hope you will take full advantage of this exceptional offer.
We would appreciate an opportunity to call on you…
We should be pleased to provide a demonstration if you let us know when it would be convenient to
you.
To give you a benefit to buy our new product …, we have decided to offer you a special discount of
… % of any order received by ….
We are offering a special gift to our regular customers worth Rs. … for every purchase of Rs. … in
our shop. The enclosed card is valid for one calendar month and it will entitle you to select goods of
your choice as your gift.
Summary
A sales letter is a device to sell the goods by the written word. It converts the reader into a prospective customer. Its
use of language will overcome the reader’s resistance and persuade him to buy what you are selling. Hence, it is one
of the important devices of sales promotion. It should begin with a technique of catching the reader’s attention. There
are several ways of catching attention such as making a striking statement, stating the significant point, using slogans,
relating to an anecdote or a story, making special appeals or offers and asking a rhetorical question. The main body of
the letter should draw attention of the reader to specific features by providing trial offer, guarantee period, testimonials,
proof of test results, statement of benefits etc. It should end with an inducement for action. Finally it should vouch for
the quality of the product.
Sales Letter 409
Review Questions
1. Discuss the main features of a sales letter.
2. Discuss in detail the structure of a sales letter.
3. What are the devices would you like to suggest for starting a sales letter? Explain with examples.
4. What is the effect of ‘you-approach’ in a sales letter? Discuss.
5. “The main purpose of a sales letter is to convert the reader into a customer”. How is this purpose achieved?
6. What factors would you like to consider while drafting the body of a sales letter? Illustrate your answer with ex-
amples.
7. How is the body of a sales letter different from that of the closing paragraph?
8. How is the body of a sales letter different from that of the introductory paragraph? Write the main function of the
introductory paragraph of a sales letter. Illustrate your answer with examples.
10. Write the main function of the closing paragraph of a sales letter. Illustrate your answer with examples.
Exercises
1. Write a letter to all the principals of engineering colleges in Andhra Pradesh to promote the sale of a new laptop
that your company has manufactured. Mention the extra facilities it has and also its value in student life.
2. Draft a sales letter to be sent to the business houses for promoting the sale of newly designed office furniture your
firm has just placed in the market.
3. Assuming that you are the sales officer of one of the companies producing water-coolers, draft a sales letter men-
tioning the special features of your product. Invent the details necessary.
4. You are the Sales Manager of a company that has recently manufactured an electric paper Shredder. Draft a sales
letter to be sent to educational institutions. Invent the details necessary.
5. As a sales officer of a company, write a sales letter to promote the sale of an electronic dish washer that has recently
manufactured.
6. As a manager of a publishing house, draft a sales letter to be sent to all management institutions and engineering
colleges to promote the sale of a new book on “Professional Communication.”
Chapter 24
Job Application

Locate job vacancies.
Know how to prepare a résumé.
Know how to write a job application letter.
Gain knowledge on the common problems in a résumé.
Know the qualities of a good résumé.
Know the usefulness of a résumé.
INTRODUCTION
A job application letter is one of the most important business letters you write when you graduate from
a college. May be it is your first business letter. A job application letter encloses the résumé as well. The
employer will form his first impression about you from your application. Generally, a letter of application
is written to sell your services. Hence you have to draft it carefully. For this purpose you should know what
information have to be covered in this letter and what details have to given in the résumé, what techniques
you have to follow to write the application letter and the résumé. You have to search for a vacancy. Job
search is a step by step process. This chapter includes locating job vacancies, preparing the résumé and
writing a job application letter.
LOCATING JOB VACANCIES

The first step in your job search involves identifying job vacancies. There are several promising sources
like newspapers, professional and trade journals, university placement offices, employment agencies and
personal contacts etc.
Job Application 411
Newspapers are the most popular source of job needs combining ads of two types—classified and dis-
play. Also we find blind ads which mention only box number, signed ads which have the name of company.
Professional journals have job placement columns and even classified sections. A third source can be your
university placement office, whose services range from job referrals to career counseling. Employment agen-
cies both public and private – are a fourth source of job information. Personal contacts are another excellent
source of finding the right job.
After identifying the job vacancy, you ought to know the employer’s point of view. You have to raise
some questions to yourself. What sort of person does he need? What kind of experience and qualifications
are required for the job? While presenting your achievements should you highlight the traits he is looking
for? If you analyse the job requirements carefully and then your own skills and achievements it will enable
you to prepare your personal details achievements. This exercise will help you to write a job application
letter and to prepare a résumé.
PREPARING A RÉSUMÉ
You have explored your career choices and you are ready to write your résumé. The preparation of a ré-
sumé is an important second step in your job search process. The résumé (from the Latin resumere, ‘to take
up again’ and the French resumere, ‘to summarise’) is a historical account of a person’s education, work
experience, skills and other job related personal information. It is a persuasive document. It is defined in
Webster’s Third Edition International Dictionary as a short account of one’s career and qualifications
prepared typically by an applicant for a position. Sometimes the term ‘curriculum vitae’ is used in place
of the term résumé.
As an applicant, you have to prepare a résumé because employers require one before an interview is
granted. So you use it to get an interview with a prospective employer. A résumé helps you organise the
facts of your accomplishments as well as clarifying what you can do in the future. It has to highlight your
skills and accomplishments that demonstrate to a recruiter your qualifications for the job that you seek. Thus,
a résumé is a structured written summary of your qualifications and activities which are required for job
searching. It is designed with an objective to call to attention your best features in front of the employee.
Your goal is to present your qualifications for the position that you seek in such a manner that it serves as
an introduction to your potentialities to the employer and helps you gain a personal interview. Your chances
of being invited to such an interview virtually depend on the effectiveness of the preparation of your ré-
sumé and the covering letter. A résumé prepares you for your job interview by forcing you to think about
and express yourself in an organised way. A résumé is your personal guidance manual for speaking about
yourself fluently and unhesitatingly.
For the interviewer, it helps take the decision whether or not to interview the candidate. It is also useful
to screen out the applicants. It can be a decisive tool at the job award level. The length of a résumé is not
fixed. It is based on the information to be presented in the résumé. Successful résumés have been as long
as one page or as long as eight pages. It is conciseness, relevance and interest that matter. An eight-page
résumé can be concise; a four page résumé verbose. Generally, résumés towards a specific job may be longer
than résumés written for general distribution.
The style of writing a résumé and its physical appearance affect or influence the executives. So, the
language of a résumé must be precise, crisp, succinct, trenchant, expressive, interesting and personal. Clear
expression in a minimum number of words to create a maximum impact is essential for writing a résumé.
Of course, there is no one way to write a résumé that will appeal to every reader. Fit your résumé to the
type of individual whom you expect to be reading it.
It is a general opinion among the executives that it is difficult to find honest, accurate and concise résumés.
Executives often complain that résumés are generally wordy, poorly organised, incomplete, poorly written
and generalised. Table 24.1 lists some of the commonly expressed problems noticed in résumés:
Table 24.1 Common Problems Noticed in Résumé
Too long
Too short and sketchy
Hard to read copies
Too much irrelevant information
Not enough relevant information
Wordiness and vagueness
Amateurish
General statements
Exaggeration of responsibilities
Conceit and boastful
Incomplete and inaccurate data
Grammatical mistakes and spelling errors
No clear background information
Lack of a covering letter
Ineffective organisation of information
Position sought not mentioned
Geographical preference omitted
Use of gimmicks
Misleading statements
Lack of information related to the job requirements
Lack of knowledge of the job, lack of awareness of activities of the company, improper attitude, inadequate
career analysis and a lack of goal are some of the reasons responsible for an ineffectively prepared résumé.
A good résumé is one that qualifies the subject for the job sought – concisely, interestingly and honestly –
and causes an interview to occur, if a position is available. It should be complete and specific. Let us list
some features of a good résumé.
Table 24.2 Attributes of a Good Résumé
1. Complete, effective and descriptive without being too long

2. Includes educational qualifications, achievements, and personal details.
3. Truthful and accurate without exaggeration or distortion
4. Specific about experience, objectives and availability
5. Professional: Well-planned, use of proper language, no errors and contains no gimmicks
6. Accompanied by a covering letter
7. Contains references
8. Neat appearance with a lot of white space
9. Includes relevant information
10. Emphasises skills
11. Indicates leadership traits, organisation abilities and motivation
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ELEMENTS OF A RESUMÈ
Assume that you are ready to begin writing your résumé and the application letter, but do not know where
and how to start. The best way is to start by analysing your qualifications, abilities, skills, experience and
achievements. Through the résumé you have to tell your reader, who you are, what you know and what you
have done. Most employers expect to see certain items in any résumé. The bare essentials are:
Name and address, job career objective, education, work experience, achievements and activities, personal
information and references.
Naturally, information in these sections will vary from person to person and as well as on the need.
Otherwise, make sure that your résumé emphasises your strongest and most expressive qualifications. By
focusing on your strengths, you can convey the desired impression without distorting the facts. Let us find
out the information that you have to provide to the reader under each element of a résumé.
Name and Address: Your name, address and telephone numbers (both office and residence) are es-
sentials and must appear on your résumé. Many résumé headings are nothing more than the name and
address and telephone numbers centered at the top of the page. You really have little need to include the
word résumé, but if you have a specific job in mind, you could use a heading to denote that fact.
Here are some samples:
Résumé sheet of Dr.__________________, a senior professor in ICFAI TECH, Hyderabad.
Or
Qualifications of Dr. _________________ for professorship.
Or
Dr.__________________
Professor in Languages Department
ICFAI TECH
HYDERABAD.
Whatever heading you use, make sure the reader can tell immediately who you are, what you are seeking
and how to communicate with you.
Career Objective or Summary of Qualifications: Place your career objective immediately after the heading.
State your objective as specifically as possible pertaining to what you want to do. For example, if you are ap-
plying to ZSECS for an advertising assistant post, you may write the job objective in the following way:
‘Advertising Assistant’, with Print Media Emphasis
As an alternative to stating your objective, you might want to summarise your qualifications in a brief
statement that highlight your strongest points, particularly if you have had a good deal of varied experience.
Use a short, simple phrase
Ten years of experience in marketing
Or
Twelve years of teaching experience of undergraduate and postgraduate students at BITS.
Education: In describing your education, present your most recent qualifications first and continue in a reverse
chronological order. Include the following information for each institute you have attended. Exhibit 24.1
gives you an idea of it.
Exhibit 24.1
Year Examination Division Institution Remarks
You may include various honours, awards and scholarships under remarks. If your awards are impressive
and if you want to emphasise them, list them in a separate section immediately following education. If you
have no work-experience, you probably need to stress your education.
If you have done courses outside your major field that enhance your education, you make a brief list and
include them under education. For example, suppose you are looking for a job in finance, which is your
specialisation, but since you have also taken courses in computer science, you might then emphasise them
by listing each one. Later, in your application letter, you could explain how they would help you perform
in analysing financial problems.
Under this section, you can also present your significant skills and abilities that you have developed in
your course of work. If you had undergone off-campus training as a part of your educational programme, it
comes under this section. Include any relevant seminars or workshops you have attended as well as certificates
or other documents that you have received. If you have participated in co- or extracurricular activities, you
can include them in this section. You may include all these skills and abilities under the heading ‘Education’
or you may put them under separate sub-headings.
Work Experience: Your next section after Education is ‘Work Experience’. Like the previous section, the
discussion of your work experience should focus on your overall theme. Tailor your description to highlight
the relationship between your previous responsibilities and your target field. Call attention of the reader to
the skills you have developed and the progress you made in your jobs from lesser to greater responsibili-
ties. When you list your work experience, remember that the purpose of a résumé is to secure an interview.
Accordingly you give stress on your work experience. Once you have decided which work experiences to
include, you need to determine the order of presentation. This order may vary. Usually, people use a reverse
chronological order. Yet by putting your most valuable work experience first, you may show your abilities
to the best advantage.
List all the related jobs you have done in work experience in the following order:
Write your job title or position held; give the name and address of the organisation in which you worked;
your duties and responsibilities and your significant achievements or contributions and the period of your
service. This information is illustrated in the following format:
Lecturer, Languages Department, Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Pilani from 1986 to pres-
ent.
Activities and Achievements: Any of your activities that demonstrate your abilities should come under
this section. List projects that required leadership, organisational ability, teamwork and cooperative work.
Also include other activities like participation in athletics, fund-raising or community service activities and
offices held in academic or professional organisation. Mention any reward you received while working. If
your activities have been extensive, you may keep them into divisions like Service Activities, Professional
Activities, Achievements, Awards and Honours.
Personal Information: Under this section you can include your state of health, willingness to relocate,
geographical employment preference (if any), extensive travel experience, language knowns etc.
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References: This section always comes at the end of a résumé. In it, write the names, addresses and telephone
numbers of at least three people to whom employers might contact. If you do not include the information,
state that it is available upon request. It is preferable to choose individuals able to attest your ability and
knowledge. Therefore, current and former employers, immediate supervisors and college professors are your
best choices.
SELECTION OF THE ORGANISATIONAL PLAN

The choice of the best organisational plan for a résumé is often in the eyes of the beholder. It should be
chosen to present the qualifications of the applicant in the best and the most pleasing manner. Generally,
some executives may look for brevity; some may require an ideal education and employment background;
others may be impressed by specialised professional skills. The selection of the best organisational plan for
résumé is also based on the career that you seek.
You have all the elements you need. Analyse each one, express it suitably and place it in a logical dis-
position to the other elements. The ability to organise writing in this manner bears witness to an applicant’s
good judgement and common sense. Although you want to include a little in all categories, emphasise the
information that has a bearing on your career objective and minimise or exclude anything that is irrelevant
or counterproductive. You do this by adopting an organisational plan that focuses attention on your strongest
points. Ultimately, the right choice depends on the suitability of your background goals and your writing
ability. There are many résumé formats in use. We had discussed here the commonly used formats. They
are chronological, functional and targeted. The name of each format is reasonably indicative of its nature
and there is overlapping between formats.
Chronological Résumé: It is a very common type of résumé and the most frequently used one as well.
It is the most adaptable format. As the term itself indicates, it gives a person’s employment history in a
chronological way. It, however, lists sequentially in the reverse order, starting with the most recent experience.
When you organise your résumé chronologically, the ‘work-experience’ section dominates the résumé and
is placed in the most prominent slot, immediately after the name, address and objective. Work experience
is shown in a reverse chronological order, beginning with the most recent position and working background
towards earlier jobs. Various positions held at one company should also be described in a reverse chronologi-
cal order. It shows the advancement of the individual clearly while showing the stability of trend. The order
shows the applicant’s growth and development – characteristics of great interest to employers. If you are
just graduating from college, you can vary the chronological plan by putting your educational qualifications
before your experience, thereby focusing the attention on your academic credentials.
This résumé form provides the writer the best opportunity to highlight achievements and offers the reader
the best opportunity to gauge the applicant’s qualifications. The chronological approach is the most common
way to organise a résumé, and many employers prefer it.
The elements of chronological résumé are given in Exhibit 24.2.
Exhibit 24.2
Name, address and telephone numbers

Objective
Name of the institution of most recent or present employment
Name of other institutions in which the applicant worked in reverse order
Education
Extracurricular activities
Functional Résumé: The second approach to a résumé organisation is a functional résumé. You organise
your résumé around a list of skills and accomplishments under topical headings such as supervisory skill,
managerial skill, leadership-abilities and decision-making activities. Then you can add your work-experience
and academic experience. Its elaborate emphasis is on skills and stresses on individual areas of competence.
There is no need to detail all past experiences. This approach is particularly useful to people who have varied
experience or to those who want to redirect their career or minimise breaks in employment.
Targeted Résumés: In this approach the job objective at the top clearly identifies the position sought.
This résumé is organised to focus attention on what you can do for a particular employer in a particular
position. Immediately after stating your career objective, you list any related skills that are useful to
carry on the asked job’s responsibilities. This list is followed by a list of your achievements, which
provide evidence of your capabilities. It concludes with work experience and the education section. Its
effectiveness depends on how clearly you identify and state your skills and your qualifications as they
relate to the position you seek.
PREPARATION OF THE FINAL COPY

Whatever may be the organisational plan you follow, the success to write an effective résumé is to put
yourself in the reader’s position. Think about what the prospective employer needs and then tailor your ré-
sumé accordingly. No one form for a résumé is the best. If your résumé presents your qualifications clearly,
concisely, precisely and attractively then that will be the best one for you. In preparing the final copy of
your résumé, you may keep in mind the following points:
Give preference to physical appearance, the physical appearance of your résumé has a strong effect
on its potency. It reveals something about your organisational and presentation skills. Therefore, create a
professional format by using the following points:
Use uniform indention and capitalisation
Emphasise the important information by using bold face
Employ rows and columns for short items
Arrange longer items in lines extending across the pages
Leave blank spaces between various segments of the material
Type your résumé on ‘white or off-white’ 8 ½ “(inches) × 11” bond paper
For preparing an effective résumé, the following checklist may be useful.
Checklist for a Résumé

I. Heading, Content and Style
Write your name and address as a heading
Give a telephone number (if you have one)
Prepare the résumé before drafting the application letter
Omit information about qualifications that might be considered negative
Omit information that is not relevant to the required job
Do not mention your desired salary, work schedule or vacation schedule
Use short noun phrases and action verbs and not whole sentences
Write facts not opinions
Use headings to introduce various sections (Education, Work Experience etc.)
Prefer descriptive headings instead of topic headings
Use grammatically consistent headings
Use precise and specific language
Job Application 417
Use succinct, crisp, expressive, interesting, trenchant and personal language

Use the specialised vocabulary of your job area
II. Career Objective and Skills Summary
Be specific about what you want to do
State the job objective clearly and concisely
Summarise your key qualifications
Highlight your strongest points that are related to the job sought
III. Education
Mention all degrees you have achieved with position, institution names, addresses and the duration
Describe off-campus training programme that you have attended
Indicate awards, scholarships and so forth
Indicate the significant skills you acquired
Mention your participation in co-or extra-curricular activities
List any other job related educational or training experiences such as seminars, workshops attended
and certificates obtained
IV. Work-Experience
Give details of your previous jobs along with names and addresses of the institution and the dates
employed
Indicate positions held and describe your job duties/responsibilities with verbs in active voice and
parallel structures
Mention on-the-job accomplishments such as awards or honours
V. Activities, Honours and Achievements
List all relevant activities such as:
Offices held
Leadership positions
Significant awards or scholarships (not listed elsewhere)
Consultancy projects you have undertaken
Roles in academic and professional organisations
Publications
VI. Other Relevant Information
Provide other information such as your knowledge in computer science and proficiency in languages
other than English
References
Include at least three references of academic employment and professional associates with titles ad-
dresses and telephone numbers
Format
Make sure that your résumé is no more than three or four pages long, preferably one or two pages
Make sure that the résumé is printed or typed in black ink on 8 ½ “x 11” white or off-white bond
paper
Be consistent in heading styles, indentions and underlining
Proof-read it at least two times and revise it after proof-reading
You have decided the organisational plan for résumé and prepared an effective résumé depending on
the requirements of the job. Based on this you have to prepare the ‘job application letter’.
WRITING A JOB APPLICATION LETTER

The job application letter is like a ‘sales letter’ in which you ‘sell’ yourself and your qualifications to get an
interview. It should be organised like a persuasive message. You need to stimulate the reader’s interest before
showing how you can satisfy the organisation’s needs. The letter gives you the opportunity to highlight your
abilities, experiences and qualifications, especially in relation to the employer’s need and to the requirements
of the job you want. The style should project confidence; you cannot hope to influence a potential employer
on your merits unless you truly believe in them yourself and sound as though you do.
A job application letter is used as a device to feature the applicant’s best qualifications. It is a brief cover-
ing letter that identifies the position sought, explains the abilities, stresses other qualifications, appeals to the
reader’s interest, proves usefulness to the prospective employer, refers to the enclosed résumé and requests
an interview. It has an excellent potential to help you achieve your goal of getting an interview.
Solicited and Unsolicited Letters

There are two types of application letters: solicited and unsolicited. Solicited letter is sent in response to an
announced job opening. An unsolicited letter also known as a ‘prospective letter’ is one sent to an organisa-
tion that has not announced an opening. When you send a solicited letter, you usually know in advance the
qualifications that the organisation seeks; its needs and the job’s duties.
In contrast, you write an unsolicited letter when you do not even know if an opening exists. Basically,
such a letter identifies you and the type of job you seek, requests the prospective employer to consider
your application if an opening arises and requests an interview. The unsolicited letter, however, has basic
disadvantages. Often organisations do not have openings when they receive your letter. Since your letter is
unsolicited, they are not obliged to answer.
Drafting the Letter

Whether your application letter is solicited or unsolicited, present the qualifications in a similar way and
use the language persuasively. It should be to the point, informative and short. You begin your letter with
an attention getting paragraph. Try then to create some interest in your qualifications so they arouse a desire
to talk with you. Finally close your letter with a request for an interview.
Opening Paragraph of a letter: A good opening paragraph usually contains three to five sentences. In the
opening itself, state clearly that you are applying for a job and the kind of job that you want. Another way
to state your reason for writing the letter is to use a ‘subject’ at the opening of your letter as given below:
Subject: Application for ____________________.
It is such so that the prospective employer should not have to read the entire letter before knowing its
purpose. After this clear signal, your first paragraph can focus on getting the attention and indicating how
you will be useful to the organisation. The opening paragraph marks the major difference between the two
types of application letters.
This is because in an unsolicited letter, you have a greater need to catch and hold the reader’s attention
and interest. In contrast, the reader of a solicited letter is written in an announced job opening.
In the solicited letter you indicate the position sought, how the opening became known to you and what
your qualifications are. Here is an example:
‘Please consider my application for the position of ‘Quality Control Manager’ which you have advertised
in The Hindu on _____ August 2006. My qualifications are twelve years of quality control experience, and
my administrative position qualifies me for the position of ‘Quality Control Manager’.
Job Application 419
However, an unsolicited letter starts by capturing the reader’s attention and interest. In writing the open-
ing paragraph of an unsolicited letter, you may use one of the following approaches:
You can start with a description of the requirements associated with a specific job and then show how
your work experience, your abilities and your qualifications could benefit the organisation.
When responding to a job ad, identify the publication in which the ad appeared and briefly describe
how you meet each requirement stated in the advertisement.
You can present your major qualifications and skills suitable for the position you are seeking. The
prospective employer then can readily perceive that you are qualified to do the job. Here is an example
for this approach:
‘When you need a person with an integrated background, skilled in programming languages,
adept in using various application of software, familiar with personal computers and hardware
please consider my qualification.’
Pose an attention-getting question that shows you understand an organisation’s problem, need or goal
and have a genuine desire to help, solve or meet it.
You can mention the name of a person known to the reader; it is bound to capture some attention. An
example is given below:
‘Dr._______________, Dean_____________, ___________, has directed me that I apply for the
position of Sales Manager in your company. He has suggested that I might be well qualified for this
post because of my past experience in the sales department, my command of four languages and my
background of travel abroad. I shall appreciate your considering me as an applicant’.
You can use a ‘catchy’ phrase or sentence that identifies your major qualifications. This approach is
useful especially if the job sought requires ingenuity and imagination. Look at the example given
below:
‘_________________, seems to be entering a new era in marketing and I would like to discuss with
you my experience in marketing innovations in consumer production’.
Present one of your relevant interests, mention your previous experience with the organisation or cite
your present position or status as a means of leading into a discussion of why you want to work for
the organisation.
You can also use references to publicised company activities, achievements, changes or new procedures
to gain attention. The following example gives an idea:
‘I have read the Annual Report of ____________________. Its outstanding accomplishments of mar-
keting department of your company motivated me to become an employee of your company. If you
give me an opportunity, I would like to discuss my becoming part of it.’
Whatever approach you use in your opening paragraph, it must demonstrate the ‘you’ attitude and
must indicate how the applicant can serve the employer. Finally, your opening paragraph must indicate
clearly that you are applying for a job, mention clearly the type of job that you want and lead naturally
and logically into the rest of the letter.
The Middle Section of a Letter: Presenting major qualifications and relating them to the job you want
from the middle section of your application letter. In this section present your strongest points, relate them
to the job you want and show their potential benefit to the organisation.
Create the reader’s interest in you and a desire to interview you. This section should contain the details
which amplify the features and the quality of the opening paragraph.
In presenting your strongest selling points, keep in mind the purpose of both the résumé and application
letter. Your résumé is a historical account of your educational qualification, experiences and other qualifica-
tions and skills for employment. In contrast, the application letter should not simply repeat the information
given in the data sheet; rather it should interpret the information in relation to the employer’s needs and the
job’s requirements. Select the central selling point, emphasise on it by calling it to the reader’s attention.
Then, select the secondary selling point that you can offer to the prospective employer. Your secondary
selling point may be in terms of your experience or perhaps some personal quality or it may be a combina-
tion of all the factors that qualify you for the position.
Simply give supporting evidence or otherwise spell out your key qualifications together with some con-
vincing evidence of your ability to perform. Show how your studies and your prior experience have prepared
you for that job and tell the reader how you developed competence in the profession and interest in a chosen
career. Present evidence of a few significant job-related qualities. If you use the experience factor, you should
make a specific reference to the type of experience you have had and where you had obtained it. You should
then sum up all your main qualifications and point out how you believe that you could help the reader and
his organisation. It might read as follows:
‘You may also note that I have had four years of practical experience as a Sales Representative of
___________Spinning Mills Ltd., Hyderabad. As shown in the résumé enclosed, my education, experience
and willingness to learn new techniques could help me to perform the duties of a Sales Executive of your
organisation.’
It is a suitable place where you can present the tangible qualities which are difficult to show on a data
sheet. These qualities might include:
Adaptability
Poise
Tact
Integrity
Conviction
Team spirit
Industriousness
Honesty
In trying to meet the employer’s requirements, avoid empty phrases such as:
‘I am confident that I can perform the job responsibilities’.
Or
‘I feel I can carry all the work effectively’.
Or
‘I hope I can perform the duties effectively’.
Or
‘I believe my qualifications are adequate for the position’.
Instead be specific.
Describe clearly what you can do for the organisation. If you are familiar with its operations, indicate
how you can do it.
When writing a solicited letter responding to an ad, discuss each requirement specified in the ad.
If you are deficient in any of these requirements, stress the other solid selling points to strengthen your
overall presentation. Towards the end of this section, refer the reader to your enclosed résumé. You may
do so by citing a specific fact or general point covered in the résumé. Following are examples of effective
references to an enclosed résumé:
Job Application 421
‘An examination of my enclosed résumé will provide insight into my ‘team-work’ activities and
organisational abilities that would enhance my performance as a manager/executive with your firm’.
or
‘When you review my enclosed résumé, you will find that I have excelled academically and
participated in many team-activities and developmental activities’.
or
My education and experience qualify me for the position of Marketing Executive. The enclosed
résumé will give you a fair idea of my experience in introducing advanced techniques for marketing’.
Closing Paragraph of a Letter: The final paragraph of your application letter has two important functions:
(1) to request the reader for a specific action and (2) to make a reply easy. In almost all cases, the action
you should ask for is an interview. In doing so, do not be presumptuous or demanding and try to sound
natural and appreciative. Refer again to your strongest selling point and, if desired, mention your date of
availability.
An effective application letter accomplishes one thing. That it gets you an interview. It conforms to no
particular model because it is a reflection of your special strengths. Nevertheless, the application letter
should contain the basic components. It is important for every individual to possess the ability to write an
effective letter of application.
In preparing your final copy, follow traditional guidelines for letter style. In addition to that you follow
the guidelines given here:
Type the letter on 8 ½ “ × 11 “ white or off-white bond paper
Use the same colour, quality of paper and same colour ink for both the résumé and the application
letter
Do not use your current employer’s letterhead
Include your address at the top of the letter
Type your application letter on a separate paper even though you are enclosing it with your résumé
Put your signature at the end of your letter
Use an ‘enclosure’ notation
Do not use typist reference initials
Use a ‘business size’ (No.10) envelope for mailing
You may enclose a stamped addressed envelope or you may give your telephone number. An example of
a closing paragraph that suggests action and makes it to secure attention is as follows:
‘May I have an interview at a time convenient to you? You may use the enclosed postal envelope
to indicate when and where I may call.’
An alternative approach is to ask for an interview and then offer to get in touch with the reader to arrange
a time for it, rather than requesting a reply. Here is an example:
‘I would like to discuss with you my interest in finance and will telephone your office within the
next few days for an appointment’.
Ideally your letter should not be more than a page long. If, however, you need two pages, include appropri-
ate heading for the second page.
Exhibit 24.3 Solicited Application Letter
Dear ____________
Your advertisement in The Hindu of __________ August ____________ attracted my attention for
a Sales Executive. My qualifications are eight years experience in the Sales Department and my
organisational skill in organising sales promotion qualifies me for the post of a Sales Executive.
When I was doing MBA, I got intensely interested in market analysis and research. So I did
projects pertaining to the area. My project work in marketing emphasised on the latest techniques
of market analysis and research and stressed on developing viable marketing strategies.
I have had eight years experience in the sales departments of three reputed companies and I am
familiar with sales techniques. My special duties include the training of sales personnel, organising
market research and sales promotion programmes. I thoroughly enjoy my work.
With the sound background in the theory of marketing, the practical experience in the sales
department and my organisation skills, I would be able to assume fully my duties after just a short
period of orientation.
As you will see from my enclosed résumé,I have been a member of the _________ Marketing
Association and I am willing to travel.
Mr.___________________, my Managing Director, and Mr.__________, Sales Manager of
my former company have both consented to provide references for me. I gave their details on my
résumé. I shall be pleased to provide any further information you may need and hope I may be
given the opportunity of an interview.
Yours sincerely
xxxxx
Encl: Résumé
The following list of Action verbs is useful for preparing résumé:

List of Action Verbs That Add Strength to Your Résumé
Clerical Skills
Words
approved confirmed inspected recorded validated
arranged copied monitored retrieved
catalogued detected operated scheduled
checked dissected organized screened
classified executed prepared specified
collected generated processed systematised
compiled implemented purchased tabulated
Communication Skills
Words
addressed demonstrated illustrated promoted
arbitrated developed interpreted publicised
arranged directed lectured reconciled
articulated drafted mediated recruited
authored edited moderated reported
collaborated enlisted negotiated spoke
composed explained persuaded suggested
convinced formulated presented translated
corresponded influenced proposed wrote
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Creative Skills
Words
acted directed invented
built established originated
conceived fabricated performed
conceptualised fashioned planned
created founded revitalised
customised illustrated shaped
designed initiated
developed integrated
devised introduced
Financial Skills
Words
administered calculated forecast
allocated computed managed
analysed consolidated marketed
appraised converted planned
audited developed projected
balanced dispensed researched
budgeted financial
Helping Skills
Words
advised demonstrated referred
assessed diagnosed rehabilitated
assisted educated represented
challenged expected
clarified facilitated
coached guided
counseled motivated
Management Skills
Words
accomplished chaired defined implemented produced
addressed completed delegated improved recommended
administered conserved delivered increased reviewed
allocated consolidated developed initiated scheduled
analysed contracted directed led strengthened
anticipated controlled evaluated organised supervised
approved coordinated executed oversaw
assigned critiqued guided planned
attained decided hired prioritised
Summary
A job application letter along with a résumé explains to the prospective employer your qualification, communication
skill, your commitment, conviction and your temperament. A résumé is your personal guidance manual. It helps you
organise the facts of your accomplishments that demonstrate to a recruiter your qualification and experience for the job
you are seeking. Thus, a résumé is a highly planned, structured and written summary of your qualifications, activities
and skills which are required for job searching. Since it serves to introduce your potentialities to the employer; you
have to pay attention for the preparation. Your chance of getting a call letter from the employer virtually depends on
the preparation of a résumé and the application letter.
Review Questions
1. Discuss the features of a good résumé.
2. What is a résumé? What is its main function?
3. In what way is a résumé useful for both the applicant and the employer?
4. Discuss the various elements of a résumé.
5. What are the commonly noticed problems in a résumé?
6. What are the attributes of a good résumé?
7. Discuss the various organisation plans for preparing an effective résumé.
8. ‘Job application letter along with a résumé is used as a device to feature the applicant’s best qualifications’. Ex-
plain.
9. What principles do you follow to draft an application letter?
Exercises
1. An ABC Company which has a foreign collaboration requires a sales person. Candidates should be post graduates
or MBA with minimum three years’ marketing survey experience. Candidates should possess good communica-
tion skill. Attractive salary commensurate the ability of the candidate. Other incentives include bonus, stock option
and allowances. Apply within 15 days to The Marketing Manager of ABC Company, Cyberabad, Hyderabad –
500 081.
2. Applications are invited for the post of a programmer. The candidate should be an MCA or M.Sc in Computer
Science. Salary is negotiable depending on the ability. Apply within 15 days to the HRD Manager, Intelligent
Technology Limited, Cyberabad, Hyderabad – 500 081.
3. Assume that you have planned to apply for various posts. You have just completed Post-graduation. You have se-
cured first rank. You have received a gold medal in your post-graduation, participated in extra-curricular activities
and in group discussions and achieved many prizes. Now, prepare a résumé and a covering letter.
4. The Apogee Tec. Organisation requires Post-graduates with excellent academic record for our Management Train-
ing Program. Selected candidates will be trained for one year in accounts, administration, marketing and other
technical jobs. On successful completion of the training they will be absorbed on our management cadre posted in
our units in Bombay, Pune and Goa. During the training period they will be paid a fixed stipend of Rs.16,000/- per
month. Applicants should be first class Post-graduates in Commerce, Science or Engineering. Candidates should
possess leadership quality and communication skills. Apply within 20 days to The Manager, HRD, Cyberabad,
Hyderabad – 500 081.
Appendix A
Grammar and Usage:
A Review
To acquire competence in a non-native language, one should know the rules of grammar. If you, however,
apply the grammatical rules literally, you would have to face confusions in using the language (see Chap-
ters 12 and 13). Writers, editors, proofreaders, readers and learners confuse themselves with words that can
be written as one word or as two separated words (see Appendix D) or as hyphenated words (see Chapter
15). There is some confusion in the use of some verbs. The formation of other tenses of some verbs also
creates problems. The basic form of some verbs and the past tense of some other verbs are the same. Here
the meaning and the tense are different. Context gives clues to the reader but there is no grammatical rule
to remove this confusion. Look at the principal parts of the verbs.
Table A.1 Principal Parts of Verbs
S. No. Present Tense Past Tense Past Participle

1. lay laid laid
2. lie lay lain
3. bear bore born, borne
4. slay slew slain
5. slew slewed slewed
6. rend rent rent
7. rent rented rented
There are some verbs like these in the English language. Here Hugh Blair’s view is worth remembering.
He pointed out that ‘no grammatical rules have sufficient authority to control the form and established
usage of language’. Hence, to acquire competence in using a language you should learn both the grammar
rules and its usage. Some of the important rules of grammar and usage have been discussed here. These
rules and usage will help you avoid some common errors and also help you avoid confusions. If you are
in doubt about any matter not covered here, refer to a good book on grammar and its usage. This annexure
will cover broad aspects of Subject-Verb-Agreement (S-V-A) and sequence of tense. Most of these problems
have already been discussed in Chapter 15: Common Errors in English.
SUBJECT-VERB-AGREEMENT
Subject-Verb-Agreement is one of the important areas in English grammar. The general rule of S-V-A is
as follows: a singular subject takes a singular verb and a plural subject takes a plural verb. This rule
appears to be simple on the face of it but problems arise when certain subjects denote things or concepts
which are plural in form, although their function is singular; some nouns singular in form but plural
in meaning and takes plural verb. Read the following sentences:
Singular subject
1. Rachana goes to a library everyday.
2. Sangeetha sings light songs.
Plural subject
1. They learn English grammar.
2. We take the course: English Language Skills.
Subject plural in form but singular in function
1. Ten years is a long period
2. Fifty kilograms of rice is sufficient for us.
Subject singular in form but plural in meaning
1. The people are requested to sit silently.
2. The cattle are gazing in the meadow.
To remove further confusions of using a singular noun in accordance with its verb and plural noun in
accordance with its verb refer to rules from 1 to 26 in Chapter 15.
COMMON ERRORS IN ENGLISH

Real subject
Another confusion in this grammatical aspect is that the verb must agree in number with its real subject and
not with any other noun that may precede it. Read the examples given here:
1. One of my friends is a doctor.
2. Either of these two candidates is going to be selected.
Two subjects
When two subjects are joined by no less than, as well as, together with, with, not along with, in addition to
etc. the verb agrees with the first in number and person. The following examples demonstrate this point:
1. Ravi has come with his friends.
2. The boys as well as their teacher are going for a picnic.
Agreement of indefinite Pronouns with Verbs
The indefinite pronouns such as:
anybody anything everything any one
anyone everyone somebody nothing someone something
generally take singular verbs. The following examples give us an idea:
1. If anybody is willing to do this exercise do it.
2. Is anyone there?
Grammar and Usage: A Review 427
3. Everyone was tried and failed.

4. Nothing is impossible.
The indefinite pronouns such as:
all some few several many none
generally take plural verbs. The following examples illustrate the point:
1. All are equal in the eyes of God.
2. A few books of this author are published.
3. Many of us believe in God.
4. Several girls are coming for picnic.
Relative Pronouns
When the subject is a relative pronoun, the verb agrees in number and person with the noun or pronoun to
which the relative pronoun refers. The following examples strengthen this point:
1. I who am your friend should be believed.
2. He who is a liar should be condemned.
3. They that were caught were hanged.
For further details refer to the Chapter 15: Common Errors in English. If a relative pronoun has two
antecedents (nouns or pronouns it stands for) and these are not the same person, it agrees in person with
the noun nearest to it and takes the verb accordingly. The following examples give us an idea:
1. I am the person, who is the most concerned.
2. You are the man, who has been chosen.
Though this grammatical concept is taught at a very early stage of teaching English, experience, however,
shows that learners are unable to reflect their learning of this concept in their expression even at higher
levels. It is obvious that any deficiency in this area would lead to miscommunication, apart from producing
unacceptable English. In fact, a mastery over this concept of grammar is fundamental to the acquiring of
any competence in using English.
SEQUENCE OF TENSES
Sequence of tense means arrangement of verbs in the main and sub-ordinate clauses. There are some rules
that regulate the tense of the verb in the sub-ordinate clause. These rules are usually referred to as rules of
sequence of tenses. Often errors in the sequence of tenses are occurred due to lack of knowledge in gram-
mar and ignorance of the rules. In this regard an acquaintance with these rules will prove to be of immense
help to learners to avoid these errors. You should go through the following sentences carefully to avoid these
errors. Broadly speaking, there are only three main rules about the sequence of tenses and all other rules
centre round these three.
Rule: 1
When the verb in the main clause of a complex sentence is in the past tense, the verb in the sub-ordinate
clause should be in the past tense.
The following examples illustrate this rule:
1. The principal wanted to know why you were irregular.
2. He said that he was not guilty.
Exceptions: There are some exceptions to this rule.
(A) When the sub-ordinate clause expresses a universal truth, it may be in the present tense, even if the
verb in the main clause is in past tense. The examples given below explain this:
1. Copernicus proved that the earth moves round the Sun.
2. Newton explained that the gravitation of the earth makes things fall down.
(B) When the sub-ordinate clause comes after than, it may be put in any tense required by the context.
Analysis of the given examples here clarifies the concept.
1. He liked him better than he likes you.
2. Kavitha was richer than her brothers.
(C) The conjunctions as if and as though always take a past tense after them in the sub-ordinate clause.
Study the following examples:
1. The child wept as if he were injured badly.
2. He takes airs as though he were the only singer in India.
Rule: 2
When the verb in the main clause is in the present or future tense, the verb in the sub-ordinate clause may
be in any tense that the context requires. Study the examples:
1. (A) Kavitha feels that he is honest.
(B) Kavitha feels that he was honest.
(C) Kavitha feels that he will be honest.
2. (A) Kavitha will feel that he is honest.
(B) Kavitha will feel that he was honest.
(C) Kavitha will feel that he will be honest.
Rule: 3
If the verb lest connects a subordinate clause with the main clause, should must always occur in the verb
of the subordinate clause. Read the following examples:
1. Kavitha works hard lest she should fail.
2. We started early lest we should miss the train.
For more details regarding the use of verb and to acquire competence refer to Chapter 15: Common
Errors in English.
Appendix B
Speech Acts
1. Expressing One’s Opinions or Ideas
Positively
In my opinion … As far as I’m concerned…………
What I think is … In his/her opinion …………..
My point of view is …. According to the present situation…
I think … I feel that ….
In my view … What I want to say …
Negatively
I don’t think so… It may not be acceptable …
We may not consider your idea ….
2. Asking for Someone’s Opinions

Is it acceptable to you …?
I do not think that your opinion …
I appreciate your opinion, but…
Do you think that …?
What do you feel/think about …?
Are you sure that …?
3. Defending One’s Opinion

What I’m trying to say is …
Yes, you may be correct but the fact is …
Yes, but what I really mean is … On the contrary, I …
What I feel is …
My point of view is …
4. Agreeing/Supporting Other People’s Opinions

In my opinion, Mr. X is right. Yes, that’s right.
Mr. X raised some good points. I agree with you.
Mr. X put it very effectively. Yes, you are right.
I think so. Exactly
I too think in the same way. I do accept it.
That’s what I feel too. It is my opinion too.
5. Disagreeing/Contradicting Other People’s Opinions

I don’t agree with you. You can’t say that.
That is not the issue/problem. These are not valid reasons.
That is not the point to consider. But surely…
I don’t think so. I am not agreeing with you.
6. Giving Reasons
The reason for this is …
We can clarify this by explaining…
We can justify this by giving reasons…
…that’s why I consider this …
The reasons for this problem are …
I think … is right because …
…and so I think that …
7. Asking for Reasons

May I know why you are thinking in this way …?
Let me also know the reasons for your decision.
Why do you think that ….?
What makes you feel that ….?
Will you please give reasons for this?
What are your reasons for refusing or accepting this?
8. Stating Something is Right or Wrong

Right Wrong
That’s right. That isn’t right.
That’s exactly. Absolutely not.
I’m sure that is right. I’m sure that is not.
9. Expressing Certainty and Uncertainty Probability and Possibility

There is no need to discuss on this …
There is no point in arguing on the established principle…
I’m absolutely certain that …
There may be …
I don’t think that …
I’m sure that …
Speech Acts 431
Perhaps …
Most probably…
There is definitely…
There may be …
I’m not sure if…
Those could/may/might/happen…
I don’t think that …
10. Expressing Liking/Disliking

What I prefer is …. What I like is ….
What I like best is…. I’m not at all keen on….
What I don’t like about …. I enjoy ….
I like your point of view….
11. Expressing Interest or Indifference

I would like to know more about ….
I’m keen on….
Please tell me more about….
I don’t care….
I’m interested in …
What a boring topic….
I’d like to do something on…
….sounds interesting
…. doesn’t interest me
…creates interest.
12. Stating a Preference

I prefer…. to ….
I’d rather….
This is more preferable ….
Generally people prefer….
13. Making Comparisons

…is not as …as …
…are as …as …
…is much more important than …
…are less important than…
You have to compare … with …
You can’t compare … with …
14. Praising
…. is the most useful … I’ve ever seen.
…is the most effective … I’ve never seen.
…is the best … I know.
…is the most interesting…
…is the most practical…
15. Expressing Intentions

In five years time I’ll…
I like to …
I wish to …
I want to …
I intend to …
I am going to …
When I complete this I’ll …
16. Expressing Personal Insights

I realised that …
I learnt that …
I found out about…
It became clear that …
It is obvious that …
17. Making Conjectures

I think that …
I feel that …
Mr. A works like …
Mr. B could be a ….
Mr. X thinks …
…makes me think of …
18. Expressing Doubt

I have my doubts about that …
I can’t say if …
Do you think that …? I doubt it.
It’s very doubtful whether …
You haven’t convinced me yet.
You may have a point there, but I’m still not sure…
Ok, but …
GETTING THINGS DONE

1. Asking Someone to Do Something or Not to Do Something
Will you please …..? Don’t…
Kindly do this… Could you……?
Never… Would you please…?
Stop talking…
2. Giving Instructions
Put it on the right side… then …
Move…to the right/left.
Speech Acts 433
Open the… and place it on…

Remove the…
Turn the dial clockwise and then…
Take red wire…
Facing the front of machine, find…
Rotate the disc clockwise.
3. Asking for Confirmation or Giving Confirmation

What you expressed is correct but…
Yes, that’s what I wanted to say.
Actually, that’s what I meant.
I do accept your proposal.
Let us confirm this proposal.
Do you want to say….?
Did you say that….?
… is that what you mean?
Do we have to work out that project?
4. Insisting
We must follow the instructions clearly.
We must stick to the rules.
I have to insist on…
Let’s not do that project.
We have to complete this project…
5. Expressing Understanding
I can understand your problem, but…
I didn’t hear what you said. Could you speak up please?
I’ve got that point.
That’s very clear now.
I didn’t get your point. Could you repeat…
I didn’t understand your last sentence.
Pardon!
6. Making Suggestions
Let’s start the discussion on…
Let’s start with…
I suggest that each of us…
Why don’t we…?
What about…?
Let’s come to the conclusion….
Let’s start a new venture…
7. Complaining
She never expresses anything.
She always creates a problem.

He talks all the time.
He never gives a chance to anyone.
He won’t consider this point.
He won’t let me do that project.
He keeps interrupting.
He always makes silly remarks.
He criticises everyone.
8. Expressing for Particular Situations

Role Play: Assigning Roles
Would you like to be…?
Would you like to be a team leader?
Would you like to be a Project Manager and…?
9. Meeting People: Introducing Someone

This is Anil…
Meet my friend, Anil.
Do you know…?
I’d like you to meet…
Have you met…?
Ravi, meet my friend…
This is my classmate Anil.
10. Response
Glad to meet you.
Pleased to meet you.
Nice meeting you.
11. Discussions: Interrupting

Just a minute please…
Could you stop here and explain…?
Could I question your point?
Before you start, allow me…
12. Giving Evasive Answers

Well, let me decide.
Well, let me think.
I can’t say.
I can’t explain…
I am not sure.
I wouldn’t know…
Speech Acts 435
ASKING THE WAY: GIVING DIRECTIONS

Words indicating directions:
Towards North
Towards South
Towards East
Towards West
To our left
To our right
In front of
Opposite to
Beside…
Behind…
Adjacent to…
Front
Back
Up
Down
…yards away from…
Go straight ahead…
Go straight on…
Go straight
Turn left
Take a left
Turn right
Take a right
Go past…
Keep going until you get to…
Take the first/second turn on your left/right
Indicating specific landmarks:
At the right corner you find…
Near the electric transformer
Beside the Head Post Office
At the cross roads
Opposite to the Hi-Tech city
Distance in time:
Ten minutes walk from…
Five minutes ride on a scooter from…
Two minutes drive on a car from…
Appendix C
One Word Substitutes
Words Denoting Groups
APHID : A group of very small insects
ANTHOLOGY : A collection of poems
ARMY : A number of soldiers
ARMADA : A fleet of warships
ARCHIPELAGO : A group of closely related islands
BATTALION : A group of army
BOUQUET : A collection of flowers
CABAL : A group of political people
CATCH : A number of fish taken in a net
CHOIR : A number of singers in a church
CHEST : A number of drawers
CLIQUE : A small group of people
CONSTELLATION : A number of stars grouped together
CORTEGE : A number of people following a funeral
COTERIE : A small group of people with shared activities, interests, tastes, etc.
COVEN : A group of witches
CREW : A number of sailors manning a ship
FLEET : A number of ships, collection of vehicles
FLOTILLA : A group of boats or small especially ships sailing together
GANG : A number of workmen, thieves, etc.
GALAXY : A group of very talented or famous people
GROVE : A small group of trees
HAMLET : A cluster of houses in a village
HERBARIUM : A collection of dried plants
JURY, PANEL : A number of Jurymen engaged on a case
ORCHESTRA : A body of singers equipped with musical instruments
PLATOON : A group of soldiers
One Word Substitutes 437
POSSE : A group of constables called to enforce the law

POULTRY : A collection of fowls, ducks etc.
TROUPE : A number of artists, dancers or acrobats
SUITE : A set of rooms in a hotel
SCHOOL : A large number of fish or whales etc. swimming together
Words Denoting Places

APIARY : A place where bees are kept
AQUARIUM : A place where fishes are kept
ARCADE : A covered usually lined with shops
ARCHIVE : A place where Government records are kept
BARRACKS : A building for the lodging and accommodation of soldiers
CACHE : A place where treasures, stores, ammunition are hidden
CANTONMENT : A place where soldiers are quartered
CONVENT : A residence for nuns
CRÈCHE : A nursery where children are kept
DOMICILE : A place where one lives permanently
DORMITRY : The sleeping rooms in a college or public institution
GYMNASIUM : A place where athletic exercises are performed
GARAGE : A place for housing cars
HANGER : A place for housing aeroplanes
LAIR : A resting place of wild animals
MINT : A place where money is made
MONASTERY : A residence for monks or priests
OBSERVATORY : A place where astronomical observations are made
ORPHANAGE : A place where orphans are housed
QUAY : A place where ships are loaded or unloaded
SANATORIUM : A place like a hospital where patients who have a lasting illness or who
are recovering from illness are treated
Words Pertaining to the Nature of a Human Being
ALCHOHOLIC : One who has an irresistible desire for alcoholic drinks
ALTRUIST : One who devotes his life to the welfare and interests of other people
ATHEIST : A person who does not believe in the existence of God
ASTRONOMER : A person who is skilled in the science of celestial bodies
ARSENAL : A place where weapons and ammunition are stored
ANONYMOUS : A letter or a document which does not bear the name of its writer
BANKRUPT : A person who cannot pay his debts
BELLIGERENT : One who is engaged in fighting a battle or war
BIBLIOPHILE : A lover of books
BIGOT : A person blindly attached to any opinion, system or party
CANNIBAL : One who eats human flesh
CYNIC : A person who believes that people do not do things for good
DILETTANTE : An admirer of fine arts
EFFEMINATE : A man who is having the qualities of a woman
ECCENTRIC : A person who has strange habits
EGOIST : A person who is in love with himself or self-centered

EPICUREAN : Relating to or intended for special pleasure and enjoyment:
an epicurean feast
FANATIC : A person who is too enthusiastic about something
FASTIDIOUS : One who cannot be easily pleased
GERRULOUS : One who talks too much
HERMIT : One who retires from society to live a solitary life
HERETIC : One who acts religion
HUMBUG : Is a dishonest person
HYPOCHONDRIAC : One who has exaggerated anxiety about one’s health
HYPOCRITE : A person who makes a pretense of virtue
ILLEGIBLE : A handwriting which cannot be easily read
ILLITERATE : One who is unable to read or write
IMMIGRANT : One who comes to settle in a country
INDEFATIGBLE : One who is never giving up or stopping even when tired or experiencing
difficulties; tireless
INDELIBLE : Incapable of being effaced, or cancelled or obliterated
INFALLIBLE : One who is not liable to commit mistakes or errors
LOQUACIOUS A person who talks too much
MISOGYNIST : A hater of women
MARTYR : One who dies for a noble cause
MISANTHROPIST : A person who hates other people and avoids human society
METICULOUS : A person who is too careful for details
OMNIPOTENT : One who is all powerful
OMNISCIENT : One who knows everything
OPTIMIST : One who always looks at the brighter side of things
OMNIPRESENT : One who is present every where
ORATOR : One who makes good speeches
PESSIMIST : One who looks at the dark side of things
PHILANTHROPIST : One who does good to one’s fellowmen
PHILISTINE : A person of material outlook and indifferent to culture
PHILOLOGIST : One who is versed in the science of languages
POLYGLOT : One who knows many languages
PSYCHIATRIST : One who is well-versed in the medical treatment of diseases of the
mind
SACRILEGE : Violating religious things
SADIST : A person who takes pleasure by persecuting or torturing other human
beings and committing cruelties on them
SATURINE : One who is grave and gloomy
SOMNABULIST : One who walks in his sleep
SOMNILOQUIST : One who talks in his sleep
SOT, TOPER : One who is a habitual drunkard
STOIC : A person who is indifferent to pains and pleasures
TEETOTALER : One who abstains from alcoholic drinks
VETERAN : A person with long experience of any occupation
Words Related to the Government

ARISTOCRACY : Government by the nobility
AUTOCRACY : Government by a sovereign with uncontrolled authority
BUREAUCRACY : A government in which all the powers are concentrated in the hands
of the officers
DEMOCRACY : Government of the people, for the people and by the people
HAGIOCRACY : Government ruled by priests or ecclesiastics
OLIGARCHY : Government ruled by a few
PLUTOCRACY : Government ruled by the wealthy
MOBOCRACY : The government run by the crowds
THEOCRACY : Government by divine guidance
DESPOT : A ruler with absolute powers
Words Pertaining to Marriage
BACHELOR : A man who is not and never has been married
BIGAMIST : One who marries a second wife or husband while the legal spouse is
alive
CELIBATE : One vowed to a single or unmarried life
FIANCE : One engaged to be married
MONOGAMIST : One who has only one wife or husband at a time
POLYGYNIST : Man who has more than one wife at a time
POLYANDRIST : Woman who has more than one husband at a time
SPINSTER : A woman who has not been married, especially an older woman
Words Used for Scientific Instruments

BAROMETER : An instrument used for measuring the pressure of air
DIPSTICK : A rod for dipping into a tank to measure the depth of the liquid
LITHOSCOPE An instrument for distinguishing precious stones
MICROSCOPE : An instrument which magnifies small objects into large ones
MICROMETER : An instrument for measuring minute distances
MANOMETER : An instrument for measuring gases
ODOMETER : Device for measuring the distance a vehicle travels
PERISCOPE : An instrument for enabling persons inside a submarine to see objects above
the surface of the water
SPEEDOMETER : An instrument for measuring the speed of motor cars
SEISMOGRAPH : An instrument for detecting earth quakes
THERMOMETER : An instrument used for measuring heat or cold
Literary Words
AXIOM : A statement which is accepted as true without proof
AUTOBIOGRAPHY : A life history of a person written by self
BIOGRAPHY : A life history of a person written by another person
CHROMATICS : The science of colours
DIRECTORY : Book of names and addresses
ENCYCLOPEDIA : A book containing information on all branches of knowledge
EPIC : A long poem based on a noble theme

EPILOGUE : The concluding part of a drama or a literary work
EPITAPH : Words inscribed on a tomb
FASCIMILE, FAX : An exact copy of handwriting, printing or of a picture
GLOSSARY : A list of explanations of rare, technical or obsolete words
HYPERBOLE : An exaggerated statement
HOMOPHONE : Words are different, spellings and meanings are different but sound is
same
HOMONYM : Words are same but pronunciation and meanings are different
JARGON : Technical words or expressions used by a particular profession or group
of people and difficult for others to understand
PLAGIARISM : Passing off another author’s work as one’s own
Words Denoting Profession or Trade
ADMIRAL : The commander of a fleet
ARCHAEOLOGIST : One who studies past through the objects left behind
ACROBAT : One who performs daring gymnastic feats
AMBIDEXTER : One who is skillful in using both hands
ANTHROPOLOGIST : One who studies the evolution of mankind
CONJUROR : One who performs tricks by sleight of hand
CHARLATAN : One who pretends to know a great deal about everything
CONNOISSEUR : One who has special skills in judging art, music etc.
CORONER : One who inquires into any violent or unnatural death
CORRESPONDENT : One who regularly contributes local news or special articles to news-
papers
DEMAGOGUE : A leader of the people who can sway his followers by his speech
EMIGRANT : One who leaves his native land to settle abroad
EXPORTER : One sends goods to other countries
EVESDROPPER : One who listens to the conversation of others
ETHNOLOGIST : One who is well-versed in the science of human races, their varieties
and origin
HAWKER : One who travels from place to place selling miscellaneous things
IMPORTER : One who brings goods from a foreign country
JANITOR : One who is hired to take care of a building
JOURNALIST : One who writes for newspapers
LINGUIST : One who is well-versed in many languages
LEXICOGRAPHER : One who compiles a dictionary
MASSEUR : One who treats diseases by rubbing muscles
PATRON : One who helps and encourages another in his work
PEDANT : One who makes a display of his learning
PEDESTRIAN : One who travels on foot
PETROLOGY : The scientific study of rocks
PHILATELIST : One who collects postage stamps
PHILOLOGIST : One who is versed in the science of languages
REPORTER : One gives an account of a happening to a newspaper
STEVEDORE : One who loads and unloads ships
SOPHIST : One whose reasoning is clever yet false

TINKER : One who goes from place to place mending pots, pans etc.
VETERNARIAN : One who is skilled in the treatment of diseases of animals
Appendix D
Lexical Items
HOMOPHONES
Words which are pronounced like another word but with a different meaning and spelling are called ‘homo-
phones’. This feature in words leads to serious errors in transmitting the message. The following explanation
of words may help you to overcome these errors:
1. Aid, Aide
Aid = N: help of any kind
Aide = N: an assistant to a person
2. Allowed, Aloud
Allowed = to give permission
Aloud = with a loud voice
3. Assent, Ascent
Assent = agreement
Ascent = upward movement
4. Alter, Altar
Alter = to change
Altar = an elevated place at which religious rites are performed
5. Air, Heir
Air = a mixture of gases that surrounds the earth and forms its atmosphere
Heir = a person who inherits the property, rank, title etc.
6. Alms, Arms
Alms – N = gift to old / sick / poor people
Arms = weapons
7. Base, Bass
Base = the lowest part of something, especially in which it rests, is supported
Bass = an electric guitar that produces very low notes
8. Bear, Bare
Bear = to endure
Bare = naked
Lexical Items 443
9. Berth, Birth
Berth = a place to sleep in a train or ship
Birth = being born
10. Bight, Bite
Bight = a long inward curve in a coast
Bite = to cut into sometimes with teeth
11. Bloc, Block
Bloc = N: A group of countries or people joined together by a common interest
Block = N: A large solid piece of wood, stone, metal etc., usually with a flat surface
12. Bold, Bowled
Bold = Adj: confident and brave
Bowled = V: to roll a ball in games of bowls
13. Bough, Bow
Bough = N: any of the main branches of a tree
Bow = N: a piece of wood bent into a curve by a tight string joining its ends, used as
weapon
V: to bend the head or body as a sign of respect or greeting
14. Breach, Breech
Breach = N: the breaking of or failure to do what is required by law
Breech = N: the back part of a gun barrel
15. Bread, Bred
Bread = N: food made of flour, water and usually yeast
Bred = V: (past tense of breed) (of animals) to prudence young ones
16. Break, Brake
Break = to divide into pieces by force
Brake = a device for slowing or stopping a car
17. Bail, Bale
Bail = security for prisoner’s reappearance
Bale = package of goods
18. Cannon, Canon
Cannon = N: (a) an old type of large heavy guns that fired solid metal balls (b) an automatic
gun fixing shells
Canon = N: a general rule or principle by which something is judged
19. Canvas, Canvass
Canvas = a closely woven heavy cloth of hemp flax or cotton
Canvass = to solicit votes or opinions
20. Cast, Caste
Cast = N: all actors in a play
Caste = N: any of the Hindu social classes
21. Cache, Cash
Cache = N: a hidden store of weapons, food, money etc.
Cash = N: money in coins or notes
22. Check, Cheque
Check = to stop
Cheque = written order to a bank for money
23. Ceiling, Sealing

Ceiling = top surface of room
Sealing = to stamp with a seal
24. Council, Counsel
Council = an assembly of persons or representatives
Counsel = advice, opinion, adviser
25. Cede, Seed
Cede = to yield; to grant
Seed = to plant seed or sow
26. Court, Caught
Court = a place where trials or other law cases are held
Caught = past tense of catch: to stop and hold a moving object
27. Cause, Corps
Cause = produces an effect
Corps (pl) = military force composed of two or more divisions
28. Cite, Sight, Site
Cite = V: to give a source
Sight = N: eyesight
Site = N: a location
29. Coarse, Course
Coarse = rough texture
Course = manner, class, route, part of a meal
30. Cygnet, Signet
Cygnet = N: a young swan
Signet = N: a seal often set in a ring
31. Dear, Deer
Dear = beloved or loved
Deer = a wild animal which runs fast, and of which the male usually has horns
32. Discreet, Discrete
Discreet = Adj:tactful, modest, trustworthy, prudent
Discrete = individually, distinct or separate
33. Elicit, Illicit
Elicit = to draw facts, a response etc., from somebody
Illicit = unlawful, forbidden
34. Fair, Fare
Fair = periodical market
Fare = the price charged for transporting a passenger
35. Faint, Feint
Faint = to lose consciousness
Feint = a pretense
36. Farther, Father
Farther = physical distance
Father = a male parent of somebody
37. Flour, Flower
Flour = N: a fine powder obtained by grinding grain
Flower = N: the part of a plant from which seed or fruit develops
Lexical Items 445
38. Forego, Forgo

Forego = to go before
Forgo = to give up
39. Fort, Fought
Fort = a building or buildings specially made or strengthened for the military defence of an
area
Fought = past tense of the word fight; to struggle against somebody or something using physical
force
40. Forth, Fourth
Forth = out, onward
Fourth = ordinal number for four
41. Freeze, Frieze
Freeze = harden into ice
Frieze = heavy wool cloth
42. Gussed, Guest
Gussed = surmised
Guest = visitor
43. Gilt, Guilt
Gilt = overlaid with gold
Guilt = crime, sin
44. Hare, Hair
Hare = an animal like a rabbit but with longer ears and back legs and able to run very fast
Hair = any of the fine strands that grow from the skin of people and animals
45. Hale, Hail
Hale = healthy
Hail = to describe somebody/something as being very good or special; or to come from or
have been born in a particular place
46. Hangar, Hanger
Hangar = N: a large shed in which aircrafts are kept
Hanger = N: a curved piece of wood, plastic or wire with a hook at the top used for hanging
garments
47. Heal, Heel
Heal = to make healthy
Heel = the back part of human foot
Take to one’s heels = to run away
48. Heard, Herd
Heard = past tense of the word hear
Herd = a group
49. Hoard, Horde
Hoard = to store away
Horde = a swarm, a wandering tribe or group
50. Hoarse, Horse
Hoarse = Adj: (of the voice) rough and harsh voice
Horse = N: a large animal with four legs, a mane and a tail
51. Hole, Whole

Hole = a cavity
Whole = complete, intact
52. Hours, Ours
Hours = time
Ours = possessive pronoun indicating ownership
53. Insight, Incite
Insight = perception, intuition, understanding
Incite = to urge on, to stimulate an action
54. Idle, Idol
Idle = doing nothing
Idol = image of a God
55. Knot, Not
Knot = N: (1) a fastening made by tying a piece or pieces of string or rope etc.
(2) (Uusually plural) (nautical) unit of speed used by ship or aircraft
Not = Adv: used with an auxiliary or modal to form negative
56. Lead, Led
Lead = N: (element Pb) heavy soft bluish-gray metal; writing part of a pencil
Led = past tense of the word lead
57. Leach, Leech
Leach = V: (tech) (from something) (into something) to make chemicals or minerals etc., drain
away from the soil
Leech = N: a small worm usually living in the water attaches itself to the victims and sucks
their blood
58. Leased, Least
Leased = to pay money for rights
Least = the smallest portion
59. Lessen, Lesson
Lessen = V: to become or make something less
Lesson = N: a period of time given to learning or teaching a class
60. Lightening, Lightning
Lightening = is making a light
Lightning = accompanies thunder
61. Loan, Lone
Loan = something lent or borrowed
Lone = solitary
62. Lumbar, Lumber
Lumbar = Adj:of the lower part of the back
Lumber = N: pieces of furniture that are no longer useful
V: to move in a very slow, heavy, awkward way
63. Mantle, Mantel
Mantle = shelf over fireplace
Mantel = a sleeveless coat
64. Manner, Manor
Manner = N: a way in which something is done or happens
Manor = V: a large country house surrounded by an estate
Lexical Items 447
65. Marshal, Martial

Marshal = an official
Martial = military
66. Maze, Maize
Maze = labyrinth
Maize = type of corn
67. Medal, Meddle
Medal = an award
Meddle = to interfere
68. Metal, Mettle
Metal = N: a solid mineral substance
Mettle = N: ability to endure difficulties and to face opposition
69. Might, Mite
Might = V: modal used as the past tense of ‘may’
N: great strength of power
Mite = N: small child or animal especially an object of something
70. Miner, Minor
Miner = one who works in a mine
Minor = smaller, less serious or less important than others
71. None, Nun
None = not any, not at all
Nun = woman who leads secluded religious life in a convent
72. Pair, Pare, Pear
Pair = two similar things, couple
Pare = to cut into thin slices
Pear = a fleshy sweet fruit
73. Palate, Pallet
Palate = the roof of one’s mouth
Pallet = a tool, platform or mattress
74. Pale, Pail
Pale = Adj:(of a person’s face etc.) having little colour or less colour than usual
Pail = N: a bucket
75. Pedal, Peddle, Peddler
Pedal = N: a foot lever, a flat bar that drives or controls a machine
Peddle = V: (1) to try to sell goods by going from house to house, or from place to place
(2) to spread or promote an idea or a rumour
Peddler = N: a person who sells illegal drugs
76. Principal, Principle
Principal = head of a school/college
Principle = fundamental truth, law, rule of life
77. Profit, Prophet
Profit = gain, advantage, benefit
Prophet = inspired, founder of religion
78. Passed, Past
Passed = past tense of the word pass
Past = period of time before the present
79. Peal, Peel

Peal = ringing of bells
Peel = N: outside covering
V: to cut away the covering
80. Peer, Pier
Peer = N: an equal
V: to look keenly
Pier = dock for ships or fishing boats
81. Plain, Plane
Plain = Adj:simple, ordinary
N: level, treeless land
Plane = N: an airplane; a tool
V: to level
82. Pore, Pour
Pore = N: tiny skin opening
Pour = V: to flow in a stream especially downwards
83. Puttee, Putty
Puttee = N: long piece of cloth wound round the legs to act as a protection
Putty = N: a soft oily substance that hardens after a few hours a soft substance which hardens
after some used especially for sealing glass in windows
84. Rapped, Rapt, Wrapped
Rapped = knocking as on a door
Rapt = enthralled, enraptured
Wrapped = covered
85. Review, Revue
Review = a survey of report
Revue = a musical show
86. Rhyme, Rime
Rhyme = matching of sounds in reverse order
Rime = frost
87. Road, Rode, Rowed
Road = path for travel
Rode = V: past tense of the word ride
Rowed = V: past tense of the word row
88. Rung, Wrung
Rung = N: step of a ladder
Wrung = V: past tense of the word wring; to twist or squeeze
89. Rye, Wry
Rye = a grass
Wry = distorted
90. Right, Rite, Write
Right = correct
Rite = religious ceremony
Write = to communicate
Lexical Items 449
91. Root, Route

Root = the part of a plant below the surface of earth
Route = course, way
92. Sell, Cell
Sell = to dispose of in exchange for money
Cell = small room or cavity
93. Soar, Sore
Soar = to rise
Sore = physically painful or sensitive as a wound
94. Sac, Sack
Sac = a pouch like part
Sack = a bag
95. Scull, Skull
Scull = is an oar
Skull = bone of the head
96. Steal, Steel
Steal = to take dishonestly
Steel = iron alloyed with carbon
97. Stile, Style
Stile = steps
Style = distinctive manner of doing something
98. Storey, Story
Storey = one level of a house
Story = a narrative
99. Straight, Strait
Straight = direct not curved
Strait = narrow waterway
100. Swat, Swot
Swat = V: to hit something or somebody especially with a flat object
Swot = V: to study something very hard especially in preparation for examinations
101. Team, Teem
Team = a number of persons associated in some joint action
Teem = to be in abundance or swarm
102. Threw, Through
Threw = V: past tense of the word throw
Through = Prep: by, because of, from beginning to end
103. Tracked, Tract
Tracked = followed
Tract = N: a wide stretch of countryside; short (religious or political) pamphlet; system of
organs in the body which are linked together
104. Troop, Troupe
Troop = a company of people, soldiers or animals
Troupe = a company of performers
105. To, Too, Two
To = Prep: showing: direction/position/time/person/relationship
Too = Adv: also, in addition
Two = a number
106. Vain, Vane, Vein
Vain = without real significance, useless
Vane = a device rotating freely in a horizontal plane and so mounted and formed as to point
into the wind
Vein = one of the system of branching vessels carrying blood from various parts of the body
to the heart
107. Verse, Worse
Verse = line of poem, stanza, poetry
Worse = comparative degree of bad
108. Veil, Vale
Veil = covering cloth, usually transparent, especially wore by women
Vale = valley
109. Way, Weigh
Way = road, direction, passage
Weigh = to find how heavy a thing is
110. Wet, Whet
Wet = containing water
Whet = to sharpen by rubbing
111. Wrest, Rest
Wrest = to take something away from somebody, especially after a violent struggle
Rest = to relax
112. Wares, Wears
Wares = items for sale
Wears = to be clothed in
113. Weak, Week
Weak = lacking strength
Week = seven days
114. Weather, Whether
Weather = atmospheric condition
Whether = if
115. Who’s, Whose
Who’s = contraction of ‘who is’
Whose = possessive pronoun indicating ownership
116. Your, You’re
Your = possessive pronoun indicating ownership
You’re = contraction of ‘you are’
117. Yoke, Yolk
Yoke = N: harsh treatment and lack of freedom that is difficult to bear
Yolk = N: the round yellow part in the middle of an egg
118. You, Yew
Yew = N: a small tree which has dark green leaves all through the year and small red
berries
You = personal pronoun: the person or people being addressed
Lexical Items 451
EXERCISES
1. Give homophone for each of the following words:
(i) know → (xi) sees →
((ii) seen → (xii) peace →
(iii) or → (xiii) him →
(iv) read → (xiv) knot →
(v) sea → (xv) cue →
(vi) waste → (xvi) higher →
(vii) scene → (xvii) boat →
(viii) lesson → (xviii) court →
(ix) ate → (xiv) sale →
(x) bough → (xx) sent →
2. Identify the homophone pairs from the following words:
(i) stare (xi) chord (xxi) browse
(ii) wait (xii) nose (xxii) bored
(iii) pain (xiii) band (xxiii) knows
(iv) knew (xiv) brows (xxiv) sought
(v) addition (xv) raise (xxv) cord
(vi) pane (xvi) board (xxvi) here
(vii) stair (xvii) sign (xxvii) laze
(viii) weight (xviii) hear (xxviii) banned
(ix) new (xix) lays (xxix) rays
(x) edition (xx) sort (xxx) sine
3. Read the sentences below and identify the error and replace it with the correct homophonic word:
(i) In the temple and church “coral call to worship”.
(ii) Kavitha was pouring over an old map of the area.
(iii) They sang and dance at parties to make ends meat.
(iv) Kavi asked his employees on the same sight to celebrate its history.
(v) Exercise your vocal chords before you participate in the concert.
(vi) The chef has a flare to cook for rare dishes.
(vii) Anil stepped over the fowl line before he threw the ball.
(viii) Recently, large hangars are constructed for planes in the airport.
(ix) Kavitha has a dual role as a composer and conductor.
4. Read the extract below and identify the homophones and write them down in your notebook:
One night a knight and hoarse horse
Rode out upon a road
The male wore mail for war and would
Explored a wood that glowed.
His tale I’ll tell from head to tail.
’ll write his rite up right.
A hidden site our hero found,
A sight that shall cite.
With woe he shouted, “whoe!” as rain
Without a break did reign
To brake, he pulled the rein, and like

A shattered pane felt pain.
The poor knight met a witch which made
Sweat pour from every pore
He’d never seen a scene like that
His sore heart couldn’t soar
Then they a game for truffles played,
In which he mined her mind
To prove who was the better bettor
And find who should be fined.
He won one twice, he won two, too
To grate on her felt great.
To wrest the rest he went for four,
And, at the fore, ate eight.
Due to her loss, the mourning witch,
Midst morning mist and dew,
Her truffles missed. I know no way,
Do I, to weigh her rue.
The razed field raised our brave’s fear,
As a swarm of scared fleas flees,
He heard a herd of dear deer pray
The pleas of prey. “Please, please.”
A grisly grizzly bear, all bare,
And a hare that had hair
And a foul fowl bawled that they were bold
In their pink skins they stood there.
The knight did see a blue whale wail
As it blew out plumes of sea.
“Yoo hoo, you who come riding here,
Please hear and pity me.”
Our knight began to reel, for real
The world whirled, so to speak
All the days of the week his sole soul felt
The dizzy daze of the weak.
Our heir to knighthood gave up
He felt the fare not fair
His wholly holy sword soared up
As he threw it through the air
Lexical Items 453
The bell has tolled, I’am told, the hour

To end our tale draws nigh
without ado, I bid adieu
So by your leave, bye-bye.
Lederer, Richard, The miracle of Language,
Simon & Schuster Inc., New York, 1991. p. 42-43.
HOMONYMS
1. Abode : 1. a house , a home
2. plural, past participle of abide – to tolerate or bear, somebody/
something
2. August : Adj 1. solemn and dignified
N 2. Eight month of the year
3. Are : V 1. to be form
2. unit of measurement
4 Arm : N 1. part of the body
2. weapon
5. Article : N 1. piece of writing in a newspaper or journal
2. thing or object
3. in grammar – ‘the’ is a definite article ‘a’ and ‘an’ are indefi-
nite articles
6. Band : N 1. a thin loop of material for tying things together
2. group of frequencies in a radio transmission
3. group of people
4. group of musicians
7. Barrow : 1. a small cart with two wheels, pulled or pushed by hand
2. a large pile of earth built over a burial place in ancient times
8. Base : N 1. a lowest part of something
Adj 2. not honorable, without moral principles
9. Bay : 1. barking of a dog
2. sweet leaf
3. part of the house protrudes outside the building
4. a prolonged way
10. Bead : N 1. a small piece of usually hard material with a hole through it
2. a drop of certain types of liquids
11. Beam : N 1. large block of wood used in buildings
2. ray (of light / sound)
V 1. to send out rays
2. to smile
12. Bent : N 1. a natural skill or interest
Adj. 2. dishonest person
3. past participle of bend
13. Bias : N 1. diagonally cutting
2. strong opinion in one direction
14. Bimonthly : Adj. 1. every two months

2. twice a month
15. Bleat : N 1. sound produced by sheep
2. weak, complaining cry
V 3. speak in a weak or complaining cry
16. Blind : Adj. 1. unable to see
N 2. a screen for a window
17. Bolt : 1. a narrow piece of metal used for fastening
N 2. measuring cloth, a quantity of cloth
18. Bomb : 1. a container filled with explosive material
2. complete failure
19. Boom : N 1. floating barrier across a harbor
2. low muffled sound
3. sudden increase in value/ sales/general prosperity
20. Boot : N 1. footwear which goes above the ankle
2. back part of a car
V 1. to kick
2. (computers) to carry out a set of instructions automatically
21. Bore : 1. to make a hole with tool
2. to make somebody loose interest
3. an annoying situation
4. strong and high wave that moves quickly along a narrow river
from the sea
22. Boss : N 1. A person who is in charge
2. round knob
23. Broadcast : N 1. radio/television program
V 2. to sow by throwing seeds by hand
24. Buffet : N 1. a counter where food and drink may be bought & eaten
V 2. slap
25. Cabbage : N 1. a round vegetable with green or purple leaves
N 2. a dull person without interest or ambition
26. Capital : N 1. decorated stone on the top of a column
2. large letter
3. main city of a country or a state
4. money which is invested
27. Chaff : 1. the outer covering of any grain used as food
N 2. somebody (about something) to make a joke about somebody
or tease somebody in a friendly way
28. Charge : N 1. money to be paid
2. a thing or person entrusted to the care of somebody/some-
thing
3. accusation (of an offense)
4. attack
5. amount of electric current
29. Chase : V 1. to run after somebody/ something in order to catch them
Tech. 2. to cut patterns or designs on metal
Lexical Items 455
30. Chicken : N 1. a domestic bird

Adj. 2. cowardly
31. Clove : 1. past participle of cleave: to split something by chopping it
N 2. the dried flower bud from a tropical tree, used as a spice
32. Cop : 1. to receive or suffer something unpleasant
2. not very good
33. Cope : 1. to deal successfully with something
2. a long loose garment worn by priests on special occasions
34. Copper : 1. a police officer
2. a chemical element
35. Court : N 1. a place where trials or other law cases are held
2. group of people living around a king
3. area where a game of tennis or squash is played
36. Cow : N 1. a female animal
V 2. to make somebody do as one wants by frightening them
37. Cue : 1. a few words or an action that give somebody the signal to do
something
2. a long wooden stick with a leather tip used for striking balls
in games such as snooker, billiards
38. Cuff : 1. the end of a coat or shirt sleeves at the wrist
2. to give somebody a light blow with the open hand especially
on the head
39. Defile : V 1. to make something dirty, no longer pure
2. a narrow way through mountains
40. Denomination : 1. a religious group or sect
2. a class of units within a range or sequence of money, number
etc.
41. Desert : Adj. 1. very dry, usually sandy place
N
V 2. to leave the armed forces without permission; abandoned
42. Diamond : N 1. a transparent precious stone
2. (baseball) the space inside the lines connecting the bases
43. Digest : N 1. summary
V 2. to turn the food into energy in the stomach and intestine
3. to ponder over a piece of information
44. Down : Adv 1. from a higher to a lower level
V 2. to finish a drink quickly
Adj. 3. sad, depressed
4. very fine soft feathers
45. Drill : N 1. a tool or machine with a pointed end for making holes
2. training in military exercise
3. a shallow for sowing seeds
4. a strong cotton cloth
46. Embellish : 1. to make something beautiful dress by adding lace
2. adding interesting or amusing (unreal) points to the story
47. Even : Adv. 1. used to emphasise something unexpected or surprising in what

one is saying or writing
Adj. 2. level, smooth, flat
48. Fell : V 1. to cut down a tree, to knock somebody to the ground by hit-
ting
N 2. an area of hills
49. Felt : 1. part participle of Feel
2 wool, hair or fur rolled flat into a thick cloth, hats felt hats/
slippers
50. Fence : N 1. a structure of rails, posts, wire, etc., especially one put round
a field or garden to mark a boundary
V 2. to fight with a long thin sword as a sport
N 3. a criminal who buys and sells stolen goods
51. Ferment : V 1. to change or make something change by means of a chemical
reaction involving especially yeast
N 2. political or social excitement or uncertainty
52. File : N 1. any of various types of drawer, shelf, holder, cover
V 2. to place something in order in a file
3. a metal tool with a rough surface for cutting or shaping hard
surfaces or for making them smooth
53. Fine : Adj. 1. of high quality
Adv 2. very well
N 3. a sum of money that must be paid for breaking a law or rule
54. Foot : N 1. the lowest part of the leg
2. a unit of rhythm in a line of poetry
3. manner of walking
55. Fry : V 1. to cook something in very hot fat or oil
N 2. (plural) young fishes, especially ones that have just come out
of their eggs
56. Fryer (also Frier) : 1. a large deep pan for frying food
2. a small young chicken suitable for frying
57. Gear : 1. equipment, clothing etc. needed for sports
2. a piece of apparatus or machinery for particular purpose
3. a set of wheels with teeth on their edge that revolves
4. to adopt something to a particular need
58. Goad : N 1. a pointed stick, used for making cattle move forwards
2. a thing urging a person to take action
V 3. somebody/something- to provoke or annoy a person/an animal
continually
59. Gorge : 1. valley in which river flows
2. eating excessively
60. Grill : 1. to cook something over/under a grill
2. to question somebody closely and for a long time often in an
unpleasant way
Lexical Items 457
61. Gridiron : N 1. a field for American football

N 2. a framework of metal bars used for cooking meat or fish over
an open fire
62. Guy : 1 man
2. a rope used to keep something, steady, secured, e.g.: to hold
a lent in place: tighten
3. to mock somebody/ something especially by copying them
in a funny way
63. Habit : N 1. the dress of nuns or monks
N 2. a thing that a person often does
64. Hamper : N 1. a large basket with a lid especially used to carry food
V 2. to prevent somebody’s free movement
65. Hike : 1. a long walk for pleasure
2. a sharp rise in prices, costs, etc.
66. Invalid : Adj. 1. not officially acceptable
N 2. a person made weak by illness or injury
V 3. to make or allow somebody to leave a job
67. Knot : N 1. a fastening made by tying piece or pieces of string
N 2. a unit of speed used by ships and aircraft
68. Last : N 1. instrument used by cobbler
Adj. 2. coming after all others in time or order
69. Lead : V 1. to show somebody the way especially by going in front
N 2. a chemical element
70. Light : N 1. a natural force that makes things visible
Adj. 2. easy to lift or move, not heavy
71. List : V 1. (of a ship)-to lean to one side
V 2. to make a list of things
72. Loco : 1. a railway engine
2. mad
73. Log : 1. a wooden piece
2. an official written record of events
74. Meet : V 1. to come together in the some place
N 2. a sporting context at which many competitors gather
75. Milk : V 1. to extract money dishonestly
N 2. a white liquid produced by female mammals
76. Minute : N 1. any of the 60 equal parts of an hour
Adj. 2. a very small in size or amount
77. Mould : 1. a hallow container with a particular shape
2. a usual/expected type
V 3. To guide or control the development of somebody
N 4. a fine soft growth like fur
5. a soft, fine loose earth, especially consisting of decayed veg-
etable matters
78. Movement : N 1. any of the main divisions of a long musical work
N 2. the action of moving
79. Mug : 1. the face of the person

2. large cup for drinking with a handle and without a saucer
3. a person who is easily deceived
4. an activity unlikely to be successful profitable
5. photo showing somebody’s shape
6. to attack and rob somebody violently especially in public
place
7. to learn something
80. Mule : 1. slipper open around the heel
2. animal used for carrying loads
81. Note : N 1. a short informal letter
V 2. to pay attention to something
82. Palm : N 1. the inner surface of the hand between the wrist and fingers
N 2. a tree that grows in warm or tropical climates, with no branches
and a mass of large, wide leaves at the top
83. Pad : N 1. a thick piece of soft material used to protect something from
rubbing against something
V 2. to walk with steady steps making a dull soft sound
84. Pink : Adj. 1. of a pale red colour
V 2. (of a car engine) to make small explosive sounds when not
running properly
85. Pristine : 1. on the original condition in the copy of the book’s first edi-
tion
2. fresh, clean
86. Purchase : N 1. the action or process of buying something
N 2. a firm hold or grip on something, e.g.: on a flat surface
87. Resort : N 1. a place where a lot of people go on holiday/vacation
V 2. act of using something, especially something bad or unpleas-
ant, because nothing else is possible
88. Retort : V 1. a quick, angry or humorous reply
N 2. a closed bottle with a long narrow bent
89. Rose : 1. present tense of rise
2. sweet smelling flower
3. any light pink wine
90. Roe : 1. The mass of eggs inside a female fish
2. A type of small deer
91. Row : 1. A number of things or persons arranged in a line
2. A noisy or a violent argument; a quarrel
92. Rustle : V 1. to make or cause something to make or dry leaves sound like
paper
2. to steal cattle
93. Saw : V 1. past tense of see
N 2. a tool that has a long blade with sharp teeth on one of its
edges
V 3. a tool used to cut something
N 4. a wise saying
Lexical Items 459
94. Screed : 1. a long and not very interesting speech

2. a layer of material e.g.: cement spread over, a floor to make
it smooth = a concrete screed
95. Seal : N 1. an animal that lives near and in the sea and eats fish
N 2. a piece of wax usually stamped with a design and fixed to a
document to show that it is genuine
96. Shoal : 1. a large group of fish/people
2. shallow place in the sea
3. bottom which can be seen when the water level is low
97. Slack : N 1. part of a rope etc. that hangs loosely
2. very small pieces of coal
98. Slough : 1. a very soft wet area of land, ( – a bad state of mind that is
hard to change)
2. to let skin, to cast something off
3. to abandon something
99. Slug : 1. a small creature like a snail, without a shell that moves
slowly
2. a bullet, a small amount of any strong alcoholic drink
3. to fight or compete fiercely until the contest is decided
100. Slur : V 1. utterance of sounds and words not clear
2. to harm somebody’s reputation by making unfair or false
statements about them
101. Smack : N 1. a shop blow given with the open hound
2. a loud sharp sound
V 3. to have a suggestion or taste of something, especially some-
thing unpleasant
N 4. a small boat for fishing
102. Sock : N 1. a piece of clothing usually made of wool, nylon or cotton that
is worn over the ankle
N 2. a strong blow especially hard punch-given to somebody on
the jaw
103. Sole : N 1. the bottom part of the foot
N 2. an edible flat fish that lives in the sea
Adj. 3. one and only
104. Solemn : 1. not happy-looking; serious
2. performed with dignity
105. Sordid : 1. (of conditions, places) dirty and unpleasant
2. (of people, behaviour) not honest/moral
106. Sow : V 1. to put or scatter seed in or on the ground
2. fully grown female pig
107. Spit : V 1. to make liquid, food, etc. come out of one’s mouth
N 2. a liquid that forms in the mouth
N 1. a long thin metal rod pushed through the meat to cook
2. a small narrow point of land that extends into the sea or a
lake
108. Stalk : 1.
supports the stem
2.
walking secretly to hunt an animal
109. Stamp : V 1.
to put one’s foot down heavily on the ground
N 2.
(postage stamps) a small piece of paper with an official design
on it
110. Staple : N 1. a small thin piece of bent wire that is forced by a special in-
strument into sheets of paper to fasten them together
Adj. 2. main or Principal
111. Stem : N 1. the main long thin part of a plant above the ground
V 2 to stop something which is flowing, spreading or increasing
112. Stomach : N 1. an organ of the body
V 2. to tolerate something
113. Stubble : 1. the lower parts of the stems that remain when the upper part
is cut
2. the short stiff hair grown on man’s face when not shaved
recently
114. Treble : 1. three times as much or as many
2. high pitched tone, a boy’s high pitched singing voice
115. Vegetable : N 1. a plant or part of a plant eaten as food
2. a person who is physically alive but not capable of much
mental activity or movement
116. Yap : 1. (especially of small dogs) to make short, sharp barks
2. to talk noisily and foolishly especially in an annoying way
Exercise
For the following homonymic words find out the meanings depending on the context and write the meaning of
each word:
1. Sangeetha sings on bass with bass voice while eating bass.
2. Kavitha decided to desert from the deserted home and dessert trolley because she thought that she did not deserve
any deserts.
3. At present condition can you effort to present the present to your friend.
4. Ravi’s tenor voice while singing changed the whole tenor of the audience.
5. The bandage was wound around the wound.
6. The news of making a quick buck to buy a buck, bucked us all up and felt really bucked after hearing.
7. When the hunter shot at it, the dove dove into a hut.
8. The farmer taught his sow to sow the seeds in the field.
9. Polish the table-top with a good polish.
10. The city subjected to repeated bombing raids is a subject to study and is a subject for discussion.
11. The farm was used to produce fresh produce.
12. Tear her away from the television and she shed tears.
13. The buck does funnily when the does are present.
14. The scene near the fence of the garden: two ladies fence in conversation, two men fence as a sport and there is a
fence with stolen goods.
15. On the stormy day the wind was too strong to wind the sail.
16. I refuse to keep the kitchen refuse.
Lexical Items 461
17. The insurance was invalid for the invalid person.

18. Near the fell, he fells his opponent with a single blow, in one fell swoop.
19. There was a row among the oarsmen about how to row.
20. Kavi sits very close to the door to close it.
21. Since I did not find the customer order file, I asked all the employees to stand in a file to search for it.
22. I cannot intimate this news to my most intimate friend.
23. People file towards the shop to buy a file to smoothen the rough surface and also another file to file the letters.
WORDS WHICH SHOULD NOT BE DIVIDED

RIGHT WRONG RIGHT WRONG
afterwards after wards tomorrow to morrow
almost all most welcome wel come
already all ready today to day
altogether all together together to gether
anybody any body outline out line
anyhow any how headache head ache
anyone any one headlight head light
anyplace any place headband head band
anything any thing headboard head board
anyway any way headgear head gear
anywhere any where headcount head count
arrowhead (n) arrow head arrowroot (n) arrow root
chirrup chir up workplace work place
evergreen ever green headphone head phone
everlasting ever lasting headquarter head quarter
evermore ever more headrest head rest
everybody every body headline head line
everyday every day heartbeat heart beat
everyone every one heartbreak heart break
everyplace every place heartburn heart burn
everything every thing heartfelt heart felt
everywhere every where headmaster head master
foldaway fold away update up date
herdsman herds man hereafter (adv) here after
hereabouts (adv) here abouts dugout (n) dug out
inasmuch as in asmuch as lawnmower lawn mower
instead of in stead of layman lay man
into in to lawbreaker law breaker
madman mad man overall over all
moreover more over overeat over eat
newspaper news paper humankind human kind
nobody no body weekday week day
notwithstanding not with standing weekend week end
nowadays now-a-days commonplace common place
otherwise other wise withdraw with draw
ourselves our selves withhold with hold
RIGHT WRONG RIGHT WRONG

outside out side within with in
somebody some body withstand with stand
sometimes some times without with out
thoroughbred (adj) thorough bred
thoroughgoing (adj) thorough going thoroughfare (n) thorough fare
towards to wards welfare wel fare
whatsoever what so ever getaway (n) get away
whichever which ever whatever what ever
whomsoever whom so ever upkeep up keep
whosoever who so ever whoever who ever
WORDS WHICH SHOULD NOT BE COMBINED

RIGHT WRONG
all right allright
all round allround
at once atonce
at least atleast
in spite of inspite of
per cent percent
some one someone
young man youngman
in-laws inlaws
in order to inorder to
heart attack heartattack
heart failure heartfailure
human being humanbeing
WORD COMBINATIONS OF PREPOSITIONS

Most words in English are often used with propositions. Several word combinations are generally used. The
commonly used combinations are: noun and preposition; verb and preposition; and adjective and preposi-
tion. Each of the word combination has a distinctive meaning. So it is suggested to learn these combinations
to develop communication skills. We must pay attention in using the suitable prepositions after words like
nouns, verbs and adjectives.
Noun and Preposition Combinations

Noun and Preposition ‘About’
Decision, doubt, feeling, information, opinion
Noun and Preposition ‘Against’
Antidote, appeal, caution, claim, complain, precaution, prejudice, reason, remedy, revolt, sin
Noun and Preposition ‘between’
Comparison, contrast, difference, quarrel
Noun and Preposition ‘for’
Ability, affection, ambition, anxiety, appeal, aptitude, application, appetite, appreciation, basis blame,
Lexical Items 463
compassion, compensation, competition, candidate, contempt, capacity, care, craving, cause, cure, demand,
desire, dependence, distaste, esteem, excuse, fine, fitness, fondness, a genius (for something), guarantee,
grief, gratitude, hatred, hunger, hope, justification, leisure, liking, love, lust, match, motive, need, necessity,
opportunity, partiality, passion, payment, penalty, pity, predilection, preparation, pretext, provision, punish-
ment, qualification, reason, relish, remorse, regard, remedy, reward, repentance, request, responsibility, regret,
reputation, search, sorrow, surety, sympathy, talent, taste, thankful, thirst, tolerance, zeal
Noun and Preposition ‘From’
Abstinence, cessation, deliverance, descent, digression, escape, exemption, freedom, inference, relief, re-
covery, respite
Noun and Preposition ‘In’
Ability, arrival, confidence, difficulty, dependency, eminence, engagement, experience, faith, improvement,
interest, proficiency, progress, pride, skill
Noun and Preposition ‘Of’
Abundance, abhorrence, advantage, admiration, analogy, appreciation, assurance, betrayal, chance, charge,
care, cause, condemnation, conviction, consequences, control, danger, distrust, doubt, effect, experience,
failure, fear, freedom, hope, hatred, heir, judge, justification, knowledge, lack, love, neglect, observance,
prejudice, prevention, proof, relation, result, share, suspicion, witness, want
Noun and Preposition ‘On’
Agreement, attack, authority, claim, comment, decision, dependence, improvement, information, opinion,
outlook, revenge.
Noun and Preposition ‘Over’
Advantage, authority, control, power, superiority, victory
Noun and Preposition ‘To’
Access, accession, admission, allegiance, alternative, antidote, antipathy, appeal, approach, assent, attach-
ment, attention, aversion, claim, concession, conformity, contrast, correspondence, disgrace, dislike, duty,
encouragement, enmity, exception, gratitude, heir, incentive, indifference, invitation, key, leniency, likeness,
limit, menace, obedience, objection, obstruction, opposition, postscript, preface, reference, reaction, reply,
repugnance, resemblance, responsibility, sequel, submission, subscription, succession, supplement, tempta-
tion, traitor, witness
Noun and Preposition ‘Towards’
Attitude
Noun and Preposition ‘Upon’
Attendance, bearing, revenge
Noun and Preposition ‘With’
Acquaintance, accordance, agreement, alliance, bargain, comparison, disgust, enmity, intercourse, intimacy,
quarrel, relations, share, sympathy
Verb and Preposition Combinations

Verb and Preposition ‘About’
Ask, quarrel, think
Verb and Preposition ‘Across’
Come
Verb and Preposition ‘After’

Aspire, look, run
Verb and Preposition ‘Against’
Argue, dash, fight, guard, inform, kick, offend, provide, vote, warn
Verb and Preposition ‘At’
Aim, approve, arrive, begin, call, guess, hint, jeer, kick, knack, laugh, look, preside, smile, shudder
Verb and Preposition ‘Away’
Break
Verb and Preposition ‘By’
Abide
Verb and Preposition ‘Down’
Bring
Verb and Preposition ‘From’
Abstain, alight, ask, debar, deliver, derive, derogate, desist, detract, deviate, differ, digress dissent, die, elicit,
emerge, escape, exclude, part, preserve, prevent, prohibit, protect, quote, recoil, recover, refrain, remind,
result, save
Verb and Preposition ‘For’
Account, answer, apologise, apply, ask, atone, call, canvass, care, compensate, clamour, exchange, feel,
fight, go, hope, long, mourn, pine, prepare, provide, quality, reward, start, search, stipulate, send, sue, vote,
wait, wish, yearn
Verb and Preposition ‘In’
Abound, acquiesce, agree, arrive, believe, dabble, deal, delight, employ, enlist, excel, fall, glory, join, increase,
indulge, involve, participate, persevere, persist, succeed, specialise, trust
Verb and Preposition ‘Into’
Admit, break, get, inquire, investigate, press, shoot, run
Verb and Preposition ‘On’
Call, comment, congratulate, confer, decide, deliberate, depend, determine, dwell, embark, encroach, enlarge,
improve, insist, intrude, meditate, prevail, reflect, rely, resolve, revenge, speak, subsist, trample
Verb and Preposition ‘Of’
Acquit, approve, accuse, avail, beware, boast, come, consist, convict, complain, deprive, despair, die, dispose,
disapprove, divest, dream, heal, inform, inquire, judge, remind, repent, smell, taste, think, warn
Verb and Preposition ‘Off’
Break
Verb and Preposition ‘Out’
Bring, call
Verb and Preposition ‘To’
Account, accede, adapt, adhere, admit, agree, allot, allude, appeal, apply, apologise, appoint, ascribe, aspire,
assent, attain, attend, attribute, belong, conduce, call, compose, conform, consent, contribute, delegate, ex-
plain, entrust, furnish, invite, introduce, jump, join, keep, lead, listen, object, occur, prefer, pretend, refer,
revert, report, stick, stoop, succumb, subscribe, surrender, testify, yield
Verb and Preposition ‘Through’
Break, get
Lexical Items 465
Verb and Preposition ‘Up’

Bring, look
Verb and Preposition ‘With’
Abound, agree, argue associate, appoint with bear, break, charge, clash, close coincide, compare, comply,
condole, confer, cooperate, cope, correspond, credit, deal, differ, deluge, disagree, dispense, entrust, expos-
tulate, fight, fill, furnish, grapple, intrigue, meddle, part, quarrel, remonstrate, side, substitute, sympathise,
trifle, vie
Adjective or Participle and Preposition Combinations

Adjective or Participle and Preposition ‘About’
Annoyed, anxious, careful, concerned, doubtful, glad, hopeful, mad, silent
Adjective or Participle and Preposition ‘After’
Alarmed, amazed, angry, concerned, good, impatient, liable, quick, shocked, slow
Adjective or Participle and Preposition ‘For’
Accountable, answerable, anxious, bound, celebrated, conspicuous, customary, designed, destined eager,
eligible, eminent, essential, famous, fit, good, grateful, impatient, indebted, notorious, obliged, penitent,
prepared, proper, qualified, ready, responsible, sorry, sufficient, useful, zealous
Adjective or Participle and Preposition ‘In’
Absorbed, abstemious, accomplished, accurate, assiduous, backward, bigoted, correct, defeated defective,
deficient, diligent, eager, engaged, enveloped, fertile, foiled, honest, hopeful, implicated interested, invested,
involved, lax, proficient, polite, remiss, responsible, skilful, temperate, versed, wanting, zeal
Adjective or Participle and Preposition ‘Of’
Accused, acquitted, afraid apprehensive, apprised, ashamed, aware, bereft, blind, born, boastful, bought,
capable, cautious, certain, characteristic, composed, confident, conscious, contrary, convicted, convinced,
covetous, cure, defrauded, deprived, desirous, destitute, devoid, diffident, distrustful, doubtful, dull, easy,
envious, fearful, fond, full, greedy, guilty, heedless, hopeful, ignorant independent, informed, innocent,
irrespective, impatient, jealous, lame, lavish, mindful, negligent, productive, proud, regardless, sanguine,
sensible, short, sick, slow, subversive, sure, suspicious, tolerant, vain, void, weary, worthy
Adjective or Participle and Preposition ‘On’
Based, bent, determined, dependent
Adjective or Participle and Preposition ‘To’
Abhorrent, acceptable, accessible, accustomed, addicted, adequate, adjacent, affectionate, agreeable, akin,
alien, alive, amenable, analogous, answerable, applicable, appropriate, averse, beneficial, blind, callous,
common, comparable, committed, condemned, conducive, conformable, congenial, consecrated, contrary,
creditable, deaf, derogatory, detrimental, devoted, disastrous, due, engaged, entitled, equal, essential, ex-
posed, faithful, fatal, foreign, favourable, hostile, harmful, hurtful, grateful, impertinent, incidental, inclined,
indebted, indifferent, indispensable, indulgent, inimical, insensible, introduced, injured, indigenous, injured,
immaterial, impervious, irrelevant, liable, limited, last, loyal, material, moved, natural, necessary, obedient,
obliged, offensive, opposite, painful, partial, peculiar, pertinent, pledged, polite, preferable, prejudicial, prior,
profitable, prone, quick, reduced, related, relevant, reconciled, responsible, respectful, repugnant, restricted,
sacred, similar, sensitive, serviceable, shocking, subject, suitable, suited, supplementary, tantamount, true
Adjective or Participle and Preposition ‘With’
Acquainted, affected, angry, annoyed, beset, blessed, busy, careful, charged, compatible, alive with com-
plaint, concerned, consistent, contemporary, contented, contrasted, conversant, convulsed, delighted, deluged,
disappointed, disgusted, displeased, drenched, endowed, familiar, fatigued, fired, gifted, honoured, impatient,
infatuated, infected, infested, inspired, intimate, invested, mad, occupied, offended, overcome, popular,
reconciled, replete, satiated, satisfied, touched
Appendix E
Commonly Confused Words
1. Abandon, abundance
abandon : to leave completely.
abundance : affluence, plentifulness
2. Accept, except
accept : V to receive
except : Prep not including, to the exclusion of
3. Acclaim, reclaim
acclaim : V to welcome or approve of somebody or something enthusiastically, to praise
somebody or something publicly
reclaim : V to seek to get something back after having given it somebody
4. Adapt, adopt, adept
adapt : V to adjust to a situation
adopt : V to choose, to put into practice
adept : Adj proficient, skilful
5. Adverse, averse
adverse : Adj unfavourable
averse : Adj to be opposed to, having a dislike
6. Advice, advise
advice : N counsel
advise : V to give counsel
7. Affect, effect
affect : V to influence
effect : N a result or influence
V to achieve
8. Affluent, effluent
affluent : V prosperous
effluent : Adj flowing outward
N stream flowing outward
9. Aggravate, irritate
aggravate : V to add to, to make a bad situation worse
irritate : V to vex or annoy
10. Allay, alloy, ally, alley
allay /@'l@I/ : V to calm (fear/anger)
alloy/'{lOI/ N a mixture of two or more metals
ally /'{lAI/ N,V to join in support
alley /'{lI/ N a very narrow street
11. Alternate, alternative
alternate : N substitute
V to switch between two things, occurring in turn
Adj a choice between two things
alternative : N (always N) (incorrect as an adj)
N a choice that implies more than two options
12. Amend, emend
amend : V to improve something
emend : V to remove errors from a written document
13. Amicable, amiable
amicable : Adj describes circumstances or arrangements agreed to peacefully
amiable : Adj describes people who are friendly, kind, easy going
14. Among, between
among : Prep used when compared more than two things or people
between : Prep used when compared with only two things or people
15. Anxious, eager
anxious : Adj filled with anxiety, dread, worry
eager : Adj filled with excitement, positively looking forward to something
16. Appreciable, appreciative
appreciable : Adj large enough to be noticed or considered important
appreciative : Adj feeling or showing gratitude
17. Assure, ensure, insure
assure : V to pledge or give confidence to people – used in the same way as reassure
(e.g.: He assured us that he would attend.)
ensure : V to guarantee or make certain – used in cases other than when referring to people
(e.g.: this new packaging will ensure that the product arrives safely.)
insure : V to make certain or protect against loss – use when referring to monetary
payments
(e.g.: This policy will insure the vehicle for two lakh rupees.)
18. Await, wait
await : to wait for
wait : to wait still something or somebody comes
19. Award, reward
award : V to make an official decision to give something to somebody, especially as a
prize
reward : N a thing that is given or received in return for doing something good
Commonly Confused Words 469
20. Beneficial, beneficent

beneficial : helpful, useful
beneficent : doing good, kind
21. Capital, capitol
capital : Adj primary, most serious
N city, letter, column, accumulated possessions
capitol : N building
22. Compare to, compare with
compare to : Pre : focusing on similarities
Phrase
compare with Pre : comparing similarities and differences
Phrase focusing on differences
23. Complement, compliment
complement : V, N to complete
N something that completes
compliment : V, N to congratulate
N praise
24. Comprise, consist of
comprise : V to include, avoid following with of (e.g.: the whole comprises parts)
consist of : V to be composed of
25. Concede, recede
concede : to admit that something is true, valid, proper
Recede : to move backwards from a previous position or an away from an observer
26. Console, condone
console : to express sympathy
condone : to accept wrong behaviour
27. Confirm, conform
confirm : to provide evidence or an opinion
conform : to follow generally accepted rules
28. Confidant, confident
confidant : N Comrade, adviser, friend
confident : Adj Certain
29. Consort, resort
consort : a husband or wife especially of a ruler
resort : a place where a lot of people go on a holiday
30. Continual, continuous
continual : Adj regular but interrupted
continuous : Adj constant and uninterrupted
31. Convince, persuade
convince : V to appeal to logic, most often in changing beliefs, values, or convictions.
persuade : V to appeal to logic and emotions, to cause someone to act.
32. Corps, corpse
corps : is a body of people, especially in a particular activity
corpse : is a dead body
33. Credible, creditable, credulous
credible : Adj can be reasonably believed; a credible witness
creditable : Adj deserving praise, a creditable performance

credulous : Adj believes without reasons, gullible, a credulous TV viewer
34. Dairy, diary
dairy : N place where milk, cream and butter are processed
diary : N description of what has happened in your life day by day
35. Deduce, induce
deduce : to arrive at facts, a theory etc. by reasoning to infer
induce : to persuade or influence somebody to do something
36. Device, devise
device : N plan, procedure, technique, object
devise : V to plan, to design
37. Detract, distract
detract : V to make something seem less good or of lower value
distract : V to take somebody’s attention away from something
38. Detract, protract
detract : to make something seem less good or of lower value
protract : Adj lasting longer than expected or longer than usual
39. Differentiate, distinguish
differentiate : V to point out differences
(e.g.: We can differentiate the best applicants by their dress.)
distinguish : V to see differences
(e.g.: Kavitha could not distinguish opinion from fact.)
40. Differ from, differ with
differ from : Pre unlike – refers to items, ideas, or situations not people
Phrase
differ with : Pre to disagree: refers to people
Phrase
41. Dinghy, dingy
dinghy : N a boat
dingy : grimy
42. Discus, discuss
discus : N a heavy disc thrown as a sport
discuss : V to talk or write about something
43. Disburse, disperse
disburse : V to pay out – such as money
disperse : V to scatter – such as seeds
44. Disinterested, uninterested
disinterested : Adj impartial
uninterested : Adj without interest in
45. Divers, diverse
divers : Adj various, several, a collection of essays on various subjects
diverse : Adj of different kinds, varied people from diverse culture
46. Eligible, illegible
eligible : Adj qualified, entitled
illegible : Adj undecipherable
47. Emigrant, immigrant

emigrant : N person exiting a country
immigrant : N person entering a country
48. Equal, equitable
equal : the same in size, number, value, rank
equitable : fair and just
49. Evade, pervade
evade : to avoid or escape meeting somebody or something
pervade : to spread to and be perceived in every part of something
50. Exercise, exorcise
exercise : V to move physically; to train; to practice
(Ee.xg.: He exercised his rights in the contract)
exorcise : V to drive out, as with a demon
51. Expel, dispel
expel : to force somebody to leave a place, especially country, school or club
dispel : to make something go away
52. Fallow, follow
fallow : Adj (of land) that has been dug but then left without crops being planted on it
follow : V to come, go or take place after somebody or something else in space, time or
order
53. Ferment, foment, fervent
ferment : V to change or make something change by means of a chemical reaction
Forvent : Adj showing strong or intense feelings, enthusiastic, passionate
Foment : V to create - especially political trouble or to make it worse
54. Further, farther
further : Adj at or to a greater distance in space or time
V to help the progress or development of something
farther : physical distance
55. Fewer, less
fewer : Adj use when items can be counted
less : Adj use with quantities that cannot be counted
56. Flaunt, flout
flaunt : V to wave; show in a gaudy manner
flout : V to mock; insult, or jeer
57. Forceful, forcible
forceful : Adj strong and firm
Forcible : Adj done by or involving the use of physical force
58. Foreword, forward
foreword : Adj front matter in a publication – written by some other
forward : N a direction
Adj bold, aggressive
59. Formally, formerly
formally : Adj in a formal manner
formerly : Adj previously
60. Fort, forte

fort : N a strong building which can be defended against enemy attacks
forte : N loud piece of music; particular ability
Adv played loudly
61. Imperial, imperious
imperial : belonging to an empire
imperious : proud and expecting obedience
62. Impetuous, impetus
impetuous : acting or done quickly without thinking
impetus : a force that encourages a process to develop more quickly
63. Incredulous, incredible
incredulous : Adj not willing or able to believe, showing disbelief
incredible : Adj difficult to believe, extraordinary
64. Infested, invested
infested : (of certain insects and animals) to exist in a place in large numbers especially causing
damage or disease
invested : to use money to buy something
65. Inflate, deflate, reflate
inflate : V to fill something or become filled with gas or air
deflate : V to let air or gas out of a tyre etc.
reflate : V to increase the amount of money in use in a country
66. Infers, implies
infers : V action of listener or reader
(e.g.: I infer from her letter that she plans to leave immediately.)
implies : V action of speaker or writer; Express or Suggest indirectly
(e.g.: When he talks to each customer, he implies that he is customising his
service.)
67. Instance, instant
instance : N an example
instant : N a single point in time
68. Inter-, intra-
inter- : Prefix prefix meaning between: inter-city – between cities
intra- : Prefix prefix meaning within: intra-city – within one city
69. Intrude, protrude
intrude : V to put oneself into a place or situation where one is not welcome
protrude : V to extend from a place or from a surface
70. Lay, lie
lay : V 1. to put somebody or something in a certain position lay–laid–laid
2. past tense of the word lie, meaning to recline
lie : V 1. to recline lie–lay–lain
2. to tell a falsehood, lie–lied–lied
71. Luxuriant, luxurious
luxuriant : growing thickly and strongly, natural rich growth
luxurious : supplied with expensive and enjoyable things
72. Leave, let

leave : V to go away
let : V to permit
73. Liable, likely
liable : responsible for consequences
likely : probable or probably
74. Loose, lose, loss
loose : Adj unattached
lose : V to fail to win, gain or obtain
loss : N that which is received, destroyed or diminished
75. Masterful, masterly
masterful : able to control others, dominating
masterly : skilful
76. Momentary, momentous
momentary : lasting for a very short time
momentous : very important, serious
77. Moral, morale
moral : standards of behaviour
morale : the amount of confidence, enthusiasm, determination
78. Motif, motive
motif : (i) A decorative design or pattern
(ii) a theme or idea that is repeated and developed in a work of music or literature
motive : causes somebody to act in a particular way; a reason.
79. Negligent, negligible
negligent : not giving proper care and attention to something; careless
negligible : of little importance or size
80. Notable, notorious
notable : worthy of attentions or notice
notorious : well-known for some bad quality or deed
81. Omit, emit
omit : to fail to do something
emit : to produce a noise, smell, etc., to discharge something
82. Observance, observation
observance : the practice of obeying a law or keeping a custom
Observation : the action of watching somebody or something carefully so as to notice things
83. Pathos, bathos
pathos : a quality, especially in literature or drama that causes a feeling of pity or sadness
bathos : (in writing speech or drama) a sudden change from what is important deeply felt to
what is foolish or absurd
84. Penultimate, ultimate
penultimate : Adj next to last
ultimate : Adj last or final, connoting superiority
85. Perpetrate, perpetuate
perpetrate : to commit a crime, make an error
perpetuate : to make something continue
86. Persecute, prosecute

persecute : V to oppress
prosecute : V to bring legal changes against
87. Perspective, prospective
perspective : N view point
prospective : Adj likely to become, expected
88. Populace, populous
populace : the general public, ordinary people
populous : having a large population, heavily populated
89. Practical, practicable
practical : Adj useful or workable as opposed to theoretical
practicable : Adj possible, feasible
90. Precede, proceed
precede : V to go before;
(e.g.: ch. 2. precedes ch.3)
proceed : V to move ahead; let’s proceed with the play
91. Quiet, quit, quite
quiet : Adj without noise or disturbance
quit : V to stop
quite : Adv completely, positively, rather
92. Real, reel
real : Adj genuine
reel : V to stagger
N a device to hold film or films; fishing equipment
93. Speak to, speak with
speak to : Pre phrase : to tell; to greet
speak with : Pre phrase : to discuss
94. Spoor, Spore
spoor : a track or smell left by a wild animal
spore : (botany) any of the tiny cells like seeds by which certain plants reproduce
95. Stationary, stationery
stationary : Adj immobile
stationery : N writing material
96. Surplice, surplus
surplice : a loose, usually white, outer garment with wide sleeves worn by priests
surplus : an amount that remains after one has used all one needs
97. Tenants, tenet
tenants : N one who rents property
tenet : N a rule or principle
98. Tolerable, tolerant
tolerable : that can be tolerated, accepted
tolerant : having or showing tolerance
99. Vial, vile
vial : N small vessel
vile : Adj minor, inferior, immoral, foul
Appendix F
Idiomatic Expressions
IDIOMATIC PAIRS
Nouns
1. Alpha and omega : the beginning and the end
2. Alive and kicking : in a strong and healthy conditions
3. At the beck and call : be ready at the service
4. Bag and baggage : with all belongings
5. Bit by bit : gradually
6. Body and soul : entirely
7. Bread and butter : material, welfare, food
8. By and large : in general, generally speaking
9. Criss-cross : with lines or paths crossing each other
10. Day and night : all the time
11. End to end : in a line, with ends touching
12. An eye for eye : retaliation, it is right to give somebody a punishment, that is as
serious as the offence they committed
13. Fire and furry : enthusiasm
14. Through fire and water : through every sort of difficulty
15. By fits and starts : irregularly
16. Flesh and blood : human nature
17. Food and thought : something which affords an occasion to think
18. Fool’s paradise : illusory happiness
19. Hanky and panky : trickery
20. Haw-haw : loud vulgar laughter
21. Heart and soul : earnestly
22. By hook and crook : by fair or foul means
23. Hotchpotch : mixture
24. Ins and outs : full particulars
25. Kith and kin : blood relation

26. Latin and Greek : unintelligible
27. By leaps and bounds : rapidly
28. Under lock and key : in a safe
29. Neck and neck : side by side
30. Null and void : illegal
31. Odds and ends : bits
32. Over head and ears : excessively
33. Part and parcel : a complete part
34. Pros and cons : for and against
35. The rank and file : all sections of people
36. Sum and substance : the summary
37. Root and branch : the whole of it without omission or exception, thoroughly, com-
pletely
38. Tit for tat : a situation in which, for example a blow, an injury or insult given
in return for one received
39. Time to time : now and then, occasionally
40. Time and tide : course of time
41. Tooth and nail : completely
42. A tooth for a tooth : it is right to give somebody a punishment that is as serious as the
offence they committed
43. Ups and down : good and bad luck
44. Ways and means : necessary aids and means
Adjective
45. All in all : supreme
46. All and sundry : all without distinction
47. In black and white : showing no colours except black, white and shades of grey
48. Better half : wife
49. At sixes and sevens : in disorder
50. Blow hot and cold : to change according to the situation
51. By and large : in general, generally speaking
52. Fair and square : hones and proper
53. Hard and fast : definite, that cannot be changed in any circumstances
54. High and low : everywhere
55. High and mighty : arrogant
56. Long and short : summary and substance
57. Right or wrong : it may be right or wrong
58. Rough and ready : not elaborate
59. Safe and sound : quite well
60. Slow and steady : constant
61. Teeny-weeny : very small
62. Tip-top : of the highest quality, excellent
Adverbs
63. Again and again : very often
Idiomatic Expressions 477
64. Back and forth : from one place to another and back again, repeatedly
65. By and by : slowly, gradually
66. By heart : learn by memory
67. Far and near : in all directions
68. Far and wide : everywhere
69. Few and far between : very rare or small in number
70. First and foremost : most important
71. Hither and thither : here and there
72. Helter-skelter : (adj, adv) in a disorderly rush
73. Off hand : without fore thought
74. Off and on/ on and off : occasionally, from time to time
75. Once and for all : finally
76. Once and again : repeatedly
77. On and on : quickly without stopping
78. Out and out : completely
79. Right and left : everywhere
80. Through and through : completely
81. To and fro : backward and forward
82. Up and about : out of bed, active again especially after illness
83. Up and down : in one direction and then in the opposite direction
Verbal Pairs
84. Preach and practice : to follow whatever you say
85. Shilly-shally : to be unable to make a decision
86. Use and throw : after use throw it
87. Wax and wane : to increase and then decrease in strength
88. Wear and tear : use it till it gets spoiled
89. Kick the bucket : to die
90. Hem and haw : to take a long time to take a decision
91. Huff and puff : to breath heavily because one is exhausted
Idiomatic Noun and Adjective Phrases
92. In the abstract : in a general way, without reference, especially when it is likely
to be changed
93. In accordance with something : in agreement or harmony with something
94. In accord with somebody or : in agreement
something
95. ABC of something : elementary knowledge
96. In advance of something : ahead in time
97. The aftermath : the situation resulting from an important especially unpleasant
event
98. An aggregate : taken as a whole in total
99. In aggregate : added together as a whole
100. All is not lost : there is still some hope of success or recovery
101. Animal spirits : having vigour and health
102. An apple of discord : cause of contention or quarrel
103. An apple of one’s eye : very dear

104. Apple pie order : neat and clean
105. An apology for something : a poor quality example of something
106. Argue the toss : to say that one disagrees about a decision, especially when it is
likely to be changed
107. On the back burner : (of an idea or place) left aside for the time being
108. By/through the back door : in an unfair or indirect way
109. At one’s/somebody’s beck : always ready to obey one’s or somebody’s orders immediately
and call
110. A bed of roses : a very comfortable and pleasant condition
111. A big gun : a person of great importance
112. Birds of the same feather : persons of identical taste and liking
113. A black sheep : an evil person
114. A blue stocking : a lady who pretends to have literacy taste
115. A bolt from the blue : an unexpected misfortune
116. By the book : strictly according to the rules
117. A broken reed : a weak point or support
118. A bull in a china shop : an unnecessary person or evil
119. Castles in the air : imaginary dreams or plans
120. A cat and dog life : a quarrelsome life
121. A chicken hearted fellow : a cowardly person
122. Child’s play : an easy thing
123. A clean slate : a fresh beginning
124. A close fisted man : miser
125. Cock of the walk : a person who dominates others within a group
126. Cock-a hoop : very pleased especially being successful
127. Cock and bull story : a false story
128. Cog in the machine : an important part of something
129. Cold blooded murder : a deliberate and cruel murder
130. As cool as a cucumber : very calm and controlled especially in difficult circumstances
131. Crocodile tears : false tears
132. A cry in the wilderness : a useful attempt
133. At daggers drawn (with some- : showing a strong dislike for somebody
body)
134 The die is cast : a decision has been made and cannot be changed
135. A drop in the bucket/ocean : a quality too small to make an improvement or difference
136. At a low ebb : in a poor state, worse than usual
137. (Be) on edge : nervous, excited or bad-tempered
138. A chicken-and-egg situation : a situation in which it is difficult to tell which one of two things
was the cause of the other
139. At the eleventh hour : at the last possible moment; only just in time
140. In embryo : existing but not yet developed
141. The fag end : the last and interior part of something
142. Fair and play : honest method
143. A fair weather friend : a false friend
144. Fish out of water : in a difficult situation
145. A/the fly in the ointment : a person or thing that spoils or otherwise satisfactory situation
or occasion
146. A fly on the wall : a person who watches others without being noticed
147. With flying colours : with great and obvious success
148. Have a flying start : to begin something well
149. A fool’s paradise : an imaginary happiness
150. A gala day : an important day
151. Get lost : to go away
152. Hard as nails : showing no sympathy or kindness
153. At the helm : leading an organisation, etc in control
154. A henpecked husband : a husband who is under the control of his wife
155. A herculean task : a hard or difficult job
156. Hush money : bribe
157. An iron will : a strong will
158. A jack of all trades : a person who knows everything but not an expert in anything
159. A laughing task : a funny person
160. The lion’s share : a major’s portion of something
161. At a loss : to be confused not knowing what to do or say
162. Be lost for words : to be so surprised on confused
163. Be lost in something : to be absorbed in something
164. Be lost on somebody : to fail to influence or be noticed by somebody
165. Be lost to something : to be no longer aware of or influenced
166. The man of the match : (sport) the team member who gives the performance in a par-
ticular game
167. A man of letters : a great literary artist
168. A man of parts : a man of extraordinary qualities
169. A man of spirit : a brave person
170. A man of straw : an unimportant person
171. A man of word : a man who fulfills his promise
172. The milk of human kindness : kindness regarded as natural to human kindness (often ironic)
173. A moot point : a topic for open discussion
174. A olive branch : an offer of peace
175. The order of the day : state of things at a particular line
176. A past master : an expert
177. Pearls before swine : to offer to a person a thing which he cannot appreciate
178. Penelope’s web : an endless job
179. Point blank : directly
180. A rainy day : a time of adversity
181. A red letter day : a very important day
182. Red tapism : excessive official formality
183. Scot free : free from punishment
184. A serpent in the egg : in the initial stages
185. The sinews of war : things used in war
186. A skeleton in the cupboard : a secret usually with in a family
187. A slow coach : a dull person
188. A snake in the grass : a hidden enemy
189. A stone’s throw : very near

190. A storm in a cup of tea : a great tension over a simple matter
191. A swan song : an achievement before death
192. A sword of damocles : a hovering danger
193. A tall talk : a boastful talk
194. A thankless task : a selfless work
195. On tip toe : on the tips of one’s toes with one’s wheels raised off the ground
196. On the tip of one’s tongue : a word almost just about to be remembered
197. Up in arms : protesting strongly about something
198. An uphill task : a very difficult task
199. A utopian scheme : an ideal or perfect scheme
200. A walk of life : a person’s occupation, profession or position society
201. In the wake of something : coming after or following something
202. For want of something : because of a lack of something
203. A wet blanket : a person who discourages
204. A white elephant : a very expensive thing which proven to be a burden
205. A wild goose chase : a foolish attempt
206. Yeoman’s service : excellent work
Verbal Idiomatic Phrases
207. Keep abreast of something : to be or remain always aware of something
208. Be of an age : to be at the age when one is expected to do something
209. Ask for trouble : to behave in a way that is likely to trouble oneself
210. Argue the toss : to say that one agrees about a decision especially when it is likely
to be changed
211. Be up to : be equal to
212. Bear the brunt of something : to receive the main force; shock or impact of something
213. Bear fruit : to have or bring about a result, usually a successful one
214. Bear in mind : to remember
215. Beggar description : indescribable
216. Beat about the bush : to tell something in a round about way
217. To bell the cat : to make up a dangerous task
218. Blow one’s own trumpet : to boast
219. Break the ice : to do or say something to ease tension or awkward situation
220. Bring home the bacon : to achieve something successfully
221. Bring something home to : to make somebody realise something fully
somebody
222. Bring something to light : to reveal something to make something known
223. Bring somebody to book : (for something) to force somebody to give an explanation usually
they are doing something wrong
224. To breath one’s last : to die
225. Buck one’s ideas up : to become more alert
226. Burn the candle at both ends : to become very tired by trying to do so many things
227. Burn the midnight oil : to study and work until late night
228. Burn one’s fingers/ get one’s : to suffer as a result of doing something, without realising the
fingers burnt possible bad consequences
229. Bury the hatchet : to end up enmity or quarrel

230. Call it a day : to decide or agree to stop doing something either temporarily or
permanently
231. Call it quits : agree to stop a contempt, quarrel etc on even terms
232. Call something into question : to express doubt
233. Call a spade a spade : to speak plainly without trying to hide one’s opinion
234. Catch the light : to shine in the light
235. Catch somebody napping : to gain an advantage over somebody when they are not prepared;
to surprise somebody
236. Catch somebody red-handed : to discover somebody in the act of doing something wrong or
crime
237. Come of age : to reach the age at which one has an adult, legal rights and obliga-
tions to reach full development and gain acceptance
238. Come home (to somebody) : to become fully clear, often in a way that is painful
239. Come home to a person : to make someone understand something
240. Come to bring something a : to come to stop
standstill
241. Cool one’s heels : to kept in wanting
242. Cut one’s coat : according to one’s cloth
243. To cry for the moon : to desire for what is impossible
244. Cry over to spilt milk : to feel sad about something that has happened and cannot be
changed
245. Dance attendance on/upon : to follow somebody around, attending to their wishes
somebody
246. Dance to somebody’s tune : to do what somebody demands
247. Dig one’s own grave : to do something which causes one to fail
248. Be dying for something : to want something or want to do something very much
249. Eat humble pie : to say one is very sorry for a mistake one has made
250. Fly/show/wave the flag : to represent or make known one’s support for loyalty to one’s
country
251. Fly in the face of something : to be contrary to something, to oppose something
252. Fly off the handle : to become suddenly and wildly angry
253. To keep the flag flying : to represent one’s country
254. Die/fall/drop like flies : to collapse or die in very large numbers
255. Fly/go off at a tangent : to change suddenly from the subject or action etc to another
256. Be hard on somebody : to treat or criticise somebody severely
257. Leg it : to run
258. Load the dice : to put somebody at a disadvantage
259. Make amends (to somebody) : to do something to compensate for a past mistake insult or in-
(for something/doing some- jury
thing)
260. Rain cats and dogs : to rain heavily
261. Go off the rails : to start behaving in a strange or abnormal way
262. Tread/walk a tight rope : to proceed in a situation which allows little freedom of action and
in which an exact balance must be preserved
263. Tread on somebody’s heels : follow somebody closely
264. Tread on somebody’s toes : to offend or annoy somebody

265. Take cognisance of something : to acknowledge or consider something
(especially law)
266. Wear thin : to begin to fail
267. Run before one can walk : to try to do difficult talks before one has learnt the basic skills
268. Walk before one can learn : to learn the basic skills before trying to do more difficult tasks
Adverbial Phrases
269. At the eleventh hour : at the lost moment
270. At the stake : in danger
271. In full swing : in progress
272. In the nick of the time : at the right time
273. Out of sorts : unwell
274. Through and through : completely in every respect
275. Well off : in a sound financial position
276. With might and main : with full power
Prepositional Phrases
277. Beside oneself with (some- : having lost one’s control of oneself
thing)
278. Between the devil and the : between two dangers
deep sea
279. By the by : incidentally
280. At home in : familiar with
281. At large : at liberty
282. At odds : in conflict
283. At sea : in confusion
284. From pillar to post : from one place to another
285. In the air : under consideration
286. In the teeth of : in the face of
287. In case of : on condition that
288. In quest of : in search of
289. Instead of : in place of
290. In the heart of : in the center of
291. In a hurry : very quickly
292. In the nick of time : just in time
293. In a nut shell : in short
294. In view of : considering
295. In vogue : in fashion
296. Under the thumb of : under the control of
297. Upon on : approaching, about to arrive, happen
Appendix G
Semantic Problems of
Singular and Plural Nouns
1. Some nouns have two plural forms but each with a somewhat different meaning. Here are some
examples.
Singular Plural Meaning

Brother 1. Brothers Sons of having same parents
2. Brethren Members of a society or community
Cloth 1. Cloths Kinds or pieces of cloth
2. Clothes Garments
Fish 1. Fishes Taken separately
2. Fish Collectively
Fruit 1. Fruit Generally used in the singular form. Even if there
is more than one fruit of the same kind.
2. Fruits Fruits of different kinds
3. Fruits The result or reward of some process, activity
or situation
Index 1. Indexes A list of names or topics referred in a book
2. Indices 1. A figure showing the relative level of prices
or wages compared with that of a previous date
2. A thing that is a sign of something else
Penny 1. Pence A sum of money
2. Pennies It refers to a number of coins
Perch 1. Perches Branch or ledge on which a bird can sit
2. Perch A type of fresh water fish
2. Some nouns have two meanings in the singular form but only one meaning in the plural.
Word Singular Meaning in Singular Word Plural Meaning in Plural
Light Radiance Lights Lamps
A lamp
People Nation Peoples A nation, tribe, or race
Men and women
3. Some words have one meaning in the singular form but more than one meaning in the plural.
Word Singular Word and Meaning Plural Word and Meaning

Colour Colour = hue Colours =
1. Hues
2. A badge, an item of clothing etc.
of a particular colour worn to
indicate a particular group
3. The flag of a regiment
4. An award given to a regular mem-
ber of a sports team especially in
a school
Custom Custom = Customs =
1. A traditional and generally 1. Habits
accepted way of behaving or 2. Duties levied on imports
doing things 3. Government department that col-
2. A practice lects taxes
Effect Effect = result Effects =
1. Results
2. Personal property
Ground Ground = earth Grounds =
1. Enclosed land attached to house
2. Reasons or justification for saying,
doing or believing something
3. Small pieces of solid matter that
sink to the bottom of a liquid
Letter Letter of the alphabet Letters =
1. Letters of the alphabet
2. Epistles
Manner Manner = Behaviour towards Manners =
others 1. Polite social behaviour
2. Good/bad manners
3. Habits and customs
Moral Moral = A moral lesson Morals =
1. Moral lessons
2. Conduct
Number Number = A quantity Numbers =
1. Quantities
2. Verses
Pain Pain = Suffering Pains =
1. Sufferings
2. Care, exertion
Premise Premise = A statement or an idea on Premises =
also which reasoning is based. 1. Propositions
Premiss 2. A house or an office together with
any building or land near it
(Contd)
Semantic Problems of Singular and Plural Nouns 485
(Contd)
Spectacle Spectacle = A sight Spectacles =
A public display 1. Sights
2. Eye-glasses
Air Air = atmosphere Airs = an affected manner
Blind Blind = (usually singular) Blinds =
1. Unable to see 1. A screen for a window especially
2. A thing or person used in order one made of a roll of cloth that is
to mislead or deceive fixed at the top of the window or
pulled down
Compass Compass = Extent, range Compasses =. An instrument for
drawing circles
Good Good = benefit, well-being Goods = merchandise
Force Force = strength Forces = troops
Iron Iron = A kind of metal Irons = Chains or other fastenings
put round the wrists or ankles of
prisoners
Respect Respect = Regard Respects = compliments
Appendix H
American and
British English
Some words end in – ‘our’ in British English and – ‘or’ in American English.
Some words end in – ‘tre’ in British English and – ‘ter’ in American English.
In British English the letter ‘l’ is doubled in an unstressed ‘syllable before a suffix beginning with a
vowel, while in American English it is not doubled.
Some verbs can end with ‘–ize’ or ‘–ise’ in British English, but they end with ‘–ize’ in American
English. Here are some common words with different spellings.
Table H.1 British and American Spellings of Words
British American British American

honour – honor dialogue
dialogue – dialog
colour – color defence – defense
labour – labor cheque – check
armour – armor catalogue – catalog
catalogue
centre – center apologise
apologize – apologize
theatre – theater analogue – analog

metre – meter analyse – analyze
jeweller – jeweler likeable – likable
traveller – traveler judgement – judgment
quarrelled – quarreled fulfil – fulfill
levelled – leveled aluminium – aluminum
cancelled – canceled acer – acre
(Contd)
American and British English 487
(Contd)
plough – plow massacre – massacre
smoulder – smolder attendent – attendant
mould – mold enquire – inquire
skilful – skillful ensure – insure
candour – candor repentent – repentant
grey – gray or grey lucer – lucre
counsellor – counseler despatch – dispatch
programme – program paralyse – paralyze
tyre – tire pickaxe – pickax
organise/ or- – orgranize sulphur – sulfur
granize
analyse – analyze
Prepositions
British American
at the weekend – on the weekend
a player in the team – a player on the team
live in a street – live on a street
different from/to – different from/than
write to someone – write someone/write to someone
ten minutes past six – ten minutes past/after six
Vocabulary
British American
aeroplane – airplane
angry – mad
anywhere – anywhere, any place
autumn – fall/autumn
biscuit – cookie/cracker
boot (of a car) – trunk
bonner (of a car) – hood
braid – plait
chips – french fries
cot – crib
crossroads – intersections
drawing – pin
thumb – tack
garbage can
dust bin –
trash can
engaged (phone) – busy
(Contd)
(Contd)
film – movie/film
flat/apartment – apartment
fortnight/two weeks – two weeks
fringe – bangs
gaol – jail
gear lever (on a car) – gear shift
goods train – freight train
ground floor – first floor
first floor etc. – second floor etc.
flyover – overpass
hand bag – purse/hand bag
holiday
– vacation
holidays
ill – sick
flyover – overpass
jug – pitcher
kerb – curb
lift – elevator
main road
– high way, freeway
motorway
maize – corn
sweetcorn
nappy – diaper
overall – smock
pavement – sidewalk
petrol – gas/gasoline
post – mail
postcode zip code
practice (n)
– practice N and Verb
practise (v)
public toilet – rest room
purse – coin purse
queue – line
railway – railroad
return
– round trip
return journey
rise (in salary) – raise
road surface – pavement
rubber, eraser – eraser
rubbish – garbage, trash
(Contd)
American and British English 489
(Contd)
single
– one-way, one-way ticket
single ticket
shop – store
sledge – sled
sweets – candy
tap (indoor) – faucet/tap
tap (outdoor) – spiget/faucet
taxi – cab, taxi
timetable – schedule, timetable
tinned – canned
torch – flash light
trainers – sneakers
(sport shoes)
trousers – pants/trousers
town – city
underground – subway
van, lorry – truck
wind screen (on a car) – wind shield
wing – fender
zip – zipper
visiting card – calling card
Numbers
The terms for very large numbers differ in British and American usage:
Large Numbers in British and American Usage
British American
One thousand million One billion
One billion One trillion
One thousand billion (s) One quadrillion
One trillion One quintillion
One thousand trillion One sextillion
One quadrillion One septillion
One thousand quadrillion One octillion
One quintillion One nonillion
One thousand quintillion One decillion
Appendix I
Foreign Words
Many foreign expressions are now commonly used in the English language. A list of important foreign
expressions is given below along with their meanings. This will help you in avoiding their erroneous use
as well as increase your vocabulary.
1. Addenda : Things to be added
2. Ad hoc : For this purpose
3. Alias : Otherwise known as, generally indicating a variation in name
4. Alma mater : Gracious mother institution, applied by alumni to one’s old University or
College
5. Alpha and omega : Beginning and end
6. Alter ego : Bosom friend
7. Bizarre : weird; freakish; grotesque; ludicrous
8. Bonafide : Genuine; in good faith
9. Bon voyage : A good journey to you
10. Café : Coffee house
11. Chauffeur : A car driver
12. Cliché : Worn-out expression; trite expression
13. De facto : In reality; as a matter of fact
14. De luxe : Of high quality
15. Dramatis personae : A list of actors in play
16. Elite : The best part of society, aristocracy
17. Et cetera : And the rest
18. Errata : Errors
19. Exit : The way to go out
20. Eureka : I have found
21. Ex-officio : By virtue of one’s office
22. Extempore : Without previous preparation
23. Genre : Style, kind, type
24. In camera : In secret
Foreign Words 491
25. Id est. : That is to say

26. In memorium : In memory of
27. Ibidem : In the same place, thing or case
28. In toto : On the whole, entirely
29. Ipso facto : By the very fact; actually
30. Lingua franca : A common language
31. Litterateur : A literary man
32. Mal apropos : Ill-timed
33. Modus operandi : Mode or manner of doing a thing
34. Post mortem : Medical examination after death
35. Pari pasu : With equal pace
36. Per annum : Per year
37. Per capita : Per head
38. Prime facie : Based on the first impression
39. Proforma : Model, form
40. Sine die : Incidentally, to a later date, which is unspecified
41. Status quo : The existing condition
42. Ultra vires : Against authority
43. Versus : Against
44. Via media : Middle course
45. Vice versa : Opposite; the terms being exchanged
46. Vis-à-vis : Opposite facing
47. Viva-voce : With the living voice, by word or mouth
48. Viz : Namely

Aruna Koneru - English Language Skills-Mc Graw Hill India (2011)

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Aruna Koneru - English Language Skills-Mc Graw Hill India (2011)

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English

Tata McGraw Hill Education Private Limited

Published by the Tata McGraw Hill Education Private Limited,

English Language Skills

This edition can be exported from India only by the publishers,

Cover Design: K Anoop

Cover Printer: SDR Printers

The learner by absorbing the contents of this book

3. Accentual Pattern of Words and Sentences 44

Review Questions 179

Errors in Using Pronouns 259

Summary Writing 316

Important Points 387

Appendix D: Lexical Items 442

After reading this chapter, you should be able to:

Effective Listening Skills

HEARING AND LISTENING

PHONETIC FEATURES OF LISTENING

Table 1.1 Substitution of One Sound for Another Sound

S.No. Word Actual Pronuncia- Pronounced as Understood as Sentence

Table 1.2 Homophonic Words

S.No. Words Pronounced Meaning

5. Know /n@U/ To have something in one’s mind or memory as a result of experience or

Table 1.3 Homonymic Words

S.No. Words Pronounced as Stress Parts of Meaning

/maI'nju:t/ on second Adjective Very small in size or amount

7. Tear /te@(r)/ Verb To pull something apart or into pieces

Table 1.4 Formation of New Words Based on Stress

S.No. Noun Verb Adjective Verb

Table 1.5 Types of Listening: Its Purposes

S.No. Type of Listening Purpose Situation

Cognitive Process of Listening

Figure 1.1 Cognitive Process of Listening

Table 1.6 Barriers to Listening

Lack of rapport between speaker and audience.

Overcoming Listening Barriers

Table 1.7 Overcoming Listening Barriers

Have a deﬁnite purpose of listening.

Table 1.8 Qualities of Poor and Good Listeners

S.No. Poor Listener Good Listener

GUIDELINES FOR IMPROVING LISTENING SKILL

Table 1.9 Guidelines for Improving Listening Skill

Think about the topic in advance.

Self-Analysis Evaluation Form of Your Listening Skill

S.No. Habit Almost Usually Occasionally Seldom Almost

2. What are the beneﬁts of effective listening skill?

After reading this chapter, you should be able to:

DISTINCTION BETWEEN LETTERS AND SOUNDS

Table 2.1 Sound /k/: Different Spellings

Sound Letters Words

Table 2.2 Letters ‘ch’: Different Sounds

Letter Sound Words

Similarly, the vowel ‘a’ is represented by many sounds as given here.

Table 2.3 Letter ‘a’: Different Sounds

Letter Sound Words

Table 2.4 Silent Letters

Silent Letter Words

Table 2.5 Letter(s) Represent Different Sounds

Letter(s) Words Sound

CLASSIFICATION OF ENGLISH SOUNDS

Description of Consonant Sounds

Table 2.6 Classiﬁcation of English Consonants (24 Sounds)

Description of Vowel Sounds