Lesson 21: Electron Configuration

Content Standard
The learners demonstrate an understanding of the electronic distribution in Lesson Outline
an atom.
Introduction Communicating Learning Objectives 7
Performance Standards
Motivation Addresses and Zip Codes 3
The learners can illustrate the distribution of the electrons in an atom.
Instruction I. Energies of the Orbitals 80
Learning Competencies and Practice II. Electron Configuration
At the end of the lesson, the learners: III. Hand and Rule
1.
Write the electronic configuration of atoms (STEM_GC11CB-IIa-b-56) IV. Aufbau Principle
V. The Quantum Numbers and the
2.
Determine the magnetic property of the atom based on its
Arrangement of Elements in the
electronic structure (STEM_GC11CB-IIa-b-57)
Periodic Table
3.
Draw an orbital diagram to represent the electronic configuration of
atoms; Evaluation Exercises and Activity 30
(STEM_GC11CB-IIa-b-58) Materials
Periodic Table
4.
Perform exercises on writing electronic configuration (STEM_GC11CB-
IIa- b-59) Resources

Specific Learning Competencies
At the end of the lesson, the learners will be able to:
1. Explain the unique electron distribution of the atom;
2. Compare and contrast the orbital energies in a hydrogen
atom with that of the many-electron atom;
3. Write the electron configuration of an atom using
the conventional method as well as the core noble
gas configurations;
4. Illustrate the electron distribution using orbital diagrams;
5. Determine magnetic properties of an atom based on
its electronic configuration; and
(a) Chang, Raymond and Goldsby, Kenneth A. (2016).
Chemistry (12th ed). New York: McGraw-Hill.
(b) Petrucci, Herring, Madura, and Bissonnette (2011).
General Chemistry and Modern Applications, 10th Ed.
Pearson Canada, Inc.
(c) Zumdahl, S.S. and Zumdahl, S.A (2013).Chemistry, 8th
ed. Cengage Learning
6. Determine valence configuration and valence electrons.
7. Relate valence configuration of elements with position
of element in the periodic table.

1
INTRODUCTION/ REVIEW (7 minutes)
1. Review orbitals and their shapes.

2. Introduce the following learning objectives using any of the suggested protocol
(Verbatim, Own Words, or Read-aloud):
At the end of the lesson, I will be able to:
a. Explain the unique electron distribution of the atom;
b. Compare and contrast the orbital energies in a hydrogen atom with that of the
many- electron atom;
c. Write the electron configuration of an atom using the conventional method as well
as the core noble gas configurations;
d. Illustrate the electron distribution using orbital diagrams;
e. Determine magnetic properties of an atom based on its electronic configuration; and
f. Determine valence configuration and valence electrons.
g. Relate valence configuration of elements with position of element in the periodic table.

3. Present the keywords for the concepts to be learned:

a. Ground state
b. Excited state
c. Degenerate
d. Electron configuration
e. Orbital Diagram
f. Pauli Exclusion Principle
g. Paramagnetic
h. Diamagnetic
i. Hund’s Rule
j. Building-Up Principle (Aufbau Principle)
k. Noble gas
l. Transition metals
m. Valence configuration
n. Valence electrons

2
MOTIVATION (3 minutes)
1. Ask a few learners to give their home addresses.
2. What are zip codes? What is the zip code of the school?
3. What is the use of zip codes? Look for the zip code of a school outside your city or
province and compare with yours.

INSTRUCTION/ DELIVERY/ PRACTICE (80 minutes)

I. ENERGIES OF THE ORBITALS
After understanding the shapes and sizes of atomic orbitals, it is imperative to understand the
relative energies of the orbitals and how it affects the actual arrangement of electrons in
atoms.

1. Orbital energy levels in a hydrogen atom

The energy of an electron in a hydrogen atom depends solely on its principal quantum number,
n. The energy of the electron in the hydrogen atom is given by:

where RH is equal to 2.18 x 10-18J. Therefore, the energies of the hydrogen atom increase
according to the following (see Figure 1):

1s < 2s = 2p < 3s = 3p = 3d < 4s = 4p = 4d = 4f < …

Orbitals with the same principal quantum number, n, have the same energy. It means that in a
hydrogen atom, the lowest energy is 1s. It is the most stable condition, or termed as the
ground state. An electron in the ground state is most strongly held by the nucleus.

3
Orbital energy levels in a hydrogen atom

4
 The 2s, and the three 2p-orbitals have the same energy. We refer to orbitals with the same
energy as degenerate. When an external energy hits a hydrogen atom, the electron in the 1s
orbital, can jump to the 2s, 2p or higher orbitals and this electron is said to be in the excited
state.
Similarly, the 3s, the three 3p-orbitals and the five 3d-orbitals are degenerate and have
higher energy than the orbitals in the 2nd energy level.

2. Orbital energy levels for many-electron atoms

For atoms containing more than one electron (many-electron atoms), the energy depends on
other factors. These include the potential energy of repulsion among the electrons, the
attraction between the nucleus and the other electrons, and the kinetic energies of the many
electrons.
Thus the orbital energies of many-electron atoms depend not only on n but also on ℓ. Note that Source
the 3s, 3p, and 3d orbitals are no longer degenerate to each other. The 3d orbital energies are Generalized energy-level diagram for atomic orbitals
even lower than those of the 4s orbitals. in an atom with two or more electrons (not to scale).
From Electronic Structure of Atoms (Electron
Configurations), Rice University.
Retrieved from https://opentextbc.ca/chemistry/
chapter/6-4-electronic-structure-of-atoms-electron-
configurations/ (3 November 2016), Creative
Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Orbital energy levels for many-electron atoms

III. ELECTRON CONFIGURATION

The four quantum numbers n, ℓ, ml, and ms are very useful in labelling an electron in any orbital in an
atom much like giving the address of an electron in an atom.

In the case of hydrogen, there is only one electron. In the ground state, the one electron of hydrogen
will occupy the 1s orbital, the one with the lowest energy. This electron is represented
5
by the set of quantum numbers: n = 1, ℓ =0, ml = 0, and ms = ½ or -½. By convention, the set
of quantum numbers is written as (1, 0, 0, ½) or (1, 0, 0, -½). The ms value does not affect the
energy, orientation, or size of the orbital but is important in describing the arrangement of
electrons in the atom.

It is possible to represent this arrangement of the electron in hydrogen in terms of the electron
configuration or in terms of the orbital diagram. The electron configuration shows how the
electrons of an atom are distributed among the atomic orbitals. The orbital diagram shows the
spin of the electron. For the electron in the ground state of hydrogen, the electron
configuration is given as

In an orbital diagram, a 1s orbital can be represented as a box with 1 arrow up (up-spin) or

arrow down (down-spin)

In filling up the orbitals, the lower energy levels are filled up first before the higher energy
levels. For many-electron atoms, the Pauli Exclusion Principle is used. This states that in an
atom or molecule, no two electrons can have the same four electronic quantum numbers.
Consequently, an orbital can contain a maximum of only two electrons, the two electrons must
have opposing spins. This means if one is assigned an up-spin (+1/2), the other must be down-
spin (-1/2).

6
Consider the case of He with 2 electrons.

Exercises
1. What are the possible sets of quantum numbers that can describe a 2p electron in an
atom?

2. Give the electron configuration of Li. Give the set of quantum numbers that describe
the outermost electron in lithium as shown in the orbital diagram below.
3. Give the electron configuration of Be. Draw the orbital diagram.
4. Give the electron configuration of B. Draw the orbital diagram.

7
III. HUND’S RULE
For carbon, the electronic configuration is 1s2 2s2 2p2. But the orbital diagram shows three
ways in which the last electron can be placed in the orbitals which do not violate the Pauli’s
exclusion principle as shown in the following:

However, each arrangement provides a different energy value. The one with the lowest energy
has the greatest stability. Hund’s rule is the guide in determining the most stable distribution.
Hund’s rule: The most stable arrangement of electrons in the subshells is the one with the
most number of parallel spins.

Based on Hund’s rule, the third option is the most favorable arrangement for the electron to
attain the greatest stability. In the first option, the presence of two electrons with opposing
spins in one orbital results in a greater mutual repulsion than when they occupy separate
orbitals. Hund’s Rule is followed in d and f orbitals as well.

Pauli’s Exclusion Principle can be tested by simple observation. Measurements of magnetic

properties provide the most direct evidence for specific electronic configurations of elements.
Paramagnetic materials are those that contain unpaired electrons or spins and are attracted by
a magnet. Diamagnetic materials are those with paired spins and are repelled by a magnet.

Any atom with an odd number of electrons will contain one or more unpaired spins, and are
therefore attracted by a magnet, thus, can be classified as paramagnetic. For an even
number of electrons like helium, if the two electrons in the 1s orbitals had parallel spins,
their net
8
 magnetic fields should strengthen each other. But experimental results showed that the
helium atom in its ground state has no net magnetic field.

This observation supports the pairing of two electrons with opposite spins in the 1s orbital.
Thus, helium gas is diamagnetic. Lithium, on the other hand, has an unpaired electron and is
paramagnetic. The orbital diagram provides information on the diamagnetic or paramagnetic
characteristic of an element.

Exercises:
Fill in the following table:

NUMBER PARAMAGNETIC No. of

ATOMIC ORBITAL ELECTRON
ELEMENT OF OR UNPAIRED
NUMBER DIAGRAM CONFIGURATION
ELECTRONS DIAMAGNETIC ELECTRONS

H 1

He 2

Li 3

Be 4

B 5

C 6

N 7

O 8

F 9

Ne 10

Which of the 10 elements has the highest magnetic properties (most paramagnetic)?

9
IV. AUFBAU PRINCIPLE
The Aufbau principle dictates that as protons are added one by one to the nucleus to
build up the elements, electrons are similarly added to the atomic orbitals. The order of
filling up the atomic orbitals is from lowest energy to highest energy. Within the same
principal quantum number, the order of energies of the atomic orbitals is

s<p<d<f

For example, for n = 3, the order is E3s < E3p < E 3d.

For multi-electron atoms, the general order of filling up orbitals can be diagrammed as
follows:

The electron configuration of elements higher than hydrogen and helium can be
represented using the noble gas core. In the periodic table, the noble gases are
found in the last column named as Group 8A (or Group 18 in the IUPAC convention).
These are 2He, 10Ne, 18Ar, 36Kr, 54Xe, 86Rn.

10
The smallest noble element is helium, so the shortened electronic configuration can be
written as follows for the given elements:

ATOMIC NO. OF ELECTRON NOBLE GAS

ELEMENT
NUMBER ELECTRONS CONFIGURATION CONFIGURATION

He 2 2 1s2 [He]

Li 3 3 1s2 2s1 [He] 2s1

Be 4 4 1s2 2s2 [He] 2s2

B 5 5 1s2 2s2 2p1 [He]2s2 2p1

C 6 6 1s2 2s2 2p2 [He]2s2 2p2

N 7 7 1s2 2s2 2p3 [He]2s2 2p3

O 8 8 1s2 2s2 2p4 [He]2s2 2p4

F 9 9 1s2 2s2 2p5 [He]2s2 2p5

Ne 10 10 1s2 2s2 2p6 [Ne]

Na 11 11 1s2 2s2 2p63s1 [Ne]3s1

Mg 12 12 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 [Ne]3s2

K 19 19 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1 [Ar] 4s1

The elements in the 4th period, starting from potassium will have argon as the
noble gas core
K: [Ar]4s1
19

Ca: [Ar] 4s2

20

11
The 4s orbital has lower energy than the 3d orbitals; it is first filled with electrons
before the 3d orbitals.

Elements scandium to copper are transition metals. These elements will have
incompletely filled d subshells or readily gives electrons and form cations that have
incomplete filled d subshells. There will be some irregularities in the electron
distribution of this series as seen in Cr and Cu.

21 Sc: [Ar]4s23d1
22Ti: [Ar]4s23d2
24 Cr: [Ar]4s13d5
29 Cu: [Ar]4s13d10
30Zn: [Ar] 4s23d10

The irregularities in Cr and Cu are due to experimental results that show that there is a
greater stability associated with the half-filled (3d5) and the completely filled (3d10)
subshells. Similar observations are also found in the higher d and f-orbitals.

Gallium is the next element after Zn, its electronic configuration is:
31Ga: [Ar] 4s23d104p1

Important data that can be gathered from the shortened electronic configuration are
the following:
a. Valence configuration: The electronic configuration representing the outermost
subshells.
b. Valence electrons: the number of electrons in the outermost subshells.

Determining the valence electrons is important to understand the behavior of the

elements especially in their bonding patterns to be discussed in the next sessions.

12
Note NOBLE GAS VALENCE
ELEMENT VALENCE ELECTRONS
In the example on the left, there CONFIGURATION CONFIGURATION
is no need to include the completely filled 3d subshells in the valence configuration and the inclusion of the 3d electrons in counting the valence
electrons.
Li [He] 2s 1
2s1
1

Be [He] 2s2 2s2 2

B [He]2s2 2p1 2s2 2p1 3

N [He]2s2 2p3 2s2 2p3 5

Ne [Ne] [Ne] or 2s2 2p6 8

Sc [Ar]4s23d1 4s23d1 3

Cr [Ar]4s13d5 4s13d5 6

Ga [Ar]4s23d104p1 4s24p1 3
V. THE QUANTUM NUMBERS AND THE ARRANGEMENTS OF ELEMENTS IN
THE PERIODIC TABLE
It was mentioned earlier that the complete set of quantum numbers specifies the
address of an electron in an atom. This can be seen in the arrangement of elements
in the periodic table. The periodic table is designed such that elements with valence
configurations in the s orbitals are found in the first two columns on the left, the
ones with p-orbitals are found on the right. The transition metals have d-orbitals Source
and are found at the middle and the elements with f-orbitals as valence The periodic table showing the s, p, d, and f sublevel blocks.
configurations are found at the bottom. From High School Chemistry/The Periodic Table and Electron
Configuration. Retrieved from https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/
High_School_Chemistry/
The_Periodic_Table_and_Electron_Configurations (3November
2016), Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 License.

13
ENRICHMENT/EVALUATION (30 minutes)
1. Which of the four quantum numbers (n, l, ml , ms) determine 8. The atomic number of an element is 73. Is this
(a) the energy of an electron in a hydrogen atom and in a element diamagnetic or paramagnetic?
many- electron atom, (b) the size of an orbital, (c) the shape
of an orbital, (d) the orientation of an orbital in space? 9. Indicate the number of unpaired electrons present in each of
the following atoms: B, Ne, P, Sc, Mn, Se, Kr, Fe, Cd, I, Pb.
2. Calculate the total number of electrons that can occupy (a) one
s 10. Draw the orbital diagrams for atoms with the following
orbital, (b) three p orbital, (c) five d orbitals, (d) seven f orbitals. electron configurations:
(a)1s22s22p5
3. List the values of n, l, and ml for the orbital in the 4d
(b) 1s22s22p63s23p3
subshell.
(c)1s22s22p63s23p64s23d7
4. Write the four quantum numbers for an electron in a 3p
11. What is the maximum number of electrons in an atom that
orbital.
can have the following quantum numbers? Specify the orbitals
in which the electrons would be found. (a) n= 2, ms = +½; (b)
n= 4, ml = +1; (c) n= 3, l = 2; (d) n= 2, l = 0, ms = -½; (e) n= 4,
5. What is the total number of orbitals associated with the
l
principal quantum number n = 3?
= 3, ml = -2
6. Indicate which of the following sets of quantum numbers in
12. Shown below are portions of orbital of diagrams representing
an atom are acceptable and explain why:
the ground-state electron configurations of certain elements.
Which of them violate the Pauli Exclusion Principle? Hund’s
7. The ground-state electron configurations listed here are rule?
incorrect. Explain what mistakes have been made in each
and write the correct electron configurations.
Al: 1s22s22p43s23p3
B: 1s22s22p5
F: 1s22s22p6

14
Electron Configuration Worksheet
1. Complete the table below with the appropriate information as asked.

ORBITAL DIAGRAM
ELECTRONIC NOBLE GAS
ELEMENT ATOMIC NUMBER NO. OF ELECTRONS OF VALENCE
CONFIGURATION CONFIGURATION
CONFIGURATION

Na

Al

Si

Cl

Ar

Ca

Ti

Mn

Fe

Cu

Ge

Os

Au

Cf

2. From A, List 5 elements that exhibit paramagnetism and 5 elements that exhibit diamagnetism in its ground state.
3. Write the four quantum numbers of each electron in a nitrogen atom.

15
4. Determine the element whose outermost valence electron 5. Write the electron configurations for the elements in number
is represented by the following quantum numbers. 4. Encircle the valence configuration.
a. n=1, l= 0, ml= 0, ms=-1/2 6. Plot the elements in number 4 in the blank periodic
b. n=2, l=1, ml= 0, ms= +1/2 table provided for.
c. n=3, l=1, ml= 0, ms= +1/2 7. Pick 3 elements from number 4. Give their sources and
d. n=4, l=2, ml= 0, ms= +1/2 a minimum of three uses of the elements you picked.
e. n= 6, l=0, ml= 0, ms= -1/2
f. n=3, l=1, ml = -1, ms= +1/2
g. n=5, l= 3, ml = 0, ms= +1/2
h. n=4, l=1, ml = -1, ms= -1/2
i. n=4, l=1, ml = 0, ms= -1/2
j. n=5, l=1,ml = 1, ms = ½

1A 8A

2A 3A 4A 5A 6A 7A

16
 120 MINS

Lesson 22: Periodic Relationships

Among the Elements
Content Standard
Lesson Outline
The learners demonstrate an understanding of the arrangement of elements
in the periodic table and trends in the properties of the elements in terms of Introduction Communicating Learning Objectives and 12
electronic structure. Development of the Periodic Table
Performance Standard
Motivation The Periodic Table 3
The learners can arrange elements and explain their properties through the
knowledge of electron structure. Instruction I. Periodic Classification of Elements 90
Learning Competencies and II. Electron Configuration of Cations and
At the end of the lesson, the learners: Practice Anions
1. Explain the periodic recurrence of similar properties among elements III. Periodic Variation in Physical Properties
to
their group number in terms of electronic structure (STEM_GC11CB-
Evaluation Exercises and Activity 15
IIc- d-60)
2. Relate the number of valence electrons of elements to their group Materials
number in the periodic table (STEM_GC11CB-IIc-d-61) Periodic Table
3. Compare the properties of families of elements (STEM_GC11CB-IIc-d-62) Resources
4. Predict the properties of individual elements based on their position in (1) Chang, Raymond and Goldsby, Kenneth A. (2016). Chemistry (12th
the periodic table (STEM_GC11CB-IIc-d-63) ed). New York: McGraw-Hill.
5. Describe and explain the trends in atomic properties in the periodic table (2) Petrucci, Herring, Madura, and Bissonnette (2011). General
(STEM_GC11CB-IIc-d-64) Chemistry and Modern Applications, 10th Ed. Pearson Canada, Inc.
(3) Zumdahl, S.S. and Zumdahl, S.A (2013).Chemistry, 8th ed.
Cengage Learning
Specific Learning Competencies (4) Cox, P.A. Inorganic Chemistry Second Edition (2004).
At the end of the lesson, the learners will be able to: Inorganic Chemistry Laboratory, New College, Oxford, UK
1. Sketch the periodic table showing the groups and periods. (5) Roque, et al. Laboratory Manual in General Chemistry
2. Identify the metals, metalloids and nonmetals in the periodic (2008). Philippine Normal University.

table.
3. Identify the representative elements, the transition metals,
the lanthanides and actinides in the periodic table.
4. Give the electron configuration of cations and anions.
5. Determine the trends in the physical properties of elements in
a group
6. Describe and explain the trends in atomic properties in
the periodic table
7. Compare the properties of families of elements
8. Predict the properties of individual elements based on
their position in the periodic table

17
9. Perform exercises and collaborative work with peers.

18
INTRODUCTION (12 minutes)
1. Introduce the following learning objectives using any of 2. Present the keywords for the concepts to be learned:
the suggested protocol (Verbatim, Own Words, or Read- a. Periodic table
aloud): At the end of the lesson, I will be able to: b. Metals
a. Sketch the periodic table showing the groups and periods. c. Non-metals
b. Identify the metals, metalloids and nonmetals in the d. Metalloids
periodic table. e. Alkali metals
c. Identify the representative elements, the transition f. Alkaline earth metals
metals, the lanthanides and actinides in the periodic g. Halogens
table. h. Noble gases
d. Give the electron configuration of cations and anions. i. Representative elements/main group elements
e. Determine the trends in the physical properties of j. Transition elements
elements in a group k. Lanthanides
f. Describe and explain the trends in atomic properties in l. Actinides
the periodic table m. Isoelectronic
g. Compare the properties of families of elements n. Effective nuclear charge
h. Predict the properties of individual elements based on o. Shielding or screening
their position in the periodic table p. Atomic radius
i. Perform exercises and collaborative work with peers. q. Ionic radius
r. Ionization Energy (First, Second, Third,…)
s. Electron affinity

19
3. Development of the Periodic Table
The arrangement of elements in the modern periodic table was made possible through the
efforts of several chemists, such as; Dobereiner, John Newlands, Dmitri Mendeleev, and
Henry Moseley.

It started with Dobereiner’s “Law of Triads”. He found a relationship among three elements
where the atomic weight of the middle element is nearly the same as average of the atomic
weights of other two elements. John Newlands arranged the elements in what is known as the
“law of octaves”. He noted that the eighth element has similar chemical properties with the
first element.

Mendeleev prepared a tabulation of elements based on equivalent weights (atomic mass) and
the regular recurrence of properties of the elements. In a few cases, the mass and the
properties did not go the same directions. But Mendeleev rationalized that the properties were
more accurate than the masses since technology used to determine the mass was still
improving. Henry Moseley discovered that each element in Mendeleev’s table was arranged in
an order such that their integral positive charge (atomic number) increased numerically from
left to right and top to bottom.

The present periodic table is arranged according to increasing atomic number which also
equals the number of electrons. The electron configuration helps to predict and explain the
recurrence of chemical and physical properties.

MOTIVATION (3 minutes)
1. Show the learners some periodic tables. Ask them what they know about the periodic table.
2. Ask them to identify a few of the elements in the table.

20
INSTRUCTION/DELIVERY/PRACTICE (90 minutes)
I. PERIODIC CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS
The Periodic Table: Metals, Nonmetals, and Metalloids
The periodic table is a chart in which elements having similar chemical
and physical properties are grouped together. The elements are arranged
according to increasing atomic number. The rows are called periods. The
vertical columns are called groups or families according to the similarities
in their properties. At present, it contains 118 elements; however,
elements 113 to 118 have just recently been synthesized and naming is not
yet fully complete.
There are 18 groups or families. There are two conventions in designating
the groups. The Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) refers to the
columns are Groups 1-18. Many books, however, continue to refer to the
columns as Groups 1A, 2A, 3B, and so on as shown in the figure above. This
teaching guide will use the Groups A and B convention.
21
Majority of the elements are metals (shown in light gray
shade in the figure). Metals are good conductors of
electricity. The non-metals are shown as boxes with no
shade. The metalloids (shown in boxes with dark grey shade)
have properties that are intermediate between metals and
nonmetals.
Some groups have been given collective names. Group 1A
elements are called alkali metals; Group 2A elements are
referred to as alkaline earth metals; Group 7A elements are
called halogens; Group 8A elements are known as noble
gases.
The Group A elements are classified as representative
elements or main group elements. These elements have
unfilled or filled s and p orbitals in the highest principal
quantum number. The Group B elements are called the
transition elements where the d subshells are being filled
up. This, however, is not the universal convention. In
Europe, the convention is to use B for representative
elements and A for transition elements; the opposite of the
American convention. However, in this lesson, the American
convention will be followed.
The two separate rows at the bottom of the periodic table are
lanthanides and the actinides. Sometimes, they are referred to
as the f-block elements.
Exercises
1. Write the electron configuration (using noble gas
notation) of the elements in Group 1A.
2. Comment on the outermost electron configuration
of Group 1A elements.
3. How many valence electrons do Group 1A elements have?
4. Write the electron configuration (using noble gas
notation) of the halogens.
5. Comment on the outermost electron configuration of
the halogens.
6. How many valence electrons do the halogens have?
7. Comment on the arrangement of the representative
elements in the periodic table with respect to their
electron configuration.

The Periodic Table: Representative, Transition, and f-block Elements

Exercises
1. Give the electron configuration of Na and Na+.
II. ELECTRON CONFIGURATION OF CATIONS AND ANIONS
Ions derived from representative elements 2. Give the electron configuration of Ca and Ca2+

In the formation of cations from representative elements, the
electrons are removed from the outermost shell to achieve a
noble gas configuration. In the formation of anions, electrons are
added to the highest partially filled n shell so that they become
isoelectronic (same number of electrons) with the noble gas.
3. Give the electron configuration of F and
F
4. Give the electron configuration of O and O2

22
Ions derived from transition elements
1. Give the electron configuration of Mn and Mn2+.
Mn: [Ar]4s2 3d5
Mn2+ [Ar] 3d5
Note that for transition elements, the ns electrons are removed first. In filling up the orbitals,
the ns orbitals are filled first before the (n-1)d orbitals because the ns orbitals are more stable
and lower energy. However, the electron-electron interactions are different in a neutral atom
from that in an ion. For transition metal ions the 3d orbital is more stable. Hence, the 4s
electrons are removed first before the 3d electrons.

III. PERIODIC VARIATION IN PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

1. The Effective Nuclear Charge
In many-electron atoms, the inner or core electrons shield the outer electrons from the nucleus
reducing the electrostatic attractions between the nucleus and the outer electron. The effective
nuclear charge, Zeff, is given by Zeff = Z - σ where Z is the nuclear charge and σ is the shielding
constant. Screening or shielding refers to how an outer electron is blocked from the nuclear
charge by the inner electrons. It means that the attraction of the outer electron to the nucleus is
not felt 100% because of the effect of the inner electrons. Electrons in the inner shells are very
effective in shielding the nucleus. Electrons in the same shell as the electron of interest provide a
relatively smaller screening effect. To see how the effective nuclear charge varies across a period,
answer the following questions.

a. Approximate the Zeff for the outermost electron of Li.

Li (electron configuration [He] 2s1) has 2 inner core electrons to shield the valence
electrons. Qualitatively, the +3 charge of the Li nucleus will be neutralized by the 2 inner
electrons; the outer electron of Li will feel an effective nuclear charge of about +1.

b. Approximate the Zeff for boron (Z=5).

Boron (electron configuration [He] 2s2 2p1) also has 2 inner core electrons to shield the 3
valence electrons. The +5 charge of the boron nucleus is neutralized by the 2 inner
electrons leaving a net of +3. However, there are 3 valence electrons that also provide a
lesser amount of shielding to one another. One of these outer electrons will feel the
shielding effect of the 2 other valence electrons. Therefore, the Zeff for boron is expected
to be below 3.

23
 c. Approximate the Zeff for F (Z=9).
F (electron configuration [He] 2s2 2p5) also has 2 inner core electrons to shield the 7
valence electrons. The +9 charge of the F nucleus is neutralized by the 2 core electrons
leaving a net charge of +7. However, there are 7 valence electrons. A valence electron will
also feel the shielding effect of the other 6 valence electrons. Therefore, the Zeff is
expected to be less than 7 but larger than the Zeff of the outer electron in boron because
there are more valence electrons to provide shielding.

d. From the above analysis, how will Zeff vary across a

period? Zeff increases as you go from left to right across a
period.

e. To validate the approximations made, values of Zeff for Li to Ne are given below:
Li
3 4 Be 5 B 6 C 7 N 8 O 9 F Ne
10

Z 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Zeff 1.28 1.91 2.42 3.14 3.83 4.45 5.10 5.76

2. Atomic Radius
Atomic size is difficult to define because there is no distinct outer boundary to an atom. The
probability of finding the electron decreases with increasing distance from the nucleus but the
probability does not fall to zero. Thus, it is safe to describe the effective atomic radius which is
the distance of the electron from the nucleus within which 95% of the electron charge density is
found. A more specific way to get atomic radius values is to get one-half the distance between
two nuclei in adjacent atoms (the internuclear distance) in a metal solid or in a diatomic
molecule.

The covalent radius is one-half the distance between two identical

atoms joined together by a single bond.

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 The metallic radius: it is one-half the distance between the nuclei of
the two atoms in contact in the crystalline solid metal.

How does the atomic radius vary within a period for representative elements? Explain.
The atomic radius decreases from left to right through a period of elements for representative
elements. This corresponds to the increase in Zeff across a period. With the increase in Zeff, the
outer electrons are pulled in and attracted towards the nucleus resulting in a decrease in the size
of the atoms.

How does the atomic radius vary down a group for representative elements? Explain.
The more electronic shells (n) in an atom, the larger is the atom. Atomic radius increases from
top to bottom through a group of elements.

Exercises
Using the periodic table, arrange the following atoms in order of increasing atomic radius.
Explain your reasoning.
a. C, Li, Be
b. As, I, S
c. P, Si, N

3. Ionic Radius
Ionic radii are very difficult to measure with certainty because they are affected
by their immediate environment. They can be measured by x-ray diffraction.
The sizes vary depending on the environment. However, we are going to
discuss the general trends and relative sizes.

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Atomic radius versus ionic radius
Cations are smaller than the atoms from which they are formed. When a metal atom loses one
or more electrons to form a positive ion, the positive nuclear charge exceeds the negative
charge of the electrons in the resulting cation. For isoelectronic cations, the more positive the
ionic charge, the smaller the ionic charge.

Anions are larger than the atoms from which they are formed
When a non-metal gains one or more electrons, it forms a negative ion termed as anion. The
nuclear charge remains constant, but Zeff is reduced because of the additional electrons. The
additional electrons results in increase repulsions among the electrons in the outer shell. This
results to the tendency of the electrons to spread out more, thus increasing the size of the anion.
For isoelectronic anions, the more negative charge, the larger is the ionic radius.

a. Compare the size of a neutral atom of Na and a Na+ ion. Which is larger. Explain.
The Na atom has 11 protons attracting 11 electrons. Its electron configuration is [Ne] 3s1.
This outer electron is lost when it forms the Na+ ion.

The Na+ ion has 11 protons attracting only 10 electrons. Therefore the electrons are pulled
closer to the nucleus.
The Na atom is larger than the Na+ ion: Na > Na+
b. Compare the size of a Mg atom and a Mg2+ ion. Which is larger?
The Mg atom has 12 protons attracting 12 electrons.
The Mg2+ ion has 12 protons attracting 10 electrons. The electrons feel a larger attractive force
towards the nucleus.
The Mg atom is larger than the Mg2+ ion: Mg > Mg2+

c. Compare the sizes of Na+, Mg2+, and Al3+. Arrange according to increasing size.
Na+, Mg2+, and Al3+ are isoelectronic; that is, they all have the same number of electrons. They
have 10 electrons outside the nucleus. But for Al3+, the 10 electrons are pulled by 13 protons;
for Mg2+, the 10 electrons are attracted by 12 protons; and for Na+, the 10 electrons are pulled
by only 11 protons.

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 Therefore, the sizes of the ions increase according to: Al3+ < Mg2+ < Na+.

d. Compare the size of a F atom and a F– ion. Which is larger?

F has 9 protons attracting 9 electrons. A fluoride ion, F– ion has 9 protons attracting 10
electrons. Zeff decreases for the fluoride ion.
The fluoride ion, F–, is larger than the F atom: F– > F

e. Which is larger, the O atom or the O2– ion? Which is larger?

The O atom has 8 protons attracting 8 electrons. The oxide ion, O2–, has 8 protons attracting
10 electrons resulting in a decrease of Zeff for the outer electrons. Therefore, the oxide ion,
O2–, is larger than the O atom: O2– > O

f. Compare the sizes of F–, O2–, and N3–. Arrange according to increasing size.
F–, O2–, and N3– are isoelectronic. All have 10 electrons. However, only 7 protons are attracting
the 10 electrons in the nitride ion; 8 protons are pulling in the 10 electrons in the oxide ion;
while 9 protons are attracting the 10 electrons in the fluoride ion. Therefore, the ionic sizes
increase according to F– > O2– > N3–. .

Exercises
Arrange the following set of ions and atoms in increasing size and explain your answer
a. K+, Cl-, S2-, Ca2+
b. N, Cs, As, Mg2+, Br-

Ionization Energy
Ionization energy (IE) is the minimum amount of energy (in kJ/mol) required to remove an
electron from a gaseous atom in its ground state.

Energy + X(g) —> X+ (g) + e–

The energy required to remove the first electron is called the first ionization energy. The
first ionization energy, IE1, has the lowest value. The second ionization energy, IE2, is the
energy
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required to strip the second electron from the atom; it has higher energy value, and so on.
IE1 < IE2 < IE3 < …

Examples of ionization energies:

Al(g) —> Al+(g) + e– IE1 = 577.9 kJ/mol
Al+(g) —> Al2+(g) + e– IE2 = 1,820 kJ/mol
2+ 3+ –
Al (g) —> Al (g) + e IE3 = 2,750 kJ/mol
Al3+(g) —> Al4+(g) + e– IE4 = 11,600 kJ/mol

Ask the learners to:

a. Explain why IE for Al increases from IE1 to IE2 to IE3 to IE4.
b. Why is there a drastic increase in energy from IE3 to IE4 for Al?

When electrons are removed from the same shell, the main effect is that with each successive There are various irregularities seen in the trends.
ionization there is one less electron left to repel the others. The electrons are more attracted to These can be further discussed if time permits.
They are contained in the enrichment section.
the nucleus and are harder to remove. The fourth IE of Al is very much higher because now the
outer shell is exhausted and the tightly bound inner shell, 2p, is being ionized.

Ionization energies decrease as atomic radii increases. The farther an electron is from the
nucleus, the easier it is to be released. Down a group, as n increases and atomic size increases,
electrons are easily released. Thus, ionization energy decreases from top to bottom of a group.
Across a period, as Zeff increases and size decreases, ionization energy increases.

The following tables provide some first ionization energies for representative elements.

IE1 Li Be B C N O F Ne
kJ/ 520 899 801 1,086 1,400 1,314 1,680 2,080
mol

IE1 Li Na K Rb Cs
kJ/mol 520 495.9 418.7 403.0 375.7

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Electron Affinity
The electron affinity of an atom may be defined as the negative of the energy change that
occurs when a gaseous atom accepts an electron. For example, for the F atom, Note that there are many irregularities in the trends
for electron affinities. Teachers need only to focus
on the general trends at this level.
F(g) + e–—> F– (g) Energy involved = -328 kJ/mol
Electronegativity will be discussed in relation to
The electron affinity is covalent bonding as is not included in this section.
F– (g) —> F(g) + e– Electron Affinity = EA = +328 kJ/mol

This is the reason why electron affinity is sometimes defined as the ionization energy of a
negative ion. The more positive the electron affinity, the greater the tendency to accept an
electron and form an ion.Generally, the electron affinity increases across a period from left to
tight. The electron affinity generally decreases going down a group.

ENRICHMENT
Some applications of metal ions
1. Knowledge of atomic and ionic radii is used to vary physical properties of materials.
For example:
a. Strengthening Glass. Normal glass windows that contain Na+ and Ca2+ ions are brittle and
shatters easily. Replacing the Na+ ions with bigger K + ions results in surfaces where
surface sites are being filled up leaving less opportunity for cracking.
b. Colors in gemstones. Pure Al2O3 is colorless. Substituting Al3+ with a little amount of Cr3+
in Al2O3 gives a red color in ruby.
2. Explanation for the irregularities in the ionization potential trends for beryllium and
boron (This is optional topic)
a. Boron has lower ionization energy than Be. The ionization energy of B is slightly less
than that of Be because boron removes an electron from a 2p orbital, which is less
tightly bound than the 2s involved in lithium and beryllium.
b. Hund’s rule play an important role in explaining the ionization energies of nitrogen
and oxygen. Remember, there are three 2p electrons that can be accommodated in
different orbitals with parallel spin so as to minimize their mutual repulsion. For O
(2p)4 and subsequent elements in the period some electrons are paired and repel more
strongly, leading to IE values less than would be predicted by extrapolation from the
previous three elements.

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EVALUATION
Directions: Fill up the blank periodic table with the Element as described by each statement below:
1. Element A is the biggest in Group 1A.
2. Element B forms the biggest anion in period 2.
3. Element C has complete d electrons in period 4.
4. Element D is the most electronegative in period 2.
5. Element E will be isoelectronic with the noble gas in period 3 when it loses two electrons.
6. Element F has the highest ionization energy in period 4.
7. Element G has the least electron affinity in group 6.
8. Element H has the 4f14 configuration
9. Element I is the first member of the actinide series

1A 8A

2A 3A 4A 5A 6A 7A

B D

E C J F

A G

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