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A.C. Winding Analysis Using a Winding Function Approach

Article  in  International Journal of Electrical Engineering Education · January 2011

DOI: 10.7227/IJEEE.48.1.4

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 AC Winding Analysis using Winding Function Approach

Gojko Joksimović

Department of Electrical Engineering

University of Montenegro, 20000 Podgorica

Montenegro

joxo@ac.me

Abstract One of the crucial parts of every electrical machines course is the introduction to the basic

elements of alternating current (AC) windings design. After introductory part regarding definition

of the full-pitch coil magnetomotive force (MMF), usually continues analysis based on fundamental

MMF harmonic. This paper presents winding function approach to the AC winding analysis.

Although this approach is well known and intensively used in the scientific circles, especially last

few years, author’s impression is that this approach is not sufficiently present in the education

process. This approach has at least two principal advantages over the conventional one. Firstly, it

takes into account exact MMF waveform i.e. all of the MMF space harmonics simultaneously.

Secondly, this approach is mainly computer oriented and on such a manner it promotes very

important aspect of electrical engineering education - an interdisciplinary approach. All of the basic

terms in the field as distribution factor, pitch factor, synchronous speed could be and are derived in

this paper, using winding function definition. Additionally, basic elements of Fourier’s analysis

using built-in MATLAB functions are described and its applications are illustrated.

Keywords Turns function, Winding function, MMF, distribution factor, pitch factor, Fourier

analysis

INTRODUCTION

With the advent of low-cost personal computers and various easily accessible software packages,

computer-aided teaching tools have become an essential part of both classroom lectures and

laboratory experiments in electrical machinery education [1]-[5]. These tools have particular

1
importance in those cases when it is not convenient to organize laboratory exercises as in the case

of AC winding design and analysis.

The fundamentals of Electric machines are taught at the University of Montenegro in two main

courses. The first course is an introductory course which covers the fundamental principles of

electromechanical energy conversion and transformers. The second one deals with rotational

electrical machines in depth. In the first course, one of the crucial parts is AC winding design and

analysis, one of the most difficult topics in electric machines for students to understand. This is why

a special attention must be given to this topic with extensive use of graphics and animation.

Presented approach to this complex matter at the Department of Electrical Engineering at

University of Montenegro was carried out last two years. After learning the materials in the

traditional manner, by presentation of slides and animation of rotating MMF wave, the students take

active participation in the modeling of the concrete winding in the MATLAB environment. During

the classroom lectures students have a chance to explore and look at real winding machine, too, Fig

1. The quality of this way of active participation in the educational process describes a high

percentage of success at the mid-term test: almost 86%.

Fig 1. Stator AC winding in a real induction machine

The described approach facilitates students understanding of a very important concept in electric

machinery: spatial harmonics of MMF. It makes a good basis for distinguishing these from the

others, later introduced time harmonics of voltage or current. The described approach has the

2
following additional good side: it provides an animation of the rotating MMF wave. Spectral

analysis of rotating MMF wave at different instants of time assures students of a constant harmonic

content of the wave regardless of its different waveforms in different instants of time.

WINDING FUNCTION DEFINITION

AC windings in electrical machines basically have a twofold purpose. In electrical generators AC

windings are place where electromotive force (emf) should be induced. In electrical motors,

primarily AC windings goal is to produce rotating MMF wave. In any case, AC windings have to be

designed on such a manner that induced EMF in the AC windings or produced rotating MMF wave

consists predominantly of the space-fundamental sinusoidal component.

Keeping in mind that AC windings are a complex subject having a books dedicated to it, [6], [7],

and that are even today interesting from different point of views, [8]-[11], we will treat here first its

basics. Let’s look, for the beginning, the simplest form of the stator phase winding. It is a single

concentrated coil with Nn turns. Positions of coil’s sides along stator circumference are described by

mechanical angles θ1 and θ2, Fig 2.

θ2
A’

A
θ1

3 2’
C
2

4
1

Fig 2. Turns function definition

3
Assuming uniform air-gap length i.e. neglecting existence of stator and rotor slots, as well as

assuming infinitely permeable iron, Ampere’s circuital law, in common shape,

∫ H ⋅ dl = ∫ J ⋅ dS
C S
(1)

get much simpler form,

H (θ) ⋅ g − H (0 ) ⋅ g = i ⋅ n(θ ) (2)

where H(θ) is radial component of magnetic field intensity in the air gap at position described by

angle θ, g is air gap length, i is coil current and n(θ) is turns function, [12].

From Fig 2 it is obvious that by changing the position θ of the closed loop side 2 (this closed loop

takes part in the Ampere’s circuital law), turns function could be defined on following manner:

N θ1 < θ ≤ θ2
n(θ ) =  n (3)
0 for other θ

By employing the second crucial law of magnetism, Gauss law,

∫ B ⋅ dS = 0
S
(4)

and analyzing only electromagnetic processes in the air gap, follows,

µ 0 ∫ H ⋅ dS = 0 (5)
S

or,

l 2π

∫ ∫ H ⋅ rdθdz = 0
0 0
(6)

Assuming that H does not depend on the axial coordinate, above expression is equal to,

2π

∫ H ⋅ dθ = 0
0
(7)

what could also be written as:

2π
1
2π ∫0
H ⋅ dθ = 0 (8)

4
From (2) and (8) follows,

2π
1  i 
∫  H (0 ) + ⋅ n(θ ) dθ = 0 (9)
2π 0  g 

2π
i
H (0 ) + n(θ )dθ = 0
2πg ∫0
(10)

i
H (0 ) = − ⋅ n(θ) (11)
g

where n(θ) is the mean value of the turns function. From (11) and (2) follows:

H (θ) ⋅ g = [n(θ ) − n(θ ) ]⋅ i (12)

As H(θ)⋅g is MMF per definition, last expression could be written as,

MMF = [n(θ) − n(θ) ]⋅ i = N (θ ) ⋅ i (13)

where,

N (θ) = n(θ ) − n(θ) (14)

is winding function, [13], [14]. Obviously, winding function is nothing else but MMF per unit

current. In further text terms winding function and MMF per unit current will be used

interchangeable. Winding function could be alternatively written as,

  αm 
 N n 1 − 2π  θ1 < θ ≤ θ2
N (θ) =   
(15)
− N α m for rest of θ
 2π
n

where αm is the coil pitch in mechanical radians, αm=θ2−θ1.

CONCENTRATED FULL-PITCH COIL

For a full-pitch coil, in a two pole machine (p=1), for adopted system of reference, Fig 3, turns and

winding functions are,

5
  π 3π
N <θ≤
n A (θ) =  n 2 2 (16)
0 for other θ

 Nn π 3π
 2 <θ≤
N A (θ) = 
2 2 (17)
− N n for other θ
 2

Fig 3 show placement of coil along the stator circumference, turns function profile, winding

function profile together with two the most significant space-harmonics as well as coefficients of

the Fourier’s expansion of winding function.

A’
3
C
2

4
1 θ

a) b)

Fig. 3. a) Cross section view, b) Turns function, winding function along with two the most significant higher space-

harmonics and Fourier expansion of winding function for a full-pitch coil in a two pole machine (p=1). Coil has 10

turns.

Obviously, only odd higher space-harmonics are present in Fourier series of winding function. The

fundamental space-harmonic amplitude is 6.37 turns, Fig 2b, i.e. 4/π higher than the winding

function amplitude, so fundamental MMF wave amplitude is,

4 Nn
MMFA max 1 (θ ) = I 2 (18)
π 2

6
where I is the alternating current rms value. Higher space-harmonic of order ν has ν times smaller

amplitude than the fundamental one:

4 1 Nn
MMFA max ν (θ ) = I 2 (19)
πν 2

Turns and winding function for full pitch coil as well as Fourier expansion of winding function

given on Fig 3 could be easily defined using following few rows written in MATLAB:

H=1024; % number of samples in 2*pi

dx=2*pi/H; % discretization step
nn=10; % number of turns in a coil

% na – turns function of phase (coil) A

i=1;
for teta=0:dx:2*pi-dx,
if((teta>pi/2)&(teta<=3*pi/2)),
na(i)=nn;
else
na(i)=0;
end;
i=i+1;
end;
clear i

% Na – winding function of phase (coil) A

Na=na-mean(na);

% Fourier expansion

F_series=2*abs(fft(Na)/H);
stem(F_series(2:30),’filled’)

It should have in mind following two facts: 1) in order to obtain exact discrete Fourier transform,

number of samples in 2π must be power of two, i.e. H=2n where n is an integer; 2) first element in

Fourier expansion is coefficient equal to the mean value of the winding function and this element is

not shown on Fig 3.

Fig 4 shows cross section view of the machine as well as turns and winding function for a full-pitch

coil winding in a four pole machine, p=2. Two full-pitched coils (in a four pole machine full-pitch

coil has a pitch αm=π/2 rad) are series connected. Total turns and winding function of phase

7
winding is simply the sum of the turns and winding functions of every single coil in the winding.

By other words, superposition is allowed because infinitely permeable iron was assumed. Now, the

fundamental harmonic is second order harmonic (p), third harmonic is sixth order harmonic (3p)

etc. The amplitude of the fundamental MMF wave now is,

4 NA
MMFA max 1 (θ) = I 2 (20)
π 2p

where NA is the total number of turns in the phase winding. The amplitude of the MMF higher

space-harmonic of order ν is:

4 1 NA
MMFA max ν (θ) = I 2 (21)
π ν 2p

A1’

A1
A2
3
C
2

4
A2’ 1 θ

a) b)

Fig. 4. a) Cross section view, b) Turns function, winding function along with two the most significant higher-space

harmonics and Fourier expansion of winding function of two series connected full-pitch coils (A1-A1’ and A2-A2’) in four

pole machine (p=2). Every single coil has 10 turns.

DISTRIBUTED FULL-PITCH COIL PHASE WINDING

Fourier analysis showed that the air gap MMF produced by a full-pitch coil(s) consists of

fundamental space-harmonic component as well as a series of odd higher-order harmonic

8
components. In the design of the AC windings, serious efforts are made to distribute the coils

making up the windings so as to minimize the higher-order harmonic components and to produce an

air-gap MMF wave which consists predominantly of the space-fundamental sinusoidal component.

On this way, additionally, machine is better utilized. Therefore, in practice, AC winding of

induction machine is always designed as a distributed winding. Distributed phase winding of a

three-phase machine occupies one third of stator slots along the circumference of the machine. Fig

5 shows such one phase winding in a two pole machine which stator has S=18 slots. It means that

one phase winding occupy six slots, three under one and three under other pole.

A3
A2

A1
’ A1

’
A2

A’3

a) b)

Fig. 5. a) Cross section view, b) Turns function, winding function along with the two most significant higher-space

harmonics and the Fourier expansion of distributed winding consists of three series connected full-pitch coils (A1-A1’,

A2-A2’ and A3-A3’ ) in two pole (p=1) machine. Every single coil has Nn=10 turns, NA=30.

Turns and winding function of phase A winding could be easily obtained by summing turns and

winding functions of individual coils. As it is clear from Fig 5, resultant MMF profile of distributed

full-pitch winding has trapezoid like shape what is much closer to the sinusoid than before, Figs 3

and 4. However, amplitude of the resultant winding function is not three times as greater than

before, but somewhat smaller as it could be easily concluded observing the coefficients of the

9
Fourier series. The reason for that is in the space displacement of individual coils. The winding

distribution factor Kd just define this ratio: per definition, distribution factor is ratio of the resultant

MMF space-harmonic amplitude and sum of the MMF space-harmonics amplitudes of the

constituent coils (ratio of vector and algebraic sum of constituent coil’s MMFs):

MMFA max ν MMFA max ν

K dν = = (22)
MMFA A' max ν + MMFA A' max ν + ... + MMFA A' max ν n ⋅ MMFcoil max ν
1 1 2 2 n n

For the fundamental space harmonic, ν=1, from Fourier expansions, Figs 3 and 5:

MMFA max 1 18.3344

K d1 = = = 0.96
3 ⋅ MMFcoil max 1 3 ⋅ 6.3662

Similarly, for the fifth space harmonic, ν=5:

MMFA max 5 0.8418

Kd 5 = = = 0.22
3 ⋅ MMFcoil max 5 3 ⋅ 1.2731

These results are in good correlation with results obtained from the well known analytical

expression for distribution factor, [15]-[18],

 α  π 
sin  νq1  sin  ν 
K dν =  2
=  2m 
(23)
 α  
q1 sin  ν  q1 sin  ν π 
 2  
 2mq1 

where m is number of phases, q1 is number of slots per pole per phase and α is an electrical angle,

α=p⋅αm=p⋅2π/S. For analyzed phase winding,

 π  π
sin   sin  
Kd1 =  2⋅3 =  6  = 0.9598
 π  π
3 ⋅ sin   3 ⋅ sin  
 2⋅3⋅3  18 

 π   5π 
sin  5  sin  
 2 ⋅ 3  =  6  = 0.2176
Kd5 =
 π   5π 
3 ⋅ sin  5  3 ⋅ sin  
 2⋅3⋅3   18 

10
Having in mind definition of distribution factor, resultant distributed phase winding MMF space-

harmonic amplitude could be defined as:

4 1 N A K dν
MMFA max ν (θ) = I 2 (24)
π ν 2p

THREE PHASE FULL-PITCH (SINGLE-LAYER) WINDING

Three-phase machine has a three distributed windings on the stator. Phase windings are identical

but shifted in space for 2π/3p mechanical degrees. One phase winding in a three-phase machine

occupies one third of number of stator slots under one pole, Fig 6.

’
C3 C’2
B1 C’1
B2 A3

B3 A2

A1
’ A1

A2
’
B’3

A’3 B’2
C1 B’1
C2 C3

a) b)

Fig. 6. a) Cross section view, b) Winding functions of phase windings. Every phase winding consists of three series

connected full-pitch coils. Two pole machine, p=1. Every single coil has 10 turns.

Winding functions i.e. MMFs per unit current for such machine is given on Fig 6. In order to obtain

the resultant MMF wave, care must be taken about instantaneous value of phase currents. As it is

well known, through the three-phase windings flows phase shifted currents. At one instant of time,

say t1=5ms, Fig 7, phase current ia has a value ia=1A while other two phase currents are

11
ib=ic=−0.5A. Resultant MMF wave could be obtained by multiplying phase winding functions with

adequate instant values of the phase currents,

MMFS _ t1 =5ms = N a ⋅ ia (t1 = 5ms ) + N b ⋅ ib (t1 = 5ms ) + N c ⋅ ic (t1 = 5ms ) (25)

i.e.

MMFS _ t1 =5ms = N a − 0.5 ⋅ N b − 0.5 ⋅ N c (26)

Similarly, for any other instant of time, say, t2=10ms,

MMFS _ t 2 =10 ms = N a ⋅ ia (t 2 = 10ms ) + N b ⋅ ib (t 2 = 10ms ) + N c ⋅ ic (t 2 = 10ms ) (27)

i.e.

3
MMFS _ t2 =10ms = (N b − N c ) (28)
2

because ia(t2=10ms)=0, ib(t2=10ms)=√3/2 and ic(t2=10ms)=−√3/2, Fig 7.

Fig. 7. Three-phase, 50Hz, unit currents. Phase current rms value is 1/√2=0.707A.

The resultant MMF profiles at these two instant of time are shown on Fig 8. Obviously, positions of

the maximal values of resultant MMFs are shifted in space, i.e. resultant MMF wave is not fixed in

space: actually it is rotating MMF wave. Rotating speed could be easily found from the following

considerations: at t1=5ms maximal value of the rotating MMF is at position described by the axes of

phase winding A, i.e. θt1=2000. At t2=10ms, maximal value of the rotating MMF is at position

θt2=2900. Rotating MMF speed, i.e. synchronous speed, is:

12
 π  
angle 2900 − 2000 900
[rad ] 4π  rad   rad   2πrad   rev 
ns = = = = 2 =   = 2πf  = f  = 60 f  (29)
time t 2 − t1 T
[s ] T [s ] 2T  s   s  1
 min   min 
4 4  60 

More generally, in case of machine with p pole pairs, synchronous speed is p times smaller:

2πf  rad  60 f  rev 

ns = = (30)
p  s  p  min 

Hence, resultant MMF wave rotate with synchronous speed, having different waveforms in every

different instant of time. However, regardless of shape of the MMF profile at different instants of

time, Fourier’s expansion of the MMF is always the same. Spectral content of the presented MMF

waveforms is also shown on Fig 8.

Fig. 8. Resultant rotating MMF wave in two different instants of time, t1=5ms and t2=10ms and Fourier expansion of

MMF wave. Two pole machine.

13
For difference from the phase windings, resultant rotating MMF wave does not contain any odd

space harmonic which is integer multiply of three. By other words, all MMF space-harmonics

belongs to the following series,

ν = 6k + 1 (31)

where k=0,±1,±2,… From (31) follows that symmetrical three phase winding supplied from

symmetrical three-phase voltage supply contains fundamental ν=1, fifth ν=−5th, seventh 7th,

eleventh −11th etc. space harmonics. Minus sign means inverse rotating MMF wave. Synchronous

speed of νth space-harmonic is ν times smaller than the synchronous speed of the fundamental one,

2πf  rad  60 f  rev 

ns ν = = (32)
νp  s  νp  min 

As it one can conclude from the Fig 8, noteworthy higher space harmonics are 5th and 7th, so called

phase belt harmonics which are direct consequence of trapezoidal shape of the phase winding

MMF. However, the most significant higher space harmonics are, so called, slot harmonics, of

order S/p±1. In analyzed case it is 17th and 19th space harmonics. They are direct consequence of the

discrete nature of the winding i.e. conductor placement in the slots. These harmonics on the best

manner fills the “gaps” in the stepwise shape of resultant MMF wave.

By comparison the amplitudes of the MMF space-harmonics from Fig 5 and Fig 8, it is easy to

conclude that the rotating MMF space-harmonic amplitude is 1.5 times higher than amplitude of the

phase winding MMF space harmonics:

3 3 4 1 N A K dν 3 1 N A K dν
MMFS max ν = MMFphase max ν (θ ) = I 2= I 2 (33)
2 2 π ν 2p πν p

For analyzed winding,

3 1 N A K dν 3 1 30 ⋅ 0.96 1 3
MMFS max 1 = I 2= ⋅ ⋅ 2 = 30 ⋅ 0.96 = 27.52 Aturns
πν p π 1 1 2 π

More generally, for a m-phase symmetrical AC winding,

14
 m m 1 N A K dν
MMFS max ν = MMFphase max ν (θ) = I 2 (34)
2 πν p

THREE PHASE SHORTED-PITCH COIL (DOUBLE-LAYER) WINDING

An additional measure taken in order to further upgrade the rotating MMF waveform closer to the

sinusoid is use of the short-pitch coils. However, in order to use short-pitch coils, stator phase

winding must be placed in two layers along the stator circumference, i.e. short-pitch coil must have

one its side placed in one slot in one, say, bottom layer but other side must be placed in other slot in

top layer. On this way double-layer winding is obtained. Using short-pitched coils, with adequate

coil pitch, some of the higher space-harmonics in the resultant rotating MMF waveform could be

canceled out or significantly attenuated.

Let’s look at the following example: Fig 9 shows double layer three-phase stator winding. Every

single coil in the phase windings is a short pitch coil. Shortening of the coil is one stator slot pitch.

Now, instead of three coils in one phase winding, Fig 6, six shorted-pitch coils makes one phase

winding. In order that comparison with the previously analyzed case could be possible, every single

coil has to have one half of number of turns as before.

Phase winding from Fig 9 one could observe on a following manner: the phase winding is organized

in two layers, and every layer, observed individually, is layer with full-pitch coils. But, two layers

are shifted in space for one stator slot pitch – shortening of the coil. Therefore, resultant phase

MMF, on the harmonic basis, could be seen as a vector sum of the layer’s MMF. Here is

conveniently to introduce other winding factor, chord or pitch factor, as ratio of vector and

algebraic sum of layer’s fundamental MMF wave, [15]-[18],

β β β
MMF1 cos + MMF2 cos 2 MMF cos
K p1 = 2 2 = 2 = cos β (35)
MMF1 + MMF2 2 MMF 2

where β is an electrical angle which describe the shortening of the coil pitch.

15
 6 5
7 4
8 3
9 2
10 1
11 18
12 17
13 16
14 15

Fig. 9. Double layer three-phase winding. Two pole machine, p=1. Shortening of the coil is one stator slot pitch.

Shortening of the coil could be described on the following manner, too,

y
π − β = kπ = π (36)
τp

so, pitch factor is,

y π
K p1 = sin (37)
τp 2

or, for any space-harmonic,

y π
K pν = sin ν (38)
τp 2

By taking into account just defined pitch factor, amplitude of the rotating MMF space-harmonic, in

distributed double-layer three-phase winding is,

3 1 K pν K dν N phase 3 1 K ν N phase
MMFS max ν = I 2= I 2 (39)
πν p πν p

where Kν is winding factor which include distribution and pitch factor, Kν=Kdν⋅Kpν. In many

electrical machines textbooks above expression is given in the following form,

N eff ⋅ I
MMFS max ν = 1.35 (40)
ν⋅ p

16
where Neff=Kν⋅Nphase is so called number of effective turns per phase.

Rotating MMF waveshape for two different instant of time and for winding from Fig 9 is given on

Fig 10. Fourier’s coefficients for the space harmonics are also given. For one stator slot pitch

shortening, pitch factor is:

8π
K p1 = sin = 0.9848
92

Distribution factor is as before,

K d 1 = 0.96

so, effective turns number is,

N eff = 0.96 ⋅ 0.9848 ⋅ 6 ⋅ 5 = 28.36

Amplitude of the fundamental MMF space harmonic is, (40),

MMFS max 1 = 1.35

N eff ⋅ I
= 1.35
( )
28.36 ⋅ 1 / 2
= 27.15 Aturns
ν⋅ p 1 ⋅1

and somewhat is smaller than in a case of full-pitch windings, due to the pitch factor. This result is

in close agreement with results obtained numerically, from Fourier’s expansion of the resultant

MMF wave, Fig 10. However, the main result of short-pitch coils using is in the attenuation of 5th

and 7th space harmonics in the rotating MMF wave. Namely, in order to cancel out 5th harmonic

from the rotating MMF wave, following condition must be satisfied,

y π y π 2
K p 5 = sin 5 =0⇒5 = κπ ⇒ y = κτ p (41)
τp 2 τp 2 5

where κ is an integer, κ=0,1,2,… and κ must be chosen so that coil pitch y is first number smaller of

the pole pitch expressed in number of stator slots. For analyzed winding, τp=9 slots, so, the

reasonable solution for y is for κ=2:

2 36
y= ⋅ κ ⋅ 9 κ→
=2
 = 7. 2
5 5

17
Fig. 10. Rotating MMF wave at two different instants of time and corresponding Fourier’s coefficients. Two pole

machine. Every single coil has 5 turns.

As coil pitch must be an integer, possible solutions are y=7 or y=8. Obviously, for any choice, 5th

space harmonic could not be eliminated but for y=7 it will be significantly reduced. Similarly, for

canceling out 7th space harmonic, following condition must be satisfied:

y π y π 2
K p 7 = sin 7 =0⇒7 = κπ ⇒ y = κτ p (42)
τp 2 τp 2 7

2 54
y= ⋅ κ ⋅ 9 κ→
=3
= 7.71
7 7

Again, y could be 7 or 8 and, again, 7th space harmonic could be only attenuated, especially for y=8,

but not absolutely eliminated from the MMF wave. If coils with 7 stator slot pitch are chosen, 5th

harmonic will be much attenuated than 7th. Inversely, if coils with 8 stator slot pitch are chosen, 7th

space harmonic will be much attenuated than 5th. In analyzed case study, coils with 8 stator slot

18
pitch are used (one stator slot pitch shortening), so 7th space harmonic will be much more attenuated

than 5th, as could be easily concluded by comparison of MMF wave spectrum from Figs 8 and 10.

Usually, coil pitch is chosen in such a way to attenuate 5th and 7th space harmonic simultaneously,

what is fulfilled for the following coil pitch,

2 1
y= κτ p = κτ p (43)
6 3

together with additional condition, that κ must be chosen on a such way that coil pitch y is slightly

smaller than the pole pitch. Condition (43) could be alternatively defined as,

τp 5
y = τp − = τp (44)
6 6

However, from Figs 8 and 10 it should be observed that shortening of the coils have no any impact

on the intensity of the slot harmonics! Coil, regardless of its pitch, must begin in one slot and end in

the other, and therefore the coil’s spacing is an integral multiple of the basic spacing causing slot

harmonics in the first place.

CONCLUSIONS

A winding function approach for AC winding analysis is presented. This approach has at least two

principal advantages over conventional one. Firstly, it takes into account all of the MMF space

harmonics simultaneously, i.e. exact MMF waveform. Secondly, this approach is mainly computer

oriented and on such manner it promotes very important aspect of electrical engineering education -

an interdisciplinary approach. All of the basic terms in the field as distribution factor, pitch factor,

synchronous speed are derived in this paper using winding function approach. Additionally, basic

elements of Fourier’s analysis using built-in MATLAB functions are described and its applications

are illustrated. This approach could be easily implemented for analysis of fractional slot windings as

well as any form of asymmetrical windings.

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