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Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
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Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
Energy Band
Theory&
Classification of Solids
5-1. Introduction
The basis for discussing transport in semiconductors is the underlying
electronic band structure of the material arising from the solution of the
many body Schrödinger equation. As we have seen earlier, the solution of
Schrödinger equation for a particular system results in a set of wave
eigenfunctions n and energy eigenvalues En. The relation between the
electron energy and the electron wave-vector, E(k), which we call
dispersion relation of the system, is obtained by substituting the solution
ofinto the Schrödinger equation.
In isolated atoms, the electrons are orbiting around their nuclei with certain
energy levels. In this case, the E(k) relation consists of a set of discrete
(quantized) points in the k space. When isolated atoms are brought
together, to form a solid, various interactions (due to attraction and
repulsion forces) occur between neighboring atoms. As a consequence of
these interactions, the energy levels of individual atoms are transformed
into common energy bands.The energy band structure of a solid describes
ranges of energy that an electron is forbidden or allowed to have. The band
structure of a material determines its electrical and optical properties,
among other characteristics.
we called energy bands. These dense groups of levels (or energy bands) are
belonging to the crystal rather than to individual atoms.Usually, these
energy bands are separated by successive forbidden regions, that we call
energy gaps. Therefore, the starting point to understand the energy band
structure of solids is the potential energy diagram of an electron in an
isolated neutral atom and the corresponding energy levels.
Fig. 5-1. Energy levels splitting due to the interaction of adjacent atoms and
overlapping of their probability density functions p(r).
Energy Energy
2p2 Ec
2s2 Ev
1s2 1s2
R
Ro Ro
(a)Isolated diamond atom.
Nucleus (b) Array of diamond atoms.
Fig. 5-2. Energy levels in an isolated diamond atom and in an array of diamond atoms.
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Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
Figure 5-3 shows the development of the electron energy bands in diamond
crystals from the discrete energy levels of an isolated atom1. As shown in
figure, when the separation between atoms is decreased, the energy levels
of single atoms (1s, 2s, etc.) are split into bands of a huge number of
adjacent energy levels.
Fig. 5-3. Schematic of energy level splitting and formation of energy bands in a
diamond crystal of N atoms as a function of interatomic distance R. The distance Ro is
the interatomic separation at the state of equilibrium between atomic forces.
Figure 5-4, depicts the energy band diagram at the state of equilibrium,
where the interatomic distance R = Ro. The highest filled energy band, in
the energy band diagram, is usually called: valence band. Also, the energy
band just above the valence band is called the conduction band. The
valence and conduction band are separated by a region called the energy
gap. The height of energy gap is given by:
Eg = Ec - Ev (5-1)
whereEc is the lowest (bottom) level in the conduction band and Ev is the
highest (top) level in the valence band as shown in figure 5-4. Thus, in
crystalline solids, the E-k relation, at a certain point in the physical crystal
lattice, is usually characterized by a sequence of alternating allowed energy
1
. Note that this splitting schematic is not general. It is adapted from the conventional band theory
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Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
bands and energy gaps. For three-dimensional crystals, the k-space is three-
dimensional. The E-k relation of electrons inside a solid crystal, in the
various directions of the k-space, is usually called the energy band
structure of that solid.
E
Energy gap
Conduction Band
Ec
Eg
Ev Band of allowed
Valence Band energy levels
V.B.
Fig. 5-4. Schematic of the energy band diagram (versus crystal spatial position).
Eo Vacuum level Eo
Ec
m s
EF EF
Metal Vacuum Semiconductor Vacuum
or Insulator
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Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
For many particles, the equation is the same except that the Hamiltonian
Η as well as and are now on configuration space, ,where N is the
number of particles
where we omitted the operators cap sign for the sake of simplicity. For a
non-perturbed system we have Hext = 0. For electrons we have:
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Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
where rk and rk` are the coordinates of the kth and k`th electrons, respectively.
Similarly, for ions, we have:
V R R
Pi 2
(5-3c)
+ 1 i i j
i 2M i 2 i,j
where Ri and Rj are the coordinates of the ith and jth ions,
respectively.Concerning the electron-ion interaction energy, it may be
written as follows:
The ion-ion interaction term Hi-i may be subdivided into two terms, one
accounts to the interaction when the ions are in their equilibrium positions;
the other is a correction to account for the vibrations of the lattice ions
(phonons).
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Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
2 2 1 e2
H el = k + + H ve (5-4)
k 2m 8 o k, k` rk rk `
where H+ve includes the effect of the ions positive space charge and the
interaction of the electrons with this space charge.
V R R + H
2 2
H ion=
1 ve
i + i i j (5-5)
i 2M i 2 i,j
H el H e-i = Ee (5-6)
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Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
2 2
Η -
k 2m
k + V rk = H k
k k
(5-7)
H
k
k = E
(5-8)
can be reduced, by substituting:
H
k
k = E (5-9)
and
2 2
2m VH ( r ) k r Ek k r (5-12)
where VH is the Hartree potential, which is given by:
j r
2
2
e
VH (r ) V (r ) dV (5-13)
4 o j k r r
Here r and r` are the positions of the ith and kth electrons, respectively. The
above equation is called the Hartree equation. It describes the motion of
the kth electron at the position r in the potential field V(r) of the lattice ions,
and in the Coulomb potential of an average distribution of all other
electron: (j=1, 2, .., N, with j≠k)
It should be noted that the Hartree equation does not account for the Pauli
Exclusion Principle. The spin of electrons is not considered in this
equation. If two electrons are interchanged, the sign of the total wave
N
function will remain unchanged ( K ). This representation is suitable
k 1
for bosons but not for Fermions (e.g. electrons) where the total wave
function must change its sign when two particles (electrons) are
interchanged.
1 q1 . . N qi
1 . .
= (5-15)
N! . .
i qN . . N qN
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Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
Here, the coordinates qk include the spatial coordinates rk as well as the spin
coordinates of the electrons. Also the factor in front of the determinant is
added for normalization purposes. If two electrons are interchanged, two
columns of the determinate are interchanged, and changes sign. Also if
two electrons have the same coordinates, two columns will be identical,
and willvanish. Now the interaction term accounts for the Pauli
exclusion term and the Schrödinger equation reads:
2 2 r HF r, r
V r k r = Ek k r
e
4 o
d V (5-16)
2m r-r
where
r kH - e k r
2
(5-17)
k k
and
r r r r
*
j k
*
k j
(5-18)
HF e j, k
r r k
*
k k
r` HF r, r
V `(r ) V r
e
4 o r r`
d V (5-19)
2 2
2m V`r k r = Ek r (5-20)
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Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
e2 jo r
V( 0)
r V r + dV` (5-21)
4 o
H
j k r - r`
2 2 1
2m VH
(0)
r k r = Ek k r
1
(5-22)
4- Calculate a new estimate of Hartree potential, VH(1) , using the new set
of functions k1 , etc.
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Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
2 2 (5-23)
V ' ( r ) . (r ) E. (r )
2m
This equation is very interesting because it yields valid results without
having to determine the self-consistent functions, if we start with an
acceptable pseudo potential V(r). It can be shown that V`(r) in the crystal
lattice is a periodic function of lattice coordinates. This feature is exploited
in the so-called “Bloch functions” that we shall discuss in a next section.
Other derived and simplified methods, like the density functional theory
(DFT) or the tightly-bound electron (TBE) method, have been developed
in such the way that they either neglect or approximate some of the
integrals, which are involved in the HF and SCF methods. The approximate
methods will be discussed in section 5-7 of this chapter.
The accuracy and reliability of the above methods is hard to assess. In large
scale atomic calculations where one deals with hundreds or perhaps
thousands of atoms, and where translational symmetry may be broken, new
approaches are required. In Chapter 9, we present some formulations of
quantum mechanics that significantly reduces the number of variables, but
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Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
V r = V r + R (5-24)
where R= n1 a1 + n2 a2 + n3a3 and a1, a2&a3 are the basic lattice vectors,
then the solution of the one-electron Schrödinger equation can be written in
the following form :
k r = e j k.r uk r (5-25)
where uk(r) is a periodic function and has the same periodicity as the
crystal lattice, i.e.,
uk r = uk r R (5-26)
V r = u r exp j G
h,k,l
hkl hkl . r (5-27)
where Ghkl is the reciprocal lattice vector, which is given by the relation:
Ghkl = hb1 + kb2 + lb3 and b1, b2&b3 are the reciprocal lattice unit vectors.
As we have seen so far in Chapter 1, the product Ghkl.Rijk (or simply G.R) is
equal to 2N, where N is an integer. The functions uk(r) are sometimes
called the atomic part of the Bloch functions because they contain the
essential features of the unit cell and reflect the atomic properties. In
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Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
contrast, the plane-wave part of (r), i.e. exp(jk.r), reflects the large scale
variations of (r), and becomes significant for free electrons.
The Bloch wave functions ukn(r) are the eigenfunctions of the Schrödinger
equation with periodic potential. They are characterized by the wavevector
k and the band index n. The Wannier function Wn(r-R) are equivalent set of
orthogonal functions, which are defined as follows:
The integration is taken over the first Brillouin zone (BZ) of volume V.
There exist , for each band n, a set of Wannier functions, all identical
except each translational lattice vector R. Alternatively, the set of
orthogonal Wannier functions may be defined as follows:
WR r = uk r
1 j k.R
e
N k (5-28b)
where uk(r) has the same periodicity as the crystal lattice and N is the
number of primitive cells in the crystal. The Wannier functions are not
eigenfunctions of the Hamiltonian. However they may serve as a
convenient basis for the expansion of electron states in certain regimes.
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Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
d 2
2
+ 2 = 0 (5-29)
dx
with
2 = 2m E/2 (5-30)
d 2
2
+ 2 = 0 (5-31)
dx
with
2=
2m
E -Vo (5-32)
2
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Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
u`` + 2 j k u` + 2 k 2 u 0 (5-33)
and
u`` + 2j k u` - 2 k 2 u 0 (5-35)
Equations (5-34), (5-36) will have a solution, for the constants A, B, C and
D, only if the determinant of their coefficients is null. Therefore,
+1 1 1 1
k k jk jk =0
j k a j k a j jk b j jk b
+e e e e
j k a j k a j jk b j jk b
+ k e k e jk e jk e
(5-38a)
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Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
2 2
sh b sin a +cosh b cos a = cos k a+b (5-38b)
2
V x = a Vo x - m a (5-39)
m
1
k cos1
P sin 2mE a / 2n
+ cos 2mE a /
a 2mE a / a (5-40.b)
The so-called reduced E-k diagram can be obtained by folding the original
E-k diagram inside the region (-/a, /a) for positive and negative k-values
(Figure5-10). This region is called the first Brillouin zone.
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Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
Fig. 5-8. Regions where there exist a solution of the Kronig-Penney model.
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Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
E E
E=ħ2k2/2m
k k
-2/a -/a 0 /a 2/a -/a 0 /a
Fig. 5-10. The E-k dispersion relation and the reduced E-k diagram.
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Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
E
V(x)
Vo 2/L
x
0 L
k
0
(a) Potential well of finite size L and finite height Vo and its E(k) diagram.
E
V(x)
a
Vo
x
0
k
-2/a -/a 0 /a 2/a
(b) Periodic potential well of infinite size and finite height Vo and its E(k) diagram
E
2/L
V(x)
a
Vo
x
0 L
k
-2/a -/a 0 /a 2/a
(c) (c) Periodic potential well of finite size L and finite height Vo and its E(k) diagram
Fig. 5-11. Effect of crystal size and fine structure on the E-k relation..
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Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
As shown in figure 5-11, we can observe the effect of crystal size and fine
structure (crystal periodicity) on small- and large-scale quantization of
energy bands. The crystal periodic structure results in discrete and
successive allowed and forbidden bands of energy, whereas the crystal
finite size results is quantized energy levels at each allowed energy band.
d d d
Fig. 5-12. A coaxial transmission line and its equivalent periodic loaded L-C circuit.
c/d Allowed band
k
0 /d 2/d
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Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
The ab initio methods such as Hartree -Fock (HF ) and the Density
Functional Theory (DFT ), calculate the electronic structure from first
principles, without the need for empirical fitting parameters. In general,
these methods utilize a variational approach to calculate the ground state
energy of a many-body system, where the system is defined at the atomic
level . Typically , the original calculations are performed on systems
containing a few atoms (up to 1000 atoms ), because these methods are
computationally expensive , in terms of CPU time and memory storage .
For instance , the computational load of the HF method scales as N 4 (N
being the number of basis wavefunctions). In practice, it can scale closer to
N3 as the program can identify and neglect zero and small integrals.
In addition to the above basic methods, there exist other variant methods
which are improved versions of the OPW or TB methods. For
instance,thepseudopotential method involves some empirical constants or
fitting parameters. These parameters are chosen to fit the experimental data
of band-to-band transitions, derived from optical absorption experiments.
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Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
Both of the above methods use the perturbation theory. But they differ in
their zero approximation . The quasi -free electron (QFE ) method (which
represents the physicists approach) takes the free electron model as a zero-
order approximation and the periodic field of the lattice as a perturbation .
This results in the so-called pseudopotential methods . The tightly bound
electron (TBE) method (which represents the chemists approach ) takes
the electron in an isolated atom as a zero approximation and the periodic
potential of the lattice as perturbation. This results in the so called LCAO(
linear combination of atomic orbitals ) methods .In the following sub -
sections , we examine the fundamental results of these approximate
methods . We begin by the free electron model as an extreme case, where
electrons are not subject to any interaction or crystal forces.
2 2 2 2
+ + r E r 0
2m x 2 y 2 z 2 (5-42)
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Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
(x, y, z) = (x+L, y, z)
= (x, y+L, z) (5-43)
= (x, y, z+L)
and
2 n 2 m 2l
k x= , k y= , k y= (5-46)
L L L
where n, m and l are integers. Substituting the solution (5-44) into the
Schrödinger wave equation (5-42) results is the (E-k) relation of the free
electron:
2 k 2 2 2
2
E (5-47)
.(n m l )
2 2 2
2m 2m L
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Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
The (E-k) relation is then parabolic2. Figure 5-14 depicts the E-k relation of
a free electron in a one-dimensional lattice of length L. As the crystal
length L is much greater than the inter-atomic distances, the separation
between adjacent k-values (2/L) is negligible. Then the E-k relation of
such free electrons may be considered as a continuous curve. In the 3-
dimension k-space, equation (5-47) is usually represented by constant
energy spheres (for different values of E) as shown in figure 5-14. Also the
allowed states in the k-space are represented as points inside such spheres
of constant energy. The elemental volume in the k-space is termed by d3k
and is given by:
2
3
d k = dk x dk y dkz =
3
(5-48)
L
2 2
EF = kF (5-49)
2m
E(k) kz
ky
k kx
E = constant
-2/L 0 2/L
Fig. 5-14. The E-k relation of a free electron, and the 3-dimensional representation in
the form of spherical constant energy surfaces.
2
This relation can be directly obtained from the known relation E = p2 /2m for a free electron.
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Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
By definition, all energy levels under the Fermi-level are occupied and all
those above it are empty in the system fundamental state (at 0K). Then, the
total number of electrons inside the Fermi sphere is equal to its volume
divided by the volumes occupied by each electron,
N
4 / 3 k F3
=
V
k F2
1 2 / L 3
3 2 (5-50)
2
2 N
2
2
3 2 n
2/3
EF EF (5-51)
2m 2 L 2m
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Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
Fig. 5-15. Empty lattice band structure for a free electron in a diamond lattice.
The Schrödinger wave equation may be then written in the following form:
2 2
+ - v r = 0 (5-54)
2m
i=
V ( x ) vi exp ( jki x ) (5-55)
i=-
where vi are the Fourier series coefficients and ki =2i /a. vi are given by:
1a
vi a o V ( x) exp ( j ki x)dx (5-56)
Evidently, vois equal to the average of the potential, i.e. vo =V0. The
corresponding solution of is then given by:
+
( x) um exp j( k + Gm ) x (5-57)
m = -
this method (the coefficients um). If the Fourier series are truncated to three
terms such that:
2 x
V ( x ) v1 exp ( jk1 x ) + vo + v-1 exp ( jk1 x ) Vo 1- cos
a (5-58)
( x ) ~ exp j(k + ) x exp j(k - ) x (5-59)
a a
Ec
Eg
Ev
k
-2/a 0 2/a
2 2 Eg 2k 2
2
2
2
2
E (k ) 1 4 (5-60)
2m a 2 2m 2mEg a
where Eg = 2 |V0|. As shown in figure, there exist two allowed solutions for
the E-k relation. Each solution corresponds to an allowed energy band. At k
= 0, we have:
2 2 Eg
2
E( 0 ) (5-61)
2m a 2
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Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
Therefore, there exists an energy gap between the two allowed energy
bands described by (5-60). The height of this gap is given by Eg = 2 |V0 |.
The mathematical structure of the quasi-free electron model shows that it
cannot be valid in the neighborhood of certain planes in the k-space.
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Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
The rapid oscillation of core electrons results in a large kinetic energy for
the valence electrons in the core region, which roughly cancels the large
potential energy due to the strong Coulomb potential. Thus the valence
electrons are much more weakly bound than the core electrons. It is
therefore convenient to replace the strong Coulomb potential V(r)=-Ze/rof
core electrons by an effective pseudo-potential Vps, which is smoothly
varying. This effective potential replaces the valence electron wave-
functions , which oscillate rapidly, in the core region. Figure 5-17 depicts
the pseudo-potential function Vps and the pseudo-potential wavefunction
ps. The subsequent figure 5-18 depicts the pseudopotential Vps and its
Fourier transform in the reciprocal lattice wavevector space (q-space).
Fig. 5-18. Pseudopotential Vps and its Fourier transform in the reciprocal k-space.
The E-K diagram and the properties of the semiconductor can be calculated
using the following one-electron Schrödinger wave equation:
(5-62)
(5-62b)
Here, Gisthe reciprocal lattice vector and the Dirac notation |k+G>is used
to denote the plane wave with wavevector K+G.
The matrix elements are determined by the Fourier components VGof the
pseudopotential
(5-63a)
These are also called the form factors of the pseudopotential. When there
exist more than one atom in the primitive unit cell, a structure factoris
introduced. Thestructure factor SG depends on the relative position rnof the
respective atom in the primitive unit cell, and is generally defined as
follows:
(5-63b)
Here Nis the number of atoms in the primitive unit cell. The pseudo-
potential V(r)can be expressed in terms of the structure factor and the form
factors as follows:
For diamond structures, there are two atoms in the primitive unit cell, at the
positions r1,r2. Taking the midpoint between the two atoms in the unit cell
as origin, the positions of the atoms are then given byr1=-r2=(ao/8)(1,1,1).
Thus, the structure factor is given by
(5-63d)
(5-64)
Form factors with reciprocal lattice vectors larger than G2>11(2/ao)2 may
be neglected, since typically VGdecreases as 1/G2for large G. Assuming that
the atomic pseudopotentials are spherically symmetric, the form factors
only depend on the absolute value of the reciprocal lattice vector. The form
factors belonging to the reciprocal lattice vectors G3have an absolute value
of √3(2/ao)and are conventionally labeled V3. Only three pseudopotentials
form factors V3, V8and V11are required to calculate the band structure. The
following table lists the parameters employed in the band structure
calculation of Si and Ge
Pseudopotentials Si Ge Units
-0.2241 -0.221 Rydberg
-0.052 0.019 Rydberg
-0.0724 0.056 Rydberg
A 0.03 0.275 Rydberg
B 1.06 1.22 Å
0.00023 0.000965 Rydberg
7.5589 10.0911 Å
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Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
Fig. 5-19. Energy band structure of Si, according the pseudopotential method.
Fig. 5. 20. The energy band structure in the tightly bound electron model.
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Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
Fig. 5. 21. Evolution of the atomic s and p orbitals into valence and conduction bands
in a semiconductor (left). Case of Si (right)
Fig. 5. 22. The valence band structure of Si calculated by the tight-binding method
(broken curves) and by the empirical pseudopotential method (solid lines)
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Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
The index k indicates in-plane vector, the functions uk(r) =n n.unk(r)are
lattice periodic, zone-center Bloch functions varying on the atomic scale. In
general practical situation, one either has a bulk-like system or lower
dimensional systems such as 2D and 1D electron gases in which there is a
confinement in one and two directions, respectively.
For a general system, with spin-orbit interaction included in the model, the
Schrödinger equation is of the following general form
(5-67)
The Hamiltonian in this equation can be divided into two terms, as follows:
(5-68c)
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Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
The resultant matrix equation can be solved to get the unknown coefficients
cmn(k).
(5-69)
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Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
3
The Hartee-Fock and self consistent methods have been already described in section §5-2.5.
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Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
and its extension due to Dirac in 1928, but only during the 1960s the theory
became complete and accurate in the work of Kohn, Sham and Hohenberg.
In much the same way as the Hartree equation, the DFT provides a way to
decouple the electron-electron interactions in the material, and solve the one
electron equations by a self-consistent method to find out the electron wave-
functions and the corresponding energies. However, the solution is
performed starting from the ground-state electron density, like the self-
consistent field method. Therefore, the many-electron Schrödinger equation
is replaced by the so-called Kohn-Shamequation:
2 2 '
i (r ) Ei i (r ), i 1,2,...N (5-70)
2m Veff
The first term in equation V(r) is the external potential and includes the
potential originating from the nuclei as well as an external applied electric
field if present. The term VH corresponds to the classical Coulomb potential
(Hartree potential) for an electron density n(r). This term is obtained by
solving the Poisson equation for the scalar potential
(5-73)
Here, he sum is taken over all the occupied states andfi = f(Ei - EF) is the
occupation probability (the Fermi-Dirac distribution in equilibrium).
Also, the total energy is given by:
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Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
where the sum is taken over the total number of electrons (N). The
solutions of the Kohn-Sham equations in principle give the ground state
properties of the system. However, the term Exc is not known exactly and
some kind of approximation is needed. The two types of approximations
which are generally used are the local density approximation (LDA) and
the generalized gradient approximation (GGA).
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Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
2 2 n(r ' )
2m V (r ) | r r '|dr ' VLDA i (r ) E (r ), i 1,2,...N
'
(5-76)
d k 2
ko
... (i)
Substituting m* 2 / d 2 E / dk 2 and E(ko) = Eo results in:
2 k k o
2
E( k ) Eo (iii)
2m*
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Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
1 dE 1 E
vg (5-77a)
dk k
E = F. vgt (5-77b)
F = dk/dt (5-77c)
dvg d 1 dE 1 dk d 2 E
(5-77d)
dt dt dk dt d k 2
The above relation may written in the following classical form, which is
analog to Newton’s second law:
F = m* (5-78)
with
4
According to the Ehrenfest theorem, F=dp/dt and v=dr/dt in both classical and quantum mechanics.
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Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
2
m* = 2
d E dk 2 (5-79)
The parameter m* has the dimension of mass and usually called the
effective mass of the electron. Figure 5-24 depicts the variation of m*in a 1-
dimensional k-space as derived from the E-k relation. The effective mass
m* is different from the gravitational or rest mass mo of the electron
because of the inclusion of the lattice forces through the E-k relation.
E(k)
k
-/a -/2a 0 /2a /a
vg
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Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
GaAs. The (E-k) relation near an extreme point E(ko)= Eo can be developed
in the following form:
k k o
2 2
E ( k ) E
o * (5-80)
2m
The sign corresponds to a minimum or a maximum edge of E(k) relation.
For a conduction band whose minimum at E(kc) = Ec we have:
E( k ) E c
2 k k c 2
(5-81)
2m*
Also for a valence band whose maximum in E (kv) = Ev, we have:
E( k ) E v
2 k k v 2
(5-82)
2m*
1
vg E (5-83)
k
E E E
k
E
k x
akx
k y
aky + a
kz kz (5-84)
with akx, aky and akz being the unit vectors in the Cartesian k-space. Also the
acceleration of the electron is given by:
dvg 1
F.k k E (5-85)
dt 2
Therefore, the effective mass is a 2nd order tensor (matrix with 9 elements):
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Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
2E 2E 2E 1 1 1
k x
2
k xk y k xk z m*xx m*xy m*xz
1 1 2E 2E 2E 1 1 1
m* 2 k yk x k y2 k yk z m*yx m*yy m*yz
2E 2E 2E 1 1 1 (5-86)
k z k x k z k y k z2 mzx m*zz
*
m*zy
1
m * -1 k k E (5-87)
2
Simply, the coefficients of the inverse effective mass tensor can be written
as follows:
* 1 1 2E
m 2 (5-88)
ki k j with ( i, j = x, y, z ).
ij
When the solid material is isotropic then the effective mass tensor reduces
to a scalar quantity (zero-order tensor), such that: m*xx m*yy m*zz and other
coefficients are null.
1 1 2E 1 2E
m* 2 is positive m*1 2 is regative
2 k 2 k
( Electrons in Conduction Band ) ( Electrons in Valence Band )
The effective mass method is valid for non-perturbed states with energies
close to the extreme values (minima and maxima of energy bands). The
effective mass theory may be also valid for small perturbations, i.e. for
small and slow external applied fields. It should be noted, that external
fields bend the energy bands of an ideal crystal so that the displacement of
all bands is the same.
Ek
k ko
m
d m Ek
dk m (5-89)
m0 m! k ko
or
dE d 2E
Eko k ko k ko 2 2
1
E(k) ....
dk k ko 2 dk k ko (5-90)
2 2
where dE/dk=0 at band edges (a minimum or a maximum). Also d E/dk
is a tensor of 2nd order (dyadic) whose components are ( E/kikj). By
2
Ek Eko
2
*
2mxx
k x k xo 2
2
*
2myy
k y k yo 2
2
*
2mzz
k z k zo 2 (5-91a)
2 2 2
m*xx , m*
and m*
(5-91b)
2 E k x2 yy
2 E k y2 zz
2 E k z2
Equation (5-91), which represents the E-k relation near a band edge, is a 2nd
order surface in the k-space (i.e. a sphere, or ellipsoid, according to the
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Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
magnitude and sign of its coefficients). For instance, if mxx=myy =mzz = m*,
then equation (5-91) reduces to the following simple parabolic E-k relation:
2
Ek Ek o * k k o
2
(5 - 92)
2m
Fig. 5-26. The First Brillouin zone of the FCC lattice and the Fermi energy surface of
electrons in Copper.
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Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
2
*
k k o 2 ( E ) Ek 1 E( k ) (5–93a)
2m
1 m*
.1 (5–93b)
Eg mo
The nonparabolicity factor a is 0.5 eV-1 in Si,Ge and 0.7 eV-1 in GaAs.
The main features of the band theory that are tightly related to the
electronic conduction phenomena are:
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Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
5-10. Case Studies: Band Structure of Si, Ge, SiC and GaAs
The energy band structure is simply the plot of the E-k relation inside the
first Brillouin zone, for each allowed band. The E-k relation can be also
plotted in different directions of the k-space using 2-dimensional plots. The
figure below illustrates the translation procedure for a two dimensional
case. Around the origin the simple parabolic relation between E and k is
observed. If we move from the origin along the diagonal we hit the corner
at W. All higher k-values along the diagonal are simply folded back.
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Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
Fig. 5-28.The E-k relation of Si in the directions [111] and [100], Ec is located at
about 0.85 (2 /a) (1,0,0) or its five equivalent positions in the k-space. Also Ev is
located at (0,0,0) and labeled 2.
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Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
The minimum of the principle (lowest) conduction band lies near the point
X towards the [100] direction. As there exist 6 equivalent directions [100],
this conduction band has 6 equivalent minima (valleys), as shown in figure
5-30.Near these minima the E-k is quadratic and can be described by the
following relation for the minimum (or valley) situated at (km, 0, 0)
2 2
E Ec * k x km * k y2 k z2
2ml
2
2mt
(5-94a)
where ml*and mt* are longitudinal and transverse effective masses. They
are given by:
2 2 2
m 2
*
, m 2
*
(5-94b)
l
E k x2 E k y2 2 E k z2
t
5
The cyclotron resonance is a magnetic field induced physical phenomenon. It will be
discussed later in chapter 7.
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Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
The other minima or valleys have the same shape but different orientations,
as shown in figures 5-30. It is clear in this figure that the minima (edges) of
the 6 equivalent valleys lie at E = Ec and kx = 0.85 ko, ky =0.85 ko and
kz = 0.85 kowhere ko =2 /a. The valley of the second conduction band of
Si (at ) is situated 1eV above the X-valley. The longitudinal and
transverse mass of the L-valley of silicon are as follow at the band edge:
E( k ) Ev
2
2mo
Ak 2 B 2 k 4 C 2 k y2 k z2 k z2 k x2 k x2 k y2
1
2
(5-96)
where A, B and C are constants6 and the signs correspond to light holes
and heavy holes bands, respectively. For the valence band of light holes
(with plus sign and designated by the letter l), the effective mass is usually
denoted mlh*. At the band edge, the light holes mass mlh* is given by:
mlh* mo A B 2 1 6 C 2 0.153 mo (5-97a)
6
According to Dexter and Coll, we may take A= 4.0 0.1, B =1.1 0.4, C = 4.1 0.4.
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Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
Also, for the valence band of heavy holes (with minus sign and designated
by the letter h), the effective mass is usually denoted mhh*. At the band
edge, the heavy hole mass mhh* is given by:
m*hh mo A B 2 1 6 C 2 0.537 mo (5-97b)
2k 2
E( k , , ) Ev *
g( , ) (5-98)
2 mv
where mv* is the isotropic hole effective mass, as given by (5-97), while
g(, ) contains the l and h valence bands anisotropy information.The third
valence band, which is called the split-off band (s-band), has its top
0.044 eV below the l and h bands.This band is only populated at higher
hole energies, and its E(k) relation may be described by the following
simple parabolic relation:
2k 2
E( k ) Ev s A (5-99)
2mo
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Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
where s = 0.044 eV is the shift between the top of the s-band and the top
of the l and h valence bands. The effective mass of split-off holes is given
by mh,so* = 0.234 mo. The effective mass of electrons and holes in energy
bands of Si and other semiconductors is indicated in Appendix D.
Figure 5-32 shows the constant energy surface at E=25 meV below the
valence band edge for the light hole (a) and for the heavy hole (b).
In the unstrained case, both heavy and light hole are degenerate at k=0. The
color bars on the left side of each plot correspond to the 2D slices in these
pictures. The following figure shows the constant energy contours in the
(kx,ky) plane of a 2D slice through the hole light (a) and the heavy hole (b)
E(kx,ky,kz) dispersion at kz=0, i.e. E(kx,ky,0). As shown, the light hole is
much more isotropic than the heavy hole.
(a) (b)
Fig. 5-32.Two-dimensional energy contours in Silicon, of (a) the valence band of light
holes and (b) the valence band of heavy holes.
Figure 5-35 shows the dispersion along the [110] and [100] directions for
biaxially strained Si on Si0.87Ge0.13. Note that, the directions [100], [010], [-
100] and [0-10] are equivalent. Therefore, if the biaxial stress is directed
along one of these directions, the result is the same in the biaxially strained
Si. However, the heavy and light holes are now mixed and there are no
purely heavy hole (HH) nor light hole (LH) states. At the zone center
(k=0), the highest valence band has light hole character. Thus the
degeneracy of the HH and LH bands at the point (k=0) is lifted.Due to
the positive hydrostatic strain we obtain a reduced band gap with respect to
the unstrained Si. Furthermore, the degeneracy of the heavy and light hole
at k=0 is lifted by 69 meV and the light hole has been shifted above the
heavy hole. Also, the anisotropy of the holes along the different directions
[100] and [110] is very pronounced. The biaxial strain can be expressed as
applied stress (ij) in units of GPa.
The figure 5-36 shows the constant energy surface at E=25 meV and 94
meV below the valence band edge (a) and the constant energy surface
below the valence band edge (b). The degeneracy of heavy and light hole at
k=0 is lifted by 69 meV. The figure 5-37 shows the constant energy
contours in the (kx,ky) plane of a slice through the ground state hole (a) and
the first excited hole state (b) E(kx,ky,kz) dispersion at kz=0, i.e. E(kx,ky,0).
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Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
At figure 5-37(a) one can see that around k=0, the highest hole state has
light hole character and for larger k values the heavy hole character
dominates. At figure 5-37(b), the second highest hole state is shown which
is separated by 0.069eV from the light hole (valence band edge). Around
k=0 it has heavy hole character and at larger k values it has light hole
character as can be understood by comparing these plots to the unstrained
dispersion curves.
(a) (b)
Fig. 5-36. Effect of tensile stress on theconstant enegy surfaces of Si valence bands.
(a) valence band of light holes and (b) valence band of heavy holes.
(a) (b)
Fig. 5-37. Effect of tensile stress on the E-k contours of Si valence bands.
(a) valence band of light holes and (b) valence band of heavy holes.
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Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
Fig. 5-38. Effect of uniaxial tensile & compressive stress on the energy bands of Si.
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Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
The hydrostatic shift and uniaxial splitting of the conduction and valence
bands for (100) substrates are shown in the following figure for both
compressive and tensile strain. As, shown in figure, uniaxial strain splits
the degeneracy of bands e.g. the valleys in the conduction band of silicon
and the degeneracy of light holes (LH) and heavy holes (HH) valence
bands. The deformation potentials of silicon (which can be measured
experimentally) determine the exact amount of splitting of energy bands.
4H-SiC
Fig. 5-39.The main polytypes of SiC.
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Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
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Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
Fig. 5-41.The main features of the E-k relation of GaAs. The top of valence band Ev is
located at the center of the Brillouin zone (0, 0, 0) and labeled . The bottom of
conduction band Ec is located at , directly above the valence band.
7
Note that we consider that zincblende structures as two inter-penetrating face-centered cubes (FCC),
separated by ¼ the cube length.
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Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
(5-100a)
(5-100b)
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Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
(a) (b)
Fig. 5-43.(a) Contours of constant energy surfaces of the heavy holes valence band.
(b)Conduction band constant energy surface
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Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
e N
J vgi
V i1
(5-101a)
e N
J v 0
V i1 gi
(5-101b)
If the Valence band has P empty states, then the corresponding current
density is given by:
e N P e P
J v v (5-101c)
V i 1 gi V i 1 gi
k p
kn (5-102a)
N N
k p 0 ,
i 1
i
i 1
i
(5-102b)
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Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
E p
En , (5-102c)
mn , (5-102d)
* *
m p
v p
vn (5-102e)
Notice that m*n at the top of a band (a valence band) is negative, so that m*p
is positive. Finally, it should be emphasized that, it is more convenient to
talk about holes rather than electrons in valence bands, like speaking about
a bubble in a spirits. The reason the concept of holes simplifies the analysis
is that the density of states function of a whole band can be rather complex.
However, it can be dramatically simplified if only states close to the band
edge need to be considered.
Because of the anisotropy of the effective mass and the presence of
multiple equivalent band minima, we define two types of effective mass,
the effective mass for density of states calculations and the effective mass
for conductivity calculations. Electrons in GaAs have an isotropic effective
mass so that the conductivity effective mass equals the density of states
effective mass. The effective mass values for electrons and holes are listed,
with the value of the smallest energy gap, in Table 5-5.
Table 5-5 Energy gap and effective mass of carriers in Ge, Si and GaAs, at 300K.
Symbol Ge Si GaAs
Minimum Energy Gap Eg 0.66 1.12 1.424
Electron density of states effective mass m*nd /mo 0.55 1.08 0.067
Hole density of states effective mass m*pd /mo 0.37 0.811 0.45
Electron conductivity effective mass m*nc /mo 0.12 0.26 0.067
Hole conductivity effective mass m*pc /mo 0.21 0.386 0.37
N1 N
J e
V N
v
i 1
gi e n vn
where n=N/V is the density of electrons and vn is their average velocity in
the band. When a band is filled and all levels are occupied then the average
velocity of electrons is zero (vn=0). Consequently, the average current due
to these electrons is null.
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Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
2 3
vk (5-103a)
V
where V is the direct crystal lattice volume. Each of these elemental cells
in the k-space corresponds to an energy level. As each energy level can
accommodate two electrons of two different states (with different spins),
then the density of states in the k-space is given by:
1 V
G (k) (5-103b)
1 2 vk 4 3
It follows from the above relation that the total number of electrons in a
certain band is given by:
N G k f k d k
3
(5-104a)
Band
N G ( E) f ( E)dE
(5-104b)
Band
G E dE G k d k
3
(5-105a)
Cons. E . Surface
G E
2V ds
2 3
Const.E. Surface | k E k |
(5-105b)
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Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
Constant kz dS
energy surface,
E = Constant dk
ky
kx
In order to calculate the density of states in a certain energy band, one has
to know the E-k relation and the shape of the constant energy surface of
this band. G(E) is simply the fractional number of states between the two
energy surfaces E and E+ dE. For instance, for a spherical energy band we
have S =4 k2such that:
2m *
32
G(E) spheric
V
E 12
(5-106a)
2 2
2
There exists another more convenient form of the density of states, which
does not need the knowledge of the crystal lattice volume. The density of
states per unit energy per unit volume is expressed as g(E)=G(E)/V.
g E
1 ds
2 3 Const.
E. Surface| k E k |
(5-106b)
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Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
4 (2mo )3/ 2
g E . E (5-107)
(2 )
3 3
g E E Ec 1 2 near a minimum
(5-108)
g E Ev E 12
near a maximum
g(E)
Maximu Minimu
m m
Valence Conduction
Band Band
E
Ev Ec Eth
Fig. 5-45. Typical form of the density of states in non-overlapped energy bands.
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Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
3D
Ec Eci Eci
kx, ky, kz kx, ky kx
2D
3D 1D
E E E
Ec Eci Eci
Fig. 5-46. The E-k relation and density of states in 1-D, 2-D and 3-D semiconductors.
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Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
Table 5-6. Dispersion relations and density of states (DOS) of parabolic semi-
conductors of different dimensions.
where U(x) is the unit step function and (x) is the Dirac delta
function.Also, Ec and Eci denote the conduction band (or subband) edge.
It should be noted that the effective mass in the expression of the density of
states (DOS) is called the density of states effective mass (sometimes
termed md*). Therefore, the density of states in the conduction band of a 3-
dimensionsl bulk semiconductor is given by:
md*
gc E 2 3 2md* E Ec
2
12
(5-109)
The DOS effective mass (md*)depends on the band structure and is given by
the following expressions for GeandSi.
m (Ge) 4
*
d
2/3
m m
*.
l
*2
t
13
(5-110a)
m (Si) 6
*
d
2/3
m m
*.
l
*2
t
13
(5-110b)
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Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
It follows from the foregoing discussion, that energy bands may be filled or
empty or partially filled according to the atomic structure of the constituent
atoms of the solid material. Accordingly, the solid-state materials may be
classified into two categories:
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Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
Metals are substances with partially filled (or overlapping bands). Free
states are available because the number of available states is greater than
the number of electrons and bands may overlap, as shown in figure 5-42.
Metals, whose conduction band is partially filled with slight overlapping,
are sometimes called semimetals. Therefore, the Fermi energy in metals
separates occupied states from non-occupied states. Thereore, the shape of
the Fermi surface in metals define the metal properties. Non-conductors
contain empty (conduction) bands and completely filled (valence) bands at
0K. Non-conductors may be further classified into insulators and
semiconductors.
E E
C.B.
Ev C.B. Ec
Eg
Ec V.B. Ev
V.B.
Semimetals Metals
(with overlapped bands) (Non overlapped bands)
(a) Conductors.
E E
C.B. C.B.
Ec Ec
Eg≈ 1 eV Eg> 5eV
Ev Ev
V.B. V.B.
Semiconductors Insulators
(b) Non-Conductors.
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Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
Eg (eV) (.cm)
Material Category
0K 300K 300K
SiO2 Insulator 9 9 10 -1016
14
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Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
8
We consider zincblende structures as two inter-penetrating face-centered cubes (FCC), separated by ¼
the cube length.
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Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
compound semiconductors are formed from more than one group III
elements (randomly distributed on III sites) or more than one group V
elements (randomly distributed on V sites), these compounds are called
crystalline solid solutions.
Fig.5-50. Main semiconductor elementsand compounds in the periodic table and there
typical energy gaps
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Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
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Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
The electron transitions from the minimum point in the conduction band to
the maximum point of the valence band in indirect-gap semiconductors
require some change in k. Therefore, the conservation of crystal momentum
(or wave vector) requires a phonon emission (or absorption) during the
band-to-band transitions in indirect-gap semiconductors.This is only
possible if there are occupied electron and hole states directly on top of
each other.This is why the Si, which has an indirect gap, is not used as a
light source in optoelectronic devices.
Fig. 5-51. Electron transitions in direct (GaAs) and indirect (Si) semiconductors.
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Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
The electron affinity is the energy required to take an electron from the
bottom of the conduction band to the vacuum level where it can escape
from the crystal. According to Anderson’s rule, the vacuum level of the
two materials of a heterojunction should line up, such that:
Fig. 5-53. Alignment of energy bands at the interface of AlN-GaN-InN and GaAs –
AlxGa1-xAs hetero-junction, where Eg= 1.422 + 1.247x. For x = 0.3, Ecc = 0.33 eV,
Eg = 0.37 eV and Evv = 0.04 eV at 300K.
Parameter Formula
Energy gap [eV] Eg =
Valley = 1.422 + 1.247x
L Valley = 1.707 + 0.642x
X Valley = 1899 + 0.125x
Electron effective mass mn*/mo =
Valley = 0.067 + 0.083x
L Valley (total) = 0.55 + 0.12x
X Valley (total) = 0.85 - 0.07x
Hole effective mass mp*/mo = 0.48 + 0.31 x
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Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
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Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
where Eg = 2.42eV and EgX = 2.26eV are the extreme values when x=0
(GaAs) and x=1 (GaP), respectively. When x=0, the compound is simply a
GaAs direct gap semiconductor having Eg=Eg=2.42eV. Also, the material
changes from direct band gap to indirect band gap semiconductor for
x>0.45. When x is further increased to 1, the compound becomes a GaP,
which is an indirect gap semiconductor having Eg =EgX =1.26eV.
Eg (eV) E x X
3.0 =1.0
x
=0.4 C.B.
2.7 x=
0.0
Ec
2.4
1.42 2.2
Indirec eV eV
2.1
t Ev
1.8 Direct
V.B.
1.5 GaAs GaP [111] [100]
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 k
1.2 1.0 x
Fig. 5-55. Band structure dependence on the mole fraction x of the GaAs1-xPx .
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Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
It should be noted that there exist a strong correlation between the lattice
spacing constant (lattice parameter) of ternary compound semiconductor
and their energy gap height. Consequently, the problems of crystal
mismatch and strain induced defects in various heterojunction devices 9 can
be overcome by use of graded bandgap structures.Therefore, in graded
energy-gap semiconductors and alloys not only the energy gap, but also all
the other physical parameters such as the effective mass and the dielectric
9
As we stated above, Heterojunction devices are those devices employing different semiconductor
materials within the same device.
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Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
constant change with the composition mole fraction. Table 5-8depicts the
formulae describing such parameters in AlxGa1-xAs.
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Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
Fig. 5-57. Correlation between the lattice constant and the energy gap of some
compound semiconductors.
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Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
ECI – ECII
EgI EgII
I II I II I EvI – EvII
x x
a
Material II (Narrower Gap)
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Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
dk x e
(5-113a)
dt
Consider an electron at t=0 with k=0. Assume the electron is drifted during
a time t under the electric field effect. Then we have:
e
kx ( t ) xt (5-113b)
When the electron reaches k=/a it is Bragg-reflected to k=-/a. Then,
itmoves from -/a to /a again. The period of motion is given by:
2
T . (5-114)
e x a
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Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
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Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
5-19.1. 0D Structures
The 0D structures (quantum dots) are semiconductor crystallite whose size
is in the order of de-Brouglie wavelength or smaller than the size of the
exciton Bohr radius (1-100 nm for electrons). As we mentioned above, the
quantum dots, are three-dimensionally constrained nanostructures.
Quantum dots are usually fabricated from compound semiconductors (e.g.,
InGaAs), which are used in optical and fluorescent applications (e.g., Laser
and solar cells).
Cr
Cr Cr AlGaAs
GaAs GaAs
AlGaAs
The energy levels can then be modeled using the particle in a box model in
which the energy of different states is dependent on the length of the box.
Then the energy levels of the exciton can be represented as the solution to
the particle in a box at the ground level (n = 1) with the mass replaced by
the reduced mass.
The band gap can become larger in the strong confinement regime where
the size of the quantum dot is smaller than the Exciton Bohr radius ab* as
the energy levels split up.
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Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
g(E)
Q0D
Fig. 5-60. The E-k relation and density of states in zero-dimensional semiconductors.
5-19.2. 1D Structures
The one-dimensional structures, such as quantum wires, are sometimes
called quasi-one-dimensional (Q1D) devices orone-dimensional electron
gas (1DEG). The motion of electrons in Q1D structures is free in one
dimension and quantized in the other two dimensions. Therefore, the E-k is
transformed to a series of sub-bands, as shown in figure 5-61. In one-
dimensional structures, the density of states (per unit length per unit
energy) gc1(E) is given by:
mn*
gc1 ( E)
1
E Ec 1/ 2 (5-115)
2 2
5-19.3. 2D Structures
In two-dimensional structures, the density of states (per unit area per unit
energy) gc2(E) is independent of energy and given by:
mn*
gc 2 ( E) (5-116)
2
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Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
Note that, in Q2D structures, the motion of electrons is only free in two
dimensions and quantized in the third dimension. Therefore, the E-k is
transformed to a series of sub-bands, as shown in figure 5-59.
3D Q2D Q1D
3D
E EC EC1 EC2 E E
Ec Ec1 Ec2
Fig. 5-61. The E-k relation and density of states in low-dimensional semiconductors.
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Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
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Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
Close to the Fermi level the dispersion relation for electrons and holes is
linear. Since the effective masses are given by the curvature of the energy
bands (m*=2/2E(k)/k2), this corresponds to zero effective mass. The
equation describing the excitations in graphene is formally identical to the
Dirac equation for massless fermions which travel at a constant speed.
Therefore, the connection points of the cones (Fermi points) are sometimes
called the Dirac points10. This gives rise to interesting analogies between
graphene and nuclear particles, which are valid for energies up to
approximately 1eV, where the dispersion relation starts to be nonlinear.
10
One result of this special dispersion relation, is that the quantum Hall effect becomes unusual in
graphene, as we’ll see in Chapter 7 of this book.
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Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
where
with k is the crystal momentum, Nis the number of unit cells in the
graphene sheet, l is the cell position index and J = A,B
The E(k) relation is derived by solving the Schrödinger equation which
reduces to diagonalizing the following 2×2 matrix
Fig. 5-64. Energy band diagram in one and two-dimensional k-space of metallic and
semiconductor nanotubes.
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Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
Eg ≈ 2 Eo (a / d) = 0.9 / d (5-117)
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Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
The following figure shows the Katuara plots for the same parameter. The
Katuara plot is a theoretical graph was designed in 1999 by Hiromichi
Kataura to rationalize some experimental findings. It relates the nanotube
bandgap energy and its diameter.The oscillating of the of the Kataura plot
branches reflects the strong dependence of the SWNT properties on the
chirality (n, m) index, as well.
Fig. 65(b). Katwara plots for the energy gap of carbon nanotube,.
Figure 5-66 depicts the dispersion relation E(k) of electrons and the density
of states in both metallic and semiconductor nanotubes. The following
figure schematically shows the electronic density of states expected for the
π- electrons in a semiconducting SWNT.The spikes in the density of states
are called van Hove singularities (vHSs). They arise from the quasi one-
dimensional character of electronic motion in systems with very high
aspect ratios. Each van Hove singularity is labeled with the index of the
subband to which it belongs. These singularities are of great interest for
optical transitions, in a variety of optical phenomena. In fact, the unique
optical properties observed in SWNTs are due to the one-dimensional (1D)
confinement of their electronic structure.Note that the density of states
(DOS) per unit length in one dimension is given by:
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Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
(5-118)
Fig. 5-66. Energy bands and density of states of metallic and semiconductor nanotubes.
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Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
In the ZFA each CNT can be identified by two numbers, which represent
the circumference vector in the basis of the direct lattice vectors a 1, a2 of
graphene. Boundary conditions are then imposed which results in selecting
specific k–points in the reciprocal space.
As shown in the right top of the following figure, the Brillouin Zone (BZ)
of graphene is represented and the lines correspond to the k points which
respects the boundary conditions of a(5,5) CNT. The right bottom panel,
instead, shows the energy surface of the π−π∗bands of graphene, cut by the
allowed k–points which can be used to construct the CNT band structure.
Within the TB+ZFA scheme, it can be show that for example all (n,n) and
(3n,0) CNTs are metallic, with nany integer, while all the remaining (n, 0)
tubes are semi–conducting. CNTs of different kinds, (n,m) CNTs, are said
to be chiral and can be either metallic or semi–conducting. The general rule
is that a CNT is metallic if n−mis a multiple of 3.
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Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
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Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
For the wire thickness range up to 3nm, the effective mass at the
conduction band edge is at least 35% heavier than that of transverse mass
of bulk Si.
Quantum confinement has the largest effect on the carrier effective masses
in the valence band. The effective mass at the valence band edge is at least
6 times heavier than that of the bulk in the [100] direction. The effective
mass of the next highest band is even heavier. Small energy splitting also
occurs at the conduction band minimum. Figure 5-70 shows the shape of
hydrogenated SiNW and its unit cell. Also, figure 5-71depicts the energy
band structure of a 1.54 nm SiNW. For wires greater than 1.54 nm thick,
the 4 bulk valleys which compose the conduction band minimum are split
into 3 energies. The center energy is twofold degenerate roughly evenly
split between the lowest and highest energy so that the conduction band
minimum becomes non-degenerate except for spin.
The silicon nanotubes (SiNTs) are some sort of hollow SiNWs, with tube-
wall-thickness of several nanometers. SiNTs are expected to have more
potential applications than SiNWs. Recently, crystalline silicon nanotubes
(c-SiNTs), have been successfully synthesized. Figure 5-60 shows a TEM
picture of a c-SiNT. The following figure shows the effect of SiNT
thickness on the energy band diagram and energy gap of a uniform SiNT of
diameter D=1.80nm. The band gap increases significantly as the thickness
becomes smaller due to quantum confinement.
Fig. 5-71. Effect of tube thickness () on the energy band structure and energy gap of a
uniform c-SiNT of diameter D= 1.8 nm.
The question is: why are some organic materials (polymers) behave like
semiconductors? The answer is as simple as follows. In all systems of
conductive organic materials, the conducting chain of the molecule consists
of unsaturated carbon atoms (e.g. --CH-CH-CH--; each atom is only three-
fold coordinated). Each carbon atom contributes a single p z-electron to a
bond with the neighboring atoms. This situation is unstable to small
symmetry-breaking distortions (called Jahn-Teller distortions). The
bandgap that is opened up by this symmetry lowering is in the order of
2.5eV and this is in the range of semiconductors. Therefore, organic
semiconductors mostly fall in the category of wide-band-gap
semiconductors (Table 5-9). Electrons may be excited from the valence
band to the conduction band, by thermal and optical excitations, or by
doping. In fact, most organic semiconductors have a sufficient doping level
to make them p-type.
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Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
Fig. 5-72,Two monomers of poly phenylenevinylene (PPV), showing (a) the chemical
structure, (b) the HOMO, and (c) the LUMO.
The strength of the coupling between front orbitals defines not only the rate
of charge transfer between molecules, but also its mechanism. When
neighboring molecules are well coupled, the charge is delocalized across
both molecules. Conversely, when the molecules are poorly coupled, the
charge is strongly localized on a single molecule and only able to transfer
to the other molecule via a thermally assisted hopping.
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Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
Fig. 5-73.Electronic states in the band-gap region of a-Si. The valence band tail is
almost exponential with width of 190 meV as estimated with fitting (dashed line).
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Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
Fig. 5-74. Band inversion between two end members in Pb1-xSnxTe., Energy spectrum of
the inverted contact. The solid lines are Weyl states and dashed lines are additional
branches appear for contact thickness l > lo.
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Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
P2 ( p eA) 2
Ĥ 2m V ( r ) 2m V r (5-119)
( p eA) 2
Ĥ 2m*
(5-120)
2 k z2
E En Ec *
c (n 21 ) (5-121)
2m
The quantized energy levels described by (5-121) are called Landau levels.
Figure 5-75 depicts the effect of magnetic field on the simple E-k relation
of a quasi-free electron and the constant energy surface. Figure 5-76 shows
how the free electron Fermi surface (dotted sphere) is transformed into
concentric cylinders - called the Landau tubes. Also, figure 5-69 illustrates
the transformation of quasi-continuous energy band spectrum of electrons
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Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
Thus, the magnetic field tends to increase the energy gap (by 1/2 ħc). We
have seen so far, the density of states in one-dimensional k-space is
proportional to E-1/2 (with no applied magnetic field). In the presence of
magnetic field, the density of energy states will have similar energy
dependence. Therefore, in the direction of magnetic field we have:
g E B E Ec c ( n 21 )
1 2
n
(5-123)
where the sum is taken over all subbands (Landau levels). Thus, the
density of states in magnetic fields tends to infinity at the apexes of Landau
levels (where E = Ec + ħc(n+1/2) ) and decreases with increase in energy,
as shown in figure 5-77.
E-Ec
n=2
ħ2k2/2m*+1/2ħc
ħc n=1
n=0
k
Fig. 5-75. Illustration of the quantized Landau levels, in presence of magnetic field.
11
The energy broadening in a quantum state is due to the uncertainty in energy by E=ħt, where tis
the state lifetime. The state lifetime is roughly the meantime between two successive collisions.
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Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
Fig. 5-76.. Transformation of the constant energy surface of a free electron (dashed
sphere) into quantized cylinders (Landau levels), in presence of a magnetic field.
E E – Ec - ħ 2k2/2m*
n=3 7/2ħ
n=2 c5/2
Band
n=1 ħ c
3/2
Ec n=0 ħc
1/2
ħc
Eg Eg +1/2
ħc
Band
It worth notice that the change of the shape of density of states to the
peaked form, shown in figure, is expected to have many consequences on
the physical characteristics of the material. For instant, the energy states
near the apexes will be depopulated (unfilled) because of their very large
number. In addition, the Fermi energy EF must coincide with B such that it
becomes over the filled states. When magnetic field is raised, one of the
Landau levels will cross the Fermi energy. Hence, the electron should drop
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Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
into a lower energy level. One can observe an oscillatory free energy with
increasing magnetic field. The resulting resistivity oscillation is known as
the Shubnikov-de Haas effect. Figure 5-78 illustrates the oscillation of
Fermi level as the magnetic field is increased. The maxima of these
oscillations occur at regular intervals of 1/B such that:
1 2e 1
. (5-124)
B Aext
The above equation relates the periodicity of oscillations of the free energy
to the external cross-sectional area Aext of the Fermi surface. It should be
noted that the presence of localized energy levels in the energy gap (due to
impurity atoms or other defects in the crystal) broadens the transition of
Fermi energy between Landau levels.
B B=
gn(E)
0 0
Fig. 5-78. Effect of magnetic field on the density of states in the direction of field.
E- Ec - ħ2k2/2m*
Locus of Fermi
n=3
Energy level
n=2
n=1
Average
n=0
Fig. 5-79. Schematic of the locus of Fermi energy as magnetic field increases.
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Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
eB
k . z (5-125)
(a)
(b)
Fig. 5-80. Effect of (a) parallel and (b) perpendicular magnetic fields on the
dispersion curves of a superlattice.
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Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
The above magnetic effects are very important when they are coupled with
optical phenomena in superlattices, as shown in figure 5-81. It has been
observed that parallel magnetic fields brought a quenching of the intensity
of electro-luminescence signals, together with a broadening and a blue-shift
of the photo-emission in superlattices. On the other hand, a perpendicular
magnetic field will allow transitions only between Landau levels and
optical phonon emission is strongly decreased.
Fig. 5-81. Effect of magnetic field on the spectra of a quantum cascade LASER, as
detected by InSb cyclotron resonance detector.
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Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
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Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
5-29. SUMMARY
One of the most important results of the application of quantum mechanics
to the description of electrons in solids is that the allowed energy levels of
electrons in individual atoms are grouped into bands. In fact, when atoms
are brought together to form a crystalline solid, the energy levels of
individual atoms are split and broadened (because of the Pauli exclusion
principle) and transformed into energy bands. You may imagine energy
bands as some sort of channels in which electrons move freely. These
energy bands are usually separated by the so-called energy gaps.
The electrons of lower energy levels are tightly bound to their nuclei and
form narrow energy bands. But the electrons of higher energy levels
(valence shells) are quasi-free and form wider energy bands. The energy
gaps are narrower the higher is the corresponding band. In higher levels,
energy bands may overlap.Each simple band cannot contain more than 2N
electrons where N is the number of atoms in the crystal. The highest filled
band is termed valence band, and the highest empty or partially filled band
is termed conduction band. The lowest level in the conduction band is
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Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
termed by Ec, while highest level in the valence band is termed by Ev.
Thedistance between the top of valence band and the bottom of conduction
band is called the energy gap Eg. Evidently we have:
Eg = Ec - Ev
The lowest level in the conduction band, Ec, designates the energy of a
conduction electron at rest. The energy of an electron at rest isits potential
energy. The kinetic energy of an electron in the conduction band is merely
the difference E-Ec.
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Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
The following figure shows the nenergy band diagram of Ge, Si, and GaAs
(from left to right, respectively).
m*
k k E
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Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
C 0,25 AlSb 0,98 CdS 0,80 PbS 0,25 C 0,2 AlSb 0,12 CdS 0,21 PbS 0,25
0,04 0,98
Ge 0,28 GaN 0,60 CdSe 0,45 PbTe 0,2 Si 0,19 GaN 0,19 CdSe 0,13 PbTe 0,17
0,16 1,64
Si 0,49 GaSb 0,40 ZnO Ge 0,082 GaSb 0,042 ZnO 0,27
SiC 1,00 GaAs 0,082 ZnS SiC 0,6 GaAs 0,067 ZnS 0,40
The dark side of ab initio methods is their computational cost. They often
take enormous amounts of CPU time and memory.Therefore, so many
researchers have been utilizing the so-called approximate or empirical
methods to develop the energy band structure of crystalline solids.
Generally speaking, there exist two basic approximate methods, which are
widely used for the calculation of energy bands in solids, namely:
The quasi-free electron (QFE) model, and
The tightly bound electron (TBE) model.
Both of the above approximate methods use the perturbation theory. But
they differ in their zero approximation. The quasi-free electron (QFE)
method (which represents the physicists approach) takes the free electron
model as a zero-order approximation and the periodic field of the lattice as
a perturbation. This results in the so-called pseudopotential methods. The
tightly bound electron (TBE) method (which represents the chemists
approach) takes the electron in an isolated atom as a zero approximation
and the periodic potential of the lattice as perturbation. This results in the
so called linear combination of atomic orbitals (LCAO) methods.
In the so called low-dimensional semiconductors (LDS’s), free electrons
are only permitted to move in one or two dimensions. For instance, the
electrons filling the thin inversion layer in a conventional MOSFET
(Metal-Oxide-semiconductor Field Effect Transistor) are only permitted to
move freely in the 2 dimensions of the inversion layer. The motion of free
electrons in the third dimension (normal to the layer plane) quantized.The
next table summarizes the dispersion relations E(k)and density of states
(DOS) of parabolic semiconductors of different dimensions.
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Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
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Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
5-30. Problems
5-2) If the energy of a crystal excitation varies with the wave vector k
like:
2 k x2 k y2 k z2
E( k ) Eo
2 m m m
x y z
Show that the density of states per unit energy per unit volume is given by:
g( E )
N
2mx m y mz 1 / 2 ( E Eo )1 / 2
2
2 2
5-3) A 1 cm3 of a metal has a density of states g(E) =51021 E1/2, where E
is measured from the bottom of conduction band. If the number of
electrons in a small energy interval between E=4.6 eV and E+ dE = 4.601
eV is equal to 2.0 10 15 electron.
i) Determine the fraction of states between E, E+dE, which are
occupied by electrons.
ii) Calculate the position of Fermi level.
iii) Determine the number of electrons at T= 0K.
5-4) For photons, where the relationship between energy and wavelength
is E = pc = hc/, show that the density of states is given by:
5-5) State two results of using the Kronig–Penney model with the
Schrodinger’s wave equation. Plot the function f(a) = 9sin(a)/a +
cos(a)for 0 ≤ a ≤ 6π. Also, given the function f(a) = cos(ka), indicate the
allowed values of a which will satisfy this equation.
5-6) Show that the average kinetic energy of a hole in the valence band of
a semiconductor is 3/2 kBT.
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Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
where J0(01·r/R) is the zero-order Bessel function, 01 the first zero of the
zero-order Bessel function, L the length of the cylinder, and
and NL= (2/L)1/2 are normalization factors for the radial and axial portions
of the wave function.
Prove also that the confinement energy increase in the band gap of such
tubes, is then given by
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Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Electronic Engineering Materials & Nanotechnology Chapter 5
5-31. BIBLIOGRAPHY
[1] M. Born and R. Oppenheimer, Zur Quantentheorie der Molekeln, Ann of
Physics (Leipzig), vol. 84, No 20, p.457, 1927.
[2] E. Fermi, Un metodo statistico per la determinazione di alcune proprietà
dell'atome, Rend. Accad. Naz. Lincei 6, p.602, 1927.
[3] D.R. Hartree, The wave mechanics of an atom with non-Coulombic central
field: Proc. Camb. Soc., Vol.24, p.89,1928.
[4] V. Fock, Näherungsmethode zur Lösung des quanten-mechanischen
Mehrkörperproblems, Z. Phys. Vol. 61, p. 126, 1930
[5] W. Shockley, The Empty Lattice Test of the Cellular Method in Solids,
Phys. Rev. vol. 52, pp. 866 – 872, 1937.
[6] F. Seitz, Modern Theory of Solids, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1940.
[7] W. Shockley, Electrons and Holes in Semiconductors,Van Nostrand, New York,
1950.
[8] J. C. Slater, Electronic Structure of Solids, Handbuch der Physik, vol. XIX,
edited by Flagge, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1956.
[9] G. H. Wannier, Elements of Solid State Theory, Cambridge University Press,
New York, 1959.
[10] J. Callaway, Electron Energy Bands in Solids, Academic Press, New York,
1958, 1964, 1990.
[11] E. I. Blount, Formalisms of Band Theory, vol. 13 of Solid State Physics,
Academic Press, New York, 1962.
[12] W. Kohn and L. J. Sham, “Self-consistent equations including exchange and
correlation effects”. Phys. Rev. 140 (4A), p.1133, 1965.
[13] Fred H. Pollak, Manuel Cardona, Energy band structure of Ge and GaAs: The
k.p method, Journal of Physics and Chemistry of Solids, Vol. 27, Issue 2, pp.423-
425, 1966.
[14] Walter A. Harrison, Pseudopotentials in the theory of metals, W.A. Benjamin,
New York, 1966.
[15] T. L. Gilbert, “Hohenberg-Kohn theorem for nonlocal external potentials”,
Physical Review B, vol. 12, No. 6, p.2111, 1975.
[16] C. Kittle, Introduction to Solid-State Physics, 2nd edition, John Wiley & Sons,
New York, 1976.
[17] N.W. Ashcroft, N.D.Mermin, Solid State Physics, Saunders, 1976.
[18] O. Madelung, Introduction to Solid-State Theory, Springer-Verlag, Berlin,1978.
[19] G. Bastard, Wave Mechanics Applied to Semiconductor Hetero-structures, Les
Editions de Physique, Les Ulis, France, 1990.
[20] S. Goedecker and M. Teter, Tight-binding electronic-structure calculations,
Phys. Rev. B,,vol. 51 , No15, p.9455, 1995.
[21] John Singleton, Band theory and electronic properties of solids, Oxford
University Press, 2001
[22] Soline Richard, Frédéric Aniel, and Guy Fishman, Energy-band structure of Ge,
Si, and GaAs: A thirty-band k∙p method, Phys. Rev. B, Vol. 70, p. 235204, 2004;
Erratum Phys. Rev. B 71, p. 169901, 2005.
[23] M. K. Y. Chan and G. Ceder, Efficient Band Gap Prediction for Solids Phys.
Rev. Letters,Vol. 105, p. 196403 –November 2010.
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