REVIEW OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

ØFor a differential equation, the aim is to find the function (completely)

satisfying the equation.

𝑎𝑦 !! 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑦 ! 𝑡 + 𝑐𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑢(𝑡)
𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∶ coefficients

𝑦 " 𝑡 : differential terms

𝑢 𝑡 ∶ known function (sin 𝑡 , cos 𝑡 , 𝑒 #$ …) which serves as the forcing

function (i.e. input when a physical system is considered)

1
ØDifferential equations are classified according to several categories:

i) Ordinary – Partial Differential Equations:

ØIf the function in the differential equation to be found is a single variable
one, then the differential equation is said to be an ordinary differential
equation

𝑑 % 𝑦(𝑡) 𝑑𝑦(𝑡)
2 %
+3 + 6𝑦 𝑡 = 0
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑦(𝑡): a function of a single variable; therefore, Ordinary Differential Equation

vOrdinary differential equation can be written in a more compact form as:

2𝑦 !! 𝑡 + 3𝑦 ! 𝑡 + 6𝑦 𝑡 = 0
2
ØIf the function in the differential equation to be found is a multi-variable one,
then the differential equation is said to be a partial differential equation.

𝜕 % 𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) 𝜕 % 𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) 𝜕 % 𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡)

%
+4 %
+2 =0
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑡

𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡): a function of multi-variables; therefore, Partial Differential Equation

3
ii) Linear – Nonlinear Differential Equations:

ØIf all the terms in the de appear linearly, the differential equation is called linear differential
equation

𝑑 ! 𝑦(𝑡) 𝑑 " 𝑦(𝑡) 𝑑𝑦(𝑡)

+ +3 + 6𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 ! 𝑑𝑡 " 𝑑𝑥

All differential terms are linear; therefore, Linear Differential Equation

ØIf at least one term violates the linearity, the differential equation is called Non-linear
Differential Equation
#
𝑑 ! 𝑦(𝑡) 𝑑 " 𝑦(𝑡) 𝑑𝑦(𝑡)
!
+ +3 + 6𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 " 𝑑𝑥
#
$ ! %(')
: Violates the linearity; therefore, Non-linear Differential Equation
$' !

4
iii) Time Invariant – Time Varying Differential Equations:

ØIf all the coefficients of the differential equation are time invariant
(i.e. constant), then the differential equation is called to be an invariant
differential equation

𝑑 % 𝑦(𝑡) 𝑑𝑦(𝑡)
1 %
+5 + 3𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥

1, 5, 3: All coefficients are constant; therefore, Time Invariant Differential

Equation

5
ØIf at least one coefficient is time varying (i.e. a function of time), then the
differential equation is called to be a time variant differential equation

𝑑 ! 𝑦(𝑡) 𝑑𝑦(𝑡)
3𝑡 ! +2 + 3𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡
𝑑𝑡 ! 𝑑𝑡
𝑑 ! 𝑦(𝑡) "
𝑑𝑦(𝑡)
6𝑡 !
+ 2𝑡 + 3𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
! "
3𝑡 , 6𝑡, 2𝑡 : Time varying coefficients exist; therefore, Time Varying Differential
Equation

vIn this class, differential equations belong to class of ordinary, linear, and time
invariant will be of interest.

vA system which produce a linear time invariant differential equation is called

Linear-Time Invariant (LTI) Systems
6
Definition: For a differential equation, the highest order of the derivative defines the order
of the differential equation

Definition: Power of the term with the highest order derivative defines the degree of the
differential equations

vSince we are interested in linear differential equations, the degree of the differential
equations in this course will be always one.

!! "($) !"($)
!$ !
+ 8 !& + 4𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡 ⟹ Order of the d.e.: 2, Degree of the d.e.: 1

'
!" "($) !! "($) !"($)
!$ "
+ !$ ! + 3 !& + 9𝑦 𝑡 = cos(𝑡) ⟹ Order of the d.e.: 3, Degree of the d.e.: 2

(
!! "($) !# "($)
!$ !
+ !$ " + 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑡 ⟹ Order of the d.e.: 2, Degree of the de.: 1
7
 Solving Differential Equations

The nature of the Solutions:

ØConsider the following equations:

𝑦 )) 𝑡 + 3𝑦 ) 𝑡 + 2𝑦 𝑡 = 0 (1) (Homogenous differential equation)

𝑦 )) 𝑡 + 3𝑦 ) 𝑡 + 2𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡 (2) (Non-homogenous (forced) differential equation)

ØSuppose that the solution of equation (1) is 𝑦* 𝑡 , then 𝑦* 𝑡 satis@ies Eq. 1

𝑦*)) 𝑡 + 3𝑦*) 𝑡 + 2𝑦* 𝑡 = 0

ØAlso suppose that 𝑦+ 𝑡 satisfies Eq. (2)

𝑦+)) 𝑡 + 3𝑦+) 𝑡 + 2𝑦+ 𝑡 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑡) 8

ØHowever, if one takes 𝑦) 𝑡 = 𝑦* 𝑡 + 𝑦+ 𝑡 and substitutes it in Eq. (2)

𝑦),, 𝑡 + 3𝑦), 𝑡 + 2𝑦) 𝑡 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡

𝑦*,, 𝑡 + 𝑦+,, 𝑡 + 3 𝑦*, 𝑡 + 𝑦+, 𝑡 + 2 𝑦* 𝑡 + 𝑦+ 𝑡 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡

𝑦*,, 𝑡 + 3𝑦*, 𝑡 + 2𝑦* 𝑡 + 𝑦+,, 𝑡 + 3𝑦+, 𝑡 + 2𝑦+ 𝑡 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑡)

0 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑡)

9
ØTherefore, if 𝑦+ 𝑡 is a solution of Eq. (2), then 𝑦) 𝑡 = 𝑦* 𝑡 + 𝑦+ 𝑡 is also a solution
of Eq. (2). Since our aim is to find the complete function as the solution, then solving
Eq. (2) requires two solution process:

i) Solution of the homogeneous equation: 𝑦* 𝑡

ii) Solution of the non-homogeneous equation: 𝑦+ 𝑡

The complete solution is: 𝑦) 𝑡 = 𝑦* 𝑡 + 𝑦+ 𝑡

10
First Order Differential Equations:

ØFirst order differential equations belong to the easiest type of differential equations to deal
with. Therefore, there are techniques to solve not only the linear time invariant ones but

also some special kinds of time varying time and/or non-linear ones.

ØIn general, while solving the 1st order ordinary LTI differential equations,

𝑦* 𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦+ 𝑡 can be found simultaneously.

The Solution of the Equations of the Form: 𝑦 ) 𝑡 + 𝑝 𝑡 . 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑢 𝑡

ØThis class of differential equation belong to the linear time varying ones, However, if one

choses 𝑝 𝑡 as a constant (let us say a constant 𝑝), the equation becomes time invariant

one. However, the given technique is capable to solve both classes.

11
Example: 𝑦 ! 𝑡 + 3𝑦 𝑡 = 0 Example: 𝑦 ! 𝑡 + 3𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡
𝑑𝑦
+ 3𝑦 = 0
𝑑𝑡 vThe methodology in the previous example
"# "#
⟹ "$ = −3𝑦 ⟹ # = −3𝑑𝑡 does not work for these type of equations.
"#
⟹∫ = −3𝑡 + 𝑐 ⟹ ln 𝑦 = −3𝑡 + 𝑐 𝑑𝑦
#
+ 3𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡
⟹ 𝑒 %& # = 𝑒 '($)* 𝑑𝑡
"#
⟹ "$ = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡 − 3𝑦
⟹ y= 𝑐+ 𝑒 '($ (function family) ⟹ 𝑑𝑦 = (𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡 − 3𝑦)𝑑𝑡

⟹ y 0 = 5 ⟹ y 0 = 𝑐+ 𝑒 ', = 5 ⟹ 𝑐+ = 5 vThe variables 𝑦 and 𝑡 cannot be written

separately.
y= 5𝑒 '($

12
Technique: 𝑦 ! 𝑡 + 𝑝 𝑡 . 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑢 𝑡
Ø Multiply each side by 𝑒 -($) where µ(𝑡 ) will be chosen later.
𝑒 -($) 𝑦 ! 𝑡 + 𝑒 -($) 𝑝 𝑡 . 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑒 -($) 𝑢 𝑡
Ø If 𝑒 -($) 𝑝 𝑡 in the second term can be made derivative of 𝑒 -($) (by appropriate selection of 𝑒 -($) ) then the
equation becomes:
𝑑(𝑒 -($) 𝑦 𝑡 )
= 𝑒 -($) 𝑢 𝑡
𝑑𝑡
⟹ V 𝑑 𝑒0 $ 𝑦 𝑡 = V 𝑒 0 $ 𝑢 𝑡 𝑑𝑡

⟹ 𝑒0 $ 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝐴 𝑡 + 𝐶

⟹ 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝐴 𝑡 𝑒 '0 $ + 𝐶𝑒 '0 $ ØThen all is needed to satisfy that

𝑒 -($) 𝑝 𝑡 = (𝑒 -($) )! ⟹ 𝑒 0 $ 𝑝 𝑡 = µ! 𝑡 𝑒0 $

𝑝 𝑡 = µ! (𝑡)

⟹ µ(𝑡) = V 𝑝 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
vThus, µ(𝑡) is known as integration factor
13
Example: 𝑦 ! 𝑡 + 3𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡

Ø Find 𝑒 -($)

µ 𝑡 = V 3𝑑𝑡 ⟹ µ 𝑡 = 3𝑡

"(1 !" # $ )
⟹ 𝑒 ($ 𝑦 ! 𝑡 + 𝑒 ($ 3𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡 𝑒 ($ ⟹ = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡 𝑒 ($
"$

⟹ ∫ 𝑑 𝑒 ($ 𝑦 𝑡 = ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡 𝑒 ($ 𝑑𝑡 ⟹ 𝑒 ($ 𝑦 𝑡 = ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡 𝑒 ($ 𝑑𝑡

( +
⟹𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡 - cos 𝑡 + 𝐶𝑒 '($
+, +,

𝑦2 𝑡 𝑦3 𝑡
forced solution homogeneous solution

Ø If 𝑦 0 is known , 𝐶 can be specified.

14
Second and Higher Order Differential Equations:
Ø For second and higher order differential equations, the ease of solving first order differential equations
disappear. For homogenous equations such that :
𝑎𝑦 !! 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑦 ! 𝑡 + 𝑐𝑦 𝑡 = 0
finding the solution is relatively easy, but forced equations such that

𝑎𝑦 !! 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑦 ! 𝑡 + 𝑐𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑢(𝑡)

the solution process includes two steps (finding the solution of homogeneous part and finding the solution
of forced part). Additionally, depending on the function , the solution process to find the forced solution
may include tedious computations.

Ø For ordinary LTI differential equations, there is a powerful technique named Laplace Transformation.
Using this method, one can solve any order of differential equations. Furthermore, both homogeneous
and forced responses can be obtained in one step.
15
Laplace Transform
Laplace transform is a technique which transforms the differential equation (written in 𝑡 -domain) into an
algebraic equation (written in 𝑠 -domain).

Ø Laplace transforms of a function 𝑓 𝑡 is defined as follows:

4
ℒ 𝑓 𝑡 = 𝐹 𝑠 = ∫, 𝑒 '5$ 𝑓 𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Ø But this definition is rarely used to find 𝐹(𝑠) for a function 𝑓 𝑡 . In general, the Laplace table, in which
there are the transforms of frequently used functions is employed. Using Laplace Transform tables, the diff.
equation is transformed from 𝑡 domain to the 𝑠 – domain. (The function to be found 𝑦(𝑡) is transformed to
𝑌(𝑠)). However, finding 𝑌(𝑠) is much easier than finding 𝑦(𝑡).
Ø Additionally, 𝑌(𝑠) includes both 𝑌2 𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑌3 𝑠 components.
Ø After finding 𝑌 𝑠 , all is needed to be done is to transform 𝑌(𝑆) to 𝑦(𝑡) again, using the Inverse Laplace
Transform.

16
Some Properties of Laplace Transformation
1) Additivity:
ℒ
𝑓+ 𝑡 → 𝐹+ 𝑠
ℒ
⇒ 𝑓+ 𝑡 + 𝑓7 𝑡 → 𝐹+ 𝑠 +𝐹7 (𝑠)
ℒ
𝑓7 𝑡 → 𝐹7 (𝑠)

Example:

8$
ℒ 1
𝑓+ 𝑡 = 𝑒 → 𝐹+ 𝑠 =
𝑠 −5

ℒ 1
𝑓7 𝑡 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡 → 𝐹7 𝑠 = 7
𝑠 +1
ℒ + + 5# )5 '9
⇒ 𝑓+ 𝑡 + 𝑓7 𝑡 = 𝑒 8$ + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡 → + =
5 '8 5# )+ 5! '85# )5 '8
17
2) Homogeneity:
ℒ
𝑓+ 𝑡 → 𝐹+ 𝑠
ℒ
𝑘𝑓+ 𝑡 → 𝑘𝐹+ 𝑠 (𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑘 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑟)

ℒ + ;
Example: 𝑒 ':$ → ⇒ 6. 𝑒 ':$ →
5): 5):

3) Scaling:
ℒ
𝑓+ 𝑡 → 𝐹+ 𝑠

ℒ
𝑒 '<$ 𝑓+ 𝑡 → 𝐹+ 𝑠 + 𝑎

ℒ 𝑠 $%&
ℒ (𝑠 + 5) (𝑠 + 5)
Example: cos(7𝑡) → ⇒ 𝑒 cos(7𝑡) → =
𝑠 # + 49 𝑠 + 5 # + 49 𝑠 # + 10𝑠 + 74

18
 4) Derivative:
ℒ "2$ $ ℒ
𝑓+ 𝑡 → 𝐹+ 𝑠 ⇒ → 𝑠𝐹 𝑠 −𝑓 0 (𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒)
"$

ℒ "(&) 2$ $ ℒ =
𝑓+ 𝑡 → 𝐹+ (𝑠) ⇒ →𝑠 𝐹 𝑠 − 𝑠 ='+ 𝑓 0 − 𝑠 ='7 𝑓 + 0 − ⋯ − 𝑠+ 0 − 𝑓 ='+ 0 (𝑛$3 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑟. )
"$ &

ℒ
Example: 𝑦 !! 𝑡 − 3𝑦 ! 𝑡 + 2𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑦 0 = 1, 𝑦! 0 =4 𝑦 𝑡 →𝑌 𝑠 ?
ℒ
𝑦 𝑡 → 𝑌 𝑠 ⇒ ℒ{𝑦 !! 𝑡 − 3𝑦 ! 𝑡 + 2𝑦 𝑡 } = ℒ{𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡}

1
⟹ [𝑠 7 𝑌(𝑠) − 𝑠𝑦(0) − 𝑦 ! (0)] − 3[𝑠𝑌 𝑠 − 𝑦 0 ] + 2 𝑌 𝑠 =
𝑠7 + 1

1
⟹ 𝑠 7𝑌 𝑠 − 𝑠 − 4 − 3𝑠𝑌 𝑠 + 3 + 2𝑌(𝑠) = 7
𝑠 +1
+
⟹ 𝑌 𝑠 𝑠 7 − 3𝑠 + 2 = + s +1
5# )+

5! )5# )5)+ 5! )5# )5)+

⟹𝑌 𝑠 𝑠7 − 3𝑠 + 2 = 5# )+
⟹𝑌 𝑠 = [5# )+] 5# '(5)7 19
5) Integral:
ℒ 1 ℒ
𝑓+ 𝑡 → 𝐹+ 𝑠 ⇒ V 𝑓 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 → . 𝐹(𝑠)
𝑠

Solving The Differential Equations Using the Laplace Transforms

Ø Using these properties and the Laplace tables, solving a differential equation is much easier. The
procedure can be defined as follows:
Procedure:
1. Take the Laplace transforms of the differential equation using the Table of Laplace Transforms
2. Obtain 𝑌 𝑠 , which is the transformed version of 𝑦(𝑡).
3. Transform 𝑌 𝑠 to 𝑦 𝑡 using Inverse Laplace Transform (Using Laplace table)

20
Example: Solve the given equation using Laplace Transform, and specify the homogenous and the forced solutions.

𝑦 ! 𝑡 + 3𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡 , 𝑦 0 =5
ℒ
𝑦 𝑡 → 𝑌 𝑠 ⇒ ℒ{𝑦 ! 𝑡 + 3𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛} = ℒ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡
1 1
⇒ [𝑠𝑌 𝑠 − 𝑦 0 ] + 3 𝑌 𝑠 = 7 ⟹ 𝑠𝑌 𝑠 − 5 + 3𝑌(𝑠) = 7
𝑠 +1 𝑠 +1
1 5𝑠 7 + 6
⟹ 𝑠+3 𝑌 𝑠 = 7 + 5 ⟹ 𝑌(𝑠) =
𝑠 +1 𝑠 + 3 [𝑠 7 +1]

v To obtain 𝑦(𝑡) all is needed to be done is decomposing 𝑌 𝑠 into proper fractions, then using Laplace Table.
@ A5)B 85# );
𝑌(𝑠) = + # = ⟹ 𝐴𝑠 7 + 𝐴 + 𝐵𝑠 7 + 3𝐵 + 𝐶 𝑠 + 3𝐶 = 5𝑠 7 + 6
5)( 5 )+ (5)()(5# )+)

⟹ 𝐴 + 𝐵 𝑠 7 + 3𝐵 + 𝐶 𝑠 + 3𝐶 + 𝐴 = 5𝑠 7 + 6
𝐴+𝐵 =5 𝐴+𝐵 =5 51 1 3
=3𝐵 + 𝐶 = 0 ⟹ 𝐴 − 9𝐵 = 6 𝐴= , 𝐵=− , 𝐶=
10 10 10
3𝐶 + 𝐴 = 6 10𝐵 = −1
1 3
51/10 − 𝑠 ℒ !" 51 $'& 1 3
𝑌 𝑠 = + # 10 + #10 𝑦 𝑡 = .𝑒 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡
𝑠+3 𝑠 +1 𝑠 +1 10 10 10

𝑦( 𝑡 𝑦) 𝑡 21
 Example: Solve the given equation using Laplace Transform, and specify the homogenous and the forced solutions.

𝑦 !! 𝑡 + 4𝑦 ! 𝑡 + 3𝑦 𝑡 = 0 , 𝑦 0 = 2, 𝑦! 0 = 6
ℒ
𝑦 𝑡 →𝑌 𝑠 ⟹ ℒ 𝑦 !! 𝑡 + 4𝑦 ! 𝑡 + 3𝑦 𝑡 = ℒ 0 ⟹ 𝑠 7 𝑌 𝑠 − 2𝑠 + 6 + 4 𝑌 𝑠 − 2 + 3𝑌(𝑠) = 0

2𝑠 + 2 2 𝑠 + 1 2 ℒ ($
𝑌 𝑠 𝑠 7 + 4𝑠 + 3 = 2𝑠 + 2 ⟹ 𝑌 𝑠 = 7 = = 2𝑒 '($ = 𝑦 𝑡
𝑠 + 4𝑠 + 3 𝑠+3 𝑠+1 𝑠+3
𝑦 𝑡 : ℎ𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Example: 𝑦 !! 𝑡 + 4𝑦 ! 𝑡 + 3𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑒 '7$ , 𝑦 0 = 2, 𝑦 ! 0 = 6
ℒ +
𝑦 𝑡 →𝑌 𝑠 ⟹ ℒ 𝑦 !! 𝑡 + 4𝑦 ! 𝑡 + 3𝑦 𝑡 = ℒ 𝑒 '7$ ⟹ 𝑠 7 𝑌 𝑠 − 2𝑠 + 6 + 4 𝑌 𝑠 − 2 + 3𝑌(𝑠) =
5)7
+ 75# );5)8 75# );5)8 75# );5)8 @ A B
𝑌 𝑠 𝑠7 + 4𝑠 + 3 = 2𝑠 + 2 + = ⟹𝑌 𝑠 = = = + +
5)7 5)7 5)7 5# )95)( 5)( 5)+ 5)7 5)( 5)+ 5)7

⟹ 𝐴 𝑠 + 1 𝑠 + 2 + 𝐵 𝑠 + 2 𝑠 + 3 + 𝐶 𝑠 + 1 𝑠 + 3 = 2𝑠 7 + 6𝑠 + 5

5 5/2 1/2 −1
𝑠 = −3 ⇒ 2𝐴 = 18 − 18 + 5 ⇒ 𝐴 = 𝑌(𝑠) = + +
2 𝑠+3 𝑠+1 𝑠+2
1 5 '($ 1 '$
𝑠 = −1 ⇒ 2𝐵 = 1 − 6 + 5 ⇒ 𝐵 =
2
𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑒 + 𝑒 − 𝑒 '7$
2 2
𝑠 = −2 ⇒ −𝐶 = 8 − 12 + 5 ⇒ 𝐶 = −1 22
𝑦( 𝑡 𝑦) 𝑡
Example: Solve the given equation using Laplace Transform, and specify the homogenous and the forced solutions.

𝑦 !! 𝑡 + 4𝑦 ! 𝑡 + 4𝑦 𝑡 = 4 , 𝑦 0 = 1, 𝑦! 0 = 2
ℒ +
𝑦 𝑡 →𝑌 𝑠 ⟹ ℒ 𝑦 ** 𝑡 + 4𝑦 * 𝑡 + 4𝑦 𝑡 = ℒ 4 ⟹ 𝑠 # 𝑌 𝑠 − 𝑠 − 2 + 4 𝑌 𝑠 − 1 + 4𝑌(𝑠) =
,
#
4
𝑌 𝑠 𝑠 + 4𝑠 + 4 = + 𝑠 + 6
𝑠
𝑠 # + 6𝑠 + 4 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
⟹𝑌 𝑠 = # = + +
𝑠 + 4𝑠 + 4 . 𝑠 (𝑠 + 2) (𝑠 + 2)# 𝑠

𝐴 𝑠 + 2 𝑠 + 𝐵𝑠 + 𝐶(𝑠 + 2)7 = 𝑠 7 + 6𝑠 + 4

𝐴𝑠 7 + 2𝐴𝑠 + 𝐵𝑠 + 𝐶𝑠 7 + 4𝑠𝐶 + 4𝐶 = 𝑠 7 + 6𝑠 + 4

𝐴 + 𝐶 𝑠 7 + 2𝐴 + 4𝐶 + 𝐵 𝑠 + 4𝐶 = 𝑠 7 + 6𝑠 + 4
, 7 +
C=1 𝑌 𝑠 = + + ⟹
5)7 (5)7)# 5
A=0 𝑦 𝑡 = 2𝑡𝑒 '7$ + 1
B=2
𝑦( 𝑡 𝑦) 𝑡 23
Example: Solve the given equation using Laplace Transform, and specify the homogenous and the forced solutions.

𝑦 !! 𝑡 + 2𝑦 ! 𝑡 + 10𝑦 𝑡 = 10 , 𝑦 0 = 1, 𝑦! 0 = 1

10 𝑠 7 + 3𝑠 + 10 𝐴 𝐵𝑠 + 𝐶
𝑌 𝑠 7
𝑠 + 2𝑠 + 10 = +𝑠+3 ⇒𝑌 𝑠 = 7 = + 7
𝑠 𝑠 + 2𝑠 + 10 . 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 + 2𝑠 + 10

𝐴 𝑠 7 + 2𝑠 + 10 + 𝐵𝑠 + 𝐶 𝑠 = 𝑠 7 + 3𝑠 + 10 C=1
A=1
𝐴 + 𝐵 𝑠 7 + 2𝐴 + 𝐶 𝑠 + 10𝐴 = 𝑠 7 + 3𝑠 + 10 B=0

+ + ℒ ($ + + + '+ (
𝑌 𝑠 = + # 𝑦 𝑡 = 1 + ℒ '+ = 1 + ℒ '+ =1+ ℒ
5 5 )75)+, (5)+)# )C (5)+)# )(# ( (5)+)# )(#

1 '$
𝑦 𝑡 = 1 + 𝑒 sin(3𝑡)
3
𝑦) 𝑡 𝑦( 𝑡

24
Some Special Functions Used For Systems
i. Dirac Delta Function (Impulse Function): 𝜹(𝒕)

∞, 𝑡=0 ℒ
𝛿(𝑡) = R ⇒𝛿 𝑡 →𝛿 s = 1
0, 𝑡≠0

.
1, 𝑎<0<𝑏
U 𝛿 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = W
- 0, 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒

25
ii. Unit Step Function: 𝒖𝒔 𝒕

0, 𝑡<0 ℒ 1
𝑢, 𝑡 = R ⇒ 𝑢, 𝑡 → U s =
1, 𝑡>0 s

0
𝑢, 𝑡 = U 𝛿 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
$0

Ø In general, 𝑢5 𝑡 is used to decay the value of any function for 𝑡 < 0 . That is, suppose that 𝑓 𝑡 is a constant
function.
𝑓 𝑡 = 5 ⇒ It gives a value of 5 for ∀𝑡 ∈ −∞, ∞
However, 𝑓 𝑡 = 5. 𝑢5 (𝑡) ⇒ It gives a value of 5 for only +∈ [0, ∞]. For +∈ −∞, 0 , 𝑓 𝑡 = 0.
Ø While dealing with systems, we will denote the constant inputs as 5. 𝑢5 (𝑡) rather than denoting as ‘’ 𝑎 ’’ only.

26
iii. Unit Ramp Function: 𝒓 𝒕 = 𝒕. 𝒖𝒔 𝒕

0, 𝑡 < 0 ℒ 1
r 𝑡 = R ⇒ 𝑟 𝑡 → R s = ,#
𝑡, 𝑡 > 0

0
r 𝑡 = ∫$0 𝑢, 𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝟏
iv. Parabolic Function: 𝒂 𝒕 = 𝒕𝟐 . 𝒖𝒔 𝒕
𝟐

0, 𝑡 < 0 ℒ 1
a 𝑡 = W1 # ⇒ 𝑎 𝑡 →A s = $
𝑡 , 𝑡>0 ,
#

0
a 𝑡 = ∫$0 𝑟 𝑡 𝑑𝑡

27
ØUsing Laplace Transformation, solving (ordinary, LTI) differential
equations easier; however, in most of the situations the complete
solution of the differential equation is not needed.

ØTo deal with the differential equation (i.e. System Dynamics) in

accordance with the requirements of the system there exist two
approaches. These approaches greatly facilitate the analysis
compared to solving the diff. equation.

28
 Transfer Function Approach State Space Approach (Modern Control Theory)
• The transfer function is defined as: Ø Equivalent to write an 𝑛!" order differential equations as 𝑛 first order
diff. equations
𝑌(𝑠) 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝐺 𝑠 = = (𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜) 𝑑𝑦 # (𝑡)
𝑈(𝑠) 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝑎# #
+ 𝑎#$% 𝑦 #$% 𝑡 + … + 𝑎% 𝑦 & (𝑡) + 𝑎' 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑢(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡
𝑌 𝑠 = 𝐺 𝑠 .𝑈 𝑠 States: 𝑥% , 𝑥( , … . , 𝑥# inputs: 𝑢 output ⇒ 𝑦 = 𝑥%

𝑥%̇
𝑥% 0
𝑥(̇
𝑈 𝑠 𝑥( 0
𝑌 𝑠 (Block diagram representation) .
𝐺(𝑠) 𝑥̇ = 𝐴. 𝑥 + 𝐵. 𝑢 ⇒ . =
. + . 𝑢
. .
.
• In other words, transfer function is another way of expressing the diff. 𝑥# 1
equation. (Assuming all the initial conditions are zero) 𝑥#̇
! !"# (𝑡) + ……… +𝑎# 𝑦 $ (𝑡) + 𝑎% 𝑦(𝑡)} = ℒ{𝑢(𝑡)}
ℒ {𝑎! 𝑦 (𝑡) + 𝑎! 𝑦 𝑥%
+ (all conditions are zero) 𝑥(
y = C 𝑥 + Du ⇒ 𝑦 = 1 0 … . . 0 . + 0.u
.
𝑎! . 𝑠 ! 𝑌 (𝑠) + 𝑎!"# 𝑠 !"#
𝑌 𝑠 + … + 𝑎# 𝑠𝑌(𝑠) + 𝑎% 𝑌(𝑠) = 𝑈(𝑠) 𝑥#

Y(s)(𝑎! . 𝑠 ! + 𝑎!"# 𝑠 !"# + …. + 𝑎# 𝑠 + 𝑎% ) = 𝑈 𝑠 𝑥̇ = 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑢 (𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠)

𝑦 = 𝐶𝑥 + 𝐷𝑢 (output equations)
𝑌(𝑠) 1
= = 𝐺 𝑠 ⇒ 𝑌 𝑠 = 𝐺 𝑠 𝑈(𝑠) v Capable to express non-linear and/or time varying systems.
𝑈(𝑠) (𝑎! . 𝑠 ! + 𝑎!"# 𝑠 !"# + … + 𝑎# 𝑠 + 𝑎% )
v Capable to express SISO/MIMO systems
29
 Transfer Function Approach
Ø The transfer function is defined as:

𝑌(𝑠) 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝐺 𝑠 = = (𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜)
𝑈(𝑠) 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡

𝑌 𝑠 = 𝐺 𝑠 .𝑈 𝑠

𝑈 𝑠 𝑌 𝑠
𝐺(𝑠) (Block diagram representation)

Ø In other words, transfer function is another way of expressing the diff. equation. (Assuming all the initial conditions are zero)
ℒ {𝑎: 𝑦 : (𝑡) + 𝑎:;<𝑦 :;< (𝑡) + ……… +𝑎<𝑦 = (𝑡) + 𝑎>𝑦(𝑡)} = ℒ{𝑢(𝑡)}
+ (all initial conditions are zero)

𝑎: . 𝑠 : 𝑌 (𝑠) + 𝑎:;<𝑠 :;< 𝑌 𝑠 + … + 𝑎<𝑠𝑌(𝑠) + 𝑎>𝑌(𝑠) = 𝑈(𝑠)

Y(s)(𝑎: . 𝑠 : + 𝑎:;<𝑠 :;< + …. + 𝑎<𝑠 + 𝑎>) = 𝑈 𝑠

𝑌(𝑠) 1
= = 𝐺 𝑠 ⇒ 𝑌 𝑠 = 𝐺 𝑠 𝑈(𝑠)
𝑈(𝑠) (𝑎: . 𝑠 : + 𝑎:;<𝑠 :;< + … + 𝑎<𝑠 + 𝑎>)
30
 Ø Since transfer function is based on Laplace
𝑈 𝑠 1 𝑌 𝑠 transformation, it is applicable to LTI systems, only.
(𝑎I . 𝑠 I + … + 𝑎1 𝑠 + 𝑎J ) Ø Transfer function is the way of expressing the diff.
equation regardless of the input (𝑈 𝑠 ) in a more
compact way.

K(,)
Example: 𝑦 ** 𝑡 + 3𝑦 * 𝑡 + 4𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑢 𝑡 Find the transfer function 𝐺 𝑠 = of the system.
L(,)

ℒ 𝑦 ** 𝑡 + 3𝑦 * 𝑡 + 4𝑦 𝑡 = ℒ 𝑢 𝑡 + (All initial conditions are zero)

𝑠 ?𝑌 𝑠 + 3𝑠𝑌 𝑠 + 4𝑌 𝑠 = 𝑈 𝑠 (There is no need to specify the input)
𝑌(𝑠) 1
𝑌 𝑠 𝑠 ? + 3𝑠 + 4 = 𝑈 𝑠 ⇒ =𝐺 𝑠 = ?
𝑈(𝑠) 𝑠 + 3𝑠 + 4

𝑈 𝑠 1 𝑌 𝑠
𝑌 𝑠 = 𝐺 𝑠 𝑈(𝑠)
𝑠 # + 3𝑠 + 4 v One can solve 𝑌 𝑠 for any 𝑈 𝑠 if 𝑌 𝑠 is needed.

31
Ø Transfer function approach can also be used for the systems whose dynamics are expressed more than one
diff. equation.

Example: Suppose that the dynamics of a physical system is given by the following set of equations:

𝑦+ !! 𝑡 + 2𝑦+ ! 𝑡 − 3𝑦7 ! 𝑡 + 3𝑦+ 𝑡 − 𝑦7 𝑡 = 0 (1)

𝑦7 !! 𝑡 + 4𝑦7 ! 𝑡 − 3𝑦+ ! 𝑡 + 6𝑦7 𝑡 − 𝑦+ 𝑡 = 𝑢(𝑡) (2)

D$ (5)
Assuming 𝑢(𝑡) is the input and 𝑦+ 𝑡 is output, find the transfer function of the system 𝐺 𝑠 = E(5)

As can be seen from the equations, both 𝑦+ 𝑡 and 𝑦7 𝑡 (and their derivatives) appear in both of the

D$ (5)
equations. Since𝐺 𝑠 = is desired to be found, 𝑌7 𝑠 must be eliminated.
E(5)

(1) 𝑠 ? 𝑌@ 𝑠 + 2𝑠𝑌@ 𝑠 − 3𝑠𝑌? 𝑠 + 3𝑌@ 𝑠 − 𝑌? 𝑠 = 0 ⇒ 𝑠 ? + 2𝑠 + 3 𝑌@ 𝑠 − 3𝑠 + 1 𝑌? 𝑠 = 0

(2) 𝑠 ? 𝑌? 𝑠 + 4𝑠𝑌? 𝑠 − 3𝑠𝑌@ 𝑠 + 6𝑌? 𝑠 − 𝑌@ 𝑠 = 𝑈(𝑠) ⇒ 𝑠 ? + 4𝑠 + 6 𝑌? 𝑠 − 3𝑠 + 1 𝑌@ 𝑠 = 𝑈(𝑠)
32
The First Way: Elimination
, #M#,M'
(1) 𝑠# + 2𝑠 + 3 𝑌1 𝑠 = 3𝑠 + 1 𝑌# 𝑠 ⇒ 𝑌# 𝑠 = 𝑌1 (𝑠)
',M1
, #M#,M' K" , ',M1
(2) 𝑠 # + 4𝑠 + 6 ',M1
𝑌1 (𝑠) − 3𝑠 + 1 𝑌1 𝑠 = 𝑈 𝑠 ⇒ 𝐺 𝑠 = L ,
= , %MN, $MO, #M1O,M1P

The Second Way: Cramer’s Method

0 −3𝑠 − 1
𝑠 # + 2𝑠 + 3 −3𝑠 − 1 𝑌1 (𝑠) 0 𝑈 𝑠 𝑠 # + 4𝑠 + 6
= ⟹ 𝑌1 𝑠 = #
−3𝑠 − 1 𝑠 # + 4𝑠 + 6 𝑌# (𝑠) 𝑈(𝑠) 𝑠 + 2𝑠 + 3 −3𝑠 − 1
−3𝑠 − 1 𝑠 # + 4𝑠 + 6

3𝑠 + 1 𝑈(𝑠)
𝑌1 𝑠 =
𝑠 + + 6𝑠 ' + 8𝑠 # + 18𝑠 + 17

𝑌1 (𝑠) 3𝑠 + 1
𝐺 𝑠 = =
𝑈(𝑠) 𝑠 + + 6𝑠 ' + 8𝑠 # + 18𝑠 + 17

𝑈(𝑠) 1 𝑌1 (𝑠)
3𝑠 +1
( + 3𝑠 + 4
𝑠
𝑠 @ + 6𝑠 A + 8𝑠 ? + 18𝑠 + 17
33
vUsing only the transfer function, most of the details of 𝑦(𝑡) can be obtained without solving the
differential equation. To this end, two concepts, named «zero» and «pole» of the system should be
defined.
Definition: Suppose that the transfer function of a system is given as below:

𝑏F . 𝑠 F + 𝑏F'+ 𝑠 F'+ + ⋯ + 𝑏+ 𝑠 + 𝑏, 𝑃G (𝑠)

𝐺 𝑠 = = ='+
=
𝑎= . 𝑠 + 𝑎='+ 𝑠 + ⋯ + 𝑎+ 𝑠 + 𝑎, 𝑃H (𝑠)
The roots of 𝑃G (𝑠) is defined as the zeros of the system and marked as «o» in the 𝑠 – plane.
Example: Suppose the transfer function of system is given as:
𝑌 (𝑠) 𝑠 7 + 4𝑠 + 5
𝐺 𝑠 = =
𝑈 (𝑠) 𝑠 ( + 5𝑠 7 + 6𝑠 + 4
Determine the location of the zeros and mark them on the s – plane.

(5)9)(5)+) 𝑗𝑤
𝐺 𝑠 = ⇒ 𝑃G 𝑠 = 𝑠 + 4 𝑠 + 1 = 0 ⇒ 𝑠+ = −4, 𝑠7 = −1
5! )85# );5)9 𝑠 − 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒

𝜎
-4 -1

34
Definition: Suppose that the transfer function of a system is given as below:

𝑏Q . 𝑠 Q + 𝑏Q$1 𝑠 Q$1 + ⋯ + 𝑏1 𝑠 + 𝑏J 𝑃R (𝑠)

𝐺 𝑠 = =
𝑎I . 𝑠 I + 𝑎I$1 𝑠 I$1 + ⋯ + 𝑎1 𝑠 + 𝑎J 𝑃S (𝑠)

The roots of 𝑃S (𝑠) is defined as the poles of the system and marked as «x» in the 𝑠 – plane.

Example: Suppose the transfer function of system is given as:

𝑠+5
𝐺 𝑠 = #
𝑠 + 4𝑠 + 3
𝑗𝑤
Determine the location of the zeros and poles, and mark them on the s – plane.

𝑠+5 𝑠 − 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒
𝐺 𝑠 = 7
𝑠 + 4𝑠 + 3
⇒ zeros: 𝑃G 𝑠 = 0 ⇒ 𝑠 = −5
X X 𝜎
-5 -3 -1
⇒ 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠: 𝑃H 𝑠 = 0 ⇒ 𝑠+ = −3, 𝑠7 = −1

35
Ø Using poles and zeros, many detailed information about 𝑦(𝑡) can be obtained, without solving the diff.
equation, directly from 𝐺 𝑠 .
D(5)
Ø Using the transfer function i.e. 𝐺 𝑠 = , the diff. equation can be reconstructed and 𝑦(𝑡) can be solved
E(5)
by employing 𝑌 𝑠 = 𝐺 𝑠 𝑈(𝑆) for a specified input.
Example: For a physical system, the diff. equation between the input-output is given as below:
𝑑 7 𝑦(𝑡) 𝑑𝑦(𝑡)
7 + 6 + 8 𝑦 𝑡 = 3𝑢 𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
D(5)
i. Find the transfer function of the system i.e. 𝐺 𝑠 =
E(5)
ii. Find the poles and the zeros of the system and mark them on the s – plane.
iii. For 𝑢 𝑡 = 𝑢5 𝑡 , find 𝑦(𝑡) using the transfer function. Specify the homogenous and the forced
components of 𝑦 𝑡 .
0 0 0
ℒ
𝑖. 𝑦 𝑡 →𝑌 𝑠 ⇒ 𝑠 7 𝑌 𝑠 − 𝑠𝑦 0 − 𝑦 ! 0 + 6 𝑠𝑌 𝑠 − 𝑦 0 + 8𝑌 𝑠 = 3𝑈(𝑠)
𝑗𝑤
ℒ D(5) (
𝑢(𝑡) → 𝑈(s) 𝑌 𝑠 𝑠 7 + 6𝑠 + 8 = 3𝑈 𝑠 ⇒ = =𝐺 𝑠
E(5) 5# );5): 𝑠 − 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒

𝜎
ℒ ( 𝑃G 𝑠 ⇒ 𝑛𝑜 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠! -4 -2
𝑖𝑖. 𝑦 𝑡 →𝑌 𝑠 𝐺 𝑠 = ⇒
5# );5): 𝑃H 𝑠 ⇒ 𝑠+ = −4, . 𝑠7 = −2 36
𝑖𝑖𝑖. Since the transfer function will be used to solve 𝑌 𝑠 all the initial conditions will be
taken as zero.
𝑈, (𝑠)
𝑌(𝑠) 3 1 3
=𝐺 𝑠 ⇒𝑌 𝑠 =𝐺 𝑠 𝑈 𝑠 ⇒𝑌 𝑠 = . ⇒𝑌 𝑠 =
𝑈(𝑠) (𝑠 + 2)(𝑠 + 4) 𝑠 𝑠+2 𝑠+4 𝑠

3 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶 6 3 3
𝑌(𝑠) = = + + ⇒ 𝐴=− , 𝐵= , 𝐶=
𝑠+2 𝑠+4 𝑠 𝑠+2 𝑠+4 𝑠 8 8 8

−6/8 3/8 3/8

𝑌(𝑠) = + +
𝑠+2 𝑠+4 𝑠

6 '7$ 3 '9$ 3
𝑦(𝑡) = − 𝑒 + 𝑒 + 𝑢5 (𝑡)
8 8 8

𝑦( 𝑡 𝑦) 𝑡 v Note that the exponential terms directly comes from the location
of the poles.
37
 Modeling of Electrical Circuits
vBy the term of «electrical circuits» it is meant that passive electrical circuits. In a passive electrical circuit
there may be the following elements.
i. Sources: +
𝑖,
Ø Independent current source. Provides a current of 𝑖, to the circuit. The voltage 𝐼,
across it is determined by the circuit 𝑉,
𝐼 = 𝐼, _

Ø Independent voltage source. Provides a voltage of 𝑉, to the circuit. The current 𝑖, +

flowing from it is determined by the circuit
𝑉 = 𝑉, 𝑉,
_
ii. Resistor:
Ø The voltage – current relation of the resistor is given as the following equation:
ℒ
𝑽𝑹 (𝒕) - 𝑉T 𝑡 = 𝑅. 𝑖T 𝑡 → 𝑉T 𝑠 = 𝑅. 𝐼T 𝑠
+
1 ℒ 1
𝑖T 𝑡 = 𝑉T 𝑡 → 𝐼T 𝑠 = 𝑉T (𝑠)
𝑅 𝑅
𝒊𝑹 (𝒕)
38
iii. Capacitor:
Ø The voltage – current relation of the capacitor is given as:

𝑑𝑉X (𝑡) ℒ
𝑽𝑪 (𝒕) 𝐼W 𝑡 = 𝐶. → 𝐼W 𝑠 = 𝑠𝐶𝑉X (𝑠)
+ - 𝑑𝑡
(All initial conditions are
1 & ℒ 1 assumed to be zero)
𝑉W 𝑡 = U 𝑖X 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 → 𝑉W 𝑠 = 𝐼 (𝑠)
𝒊𝑪 (𝒕) 𝐶 J 𝐶𝑠 X

iv. Inductor:
Ø The voltage – current relation of the inductor is given as the following equations:

𝑽𝑳 (𝒕)
+ -
𝑑𝑖Y (𝑡) ℒ
𝑉Y 𝑡 = 𝐿 → 𝑉Y 𝑠 = 𝑠𝐿𝐼Y (𝑠)
𝑑𝑡 (All initial conditions are
assumed to be zero)
1 & ℒ 1
𝑖Y 𝑡 = U 𝑉Y 𝑡 𝑑𝐿 → 𝐼Y 𝑠 = 𝑉 (𝑠)
𝒊𝑳 (𝒕) 𝐿 J 𝐿𝑠 Y
39
 vAs might be observed, the 𝐿 and 𝐶 elements can be considered as if they behave like a resistor in
𝑠 − 𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 and they obey the Ohm’s rule. If the Ohm’s rule is generalized for 𝐿 and 𝐶 elements
in 𝑠 − 𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛:

1
𝐼T 𝑠 = 𝑉 𝑠
𝑉T 𝑠 = 𝑅𝐼T 𝑠 𝑅 T

1
𝑉W 𝑠 = 𝐼 𝑠 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑥 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐼W 𝑠 = 𝑠𝐶 𝑉W 𝑠 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝐴𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑥 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡
,W W
1
𝑉Y 𝑠 = 𝑠𝐿𝐼Y 𝑠 𝐼Y 𝑠 = 𝑉 𝑠
𝑠𝐿 Y

𝑍 𝑠 : 𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑌 𝑠 : 𝐴𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

v Therefore, while we are deriving the transfer function of a circuit (between the defined input and the
defined output) we can consider every element as if it is a resistor while writing the circuit equations
in 𝑠 − 𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛.

40
Ø Then we will need three facts to derive the transfer function of a circuit:
𝑖1 𝑖#
i. Kirchoff’s current law (KCL): 𝑖1 = 𝑖# + 𝑖'

𝑖'
_ _
+ +
ii. Kirchoff’s voltage law (KVL): 𝑉T + 𝑉W + 𝑉Y = 𝑉[ + 𝑉Y 𝑉T +
𝑉, 𝑉W
_ _

iii. Generalized Ohm’s Law: Writing the voltages and / or currents in terms of currents and voltages,
depends on the solution strategy. (The generalized Ohm’s law is explained above)

Ø In order to find a transfer function of a circuit, first the circuit must be analyzed. To accomplish this
analysis, two methods can be used:
i. Node voltages method (expressing all the currents in the circuit in terms of node voltages)
ii. Mesh currents method (expressing all the voltages in the circuit in terms of mesh currents)
Both methodologies facilitate the circuit analysis. After finding the node voltages (or mesh currents), any
required voltage / current can be computed.
41
 • Example: By selecting 𝑉 𝑡 as the input and 𝑉I (𝑡) as the output, find the transfer function of the circuit,
JB (5)
i.e. 𝐺 𝑠 = given below:
J(5)
𝑅% = 1Ω 𝑅( = 5Ω
To solve the problem, the circuit must be analyzed as the first
+ step. The analysis can be performed by two ways.
1
𝐶= 𝐹
𝑉(𝑡) 3 𝐿 = 1𝐻 𝑉Y (𝑡)
_ i. Mesh currents method
ii. Node voltages method

i) Mesh Currents Method:

𝑖1 (𝑡) 1Ω 𝑖# (𝑡) 5Ω i. Define the currents specific to the mesh and define them
𝑖1 𝑡 − 𝑖# 𝑡
𝑖+ (𝑡) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖7 (𝑡) (there are two meshes)
1 +
𝑉(𝑡) 3
𝐹 ii. Obtain the current(s) shared by the meshes in terms of the
1𝐻 𝑉Y (𝑡)
_
mesh currents
1 2
iii. Apply KVL to all meshes and use generalized Ohm’s Law.

1
1. 𝑉T1 + 𝑉W − 𝑉 𝑠 = 0 ⇒ 𝑅1 𝐼1 𝑠 +
,W
𝐼1 𝑠 − 𝐼# 𝑠 =𝑉 𝑠
1
2. −𝑉W + 𝑉T# + 𝑉Y 𝑡 = 0 ⇒ −
,W
𝐼1 𝑠 − 𝐼# 𝑠 + 𝐼# 𝑠 𝑅# + 𝑠𝐿𝐼# 𝑠 = 0 42
 C
!
)+ '+
5BK$ )+ +
− 𝐼+ (𝑠) 𝑉(𝑠)
C C
𝐼+ (𝑠) 𝑉(𝑠)
5B 5B ! !
5# IB)5BK# )+
= = $ # D =
−
+ 𝐼7 (𝑠) 0 '+ !
5 ) !5)+ 𝐼7 (𝑠) 0
5B 5B C $
! !
5

5)( (
5
−5 𝐼+ (𝑠) 𝑉(𝑠)
5# )85)(
= (𝑉I 𝑠 = 𝑠𝐿𝐼7 𝑠 )
−
( 𝐼7 (𝑠) 0
5 5
𝑠 + 3 𝑉(𝑠)
3 3
− 0 𝑉(𝑠)
𝑠 ⟹ 𝐼# 𝑠 = 𝑠
Then solving 𝐼# (𝑠) is logical 𝐼# 𝑠 = (𝑠 + 3)(𝑠 # + 5𝑠 + 3) 9
𝑠+3 3
− − #
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠# 𝑠
3 𝑠 # + 5𝑠 + 3
−𝑠 𝑠
3
𝐼# (𝑠) 𝑠 𝐼# (𝑠) 3
⟹ = ' ⇒ = #
𝑉(𝑠) 𝑠 + 9𝑠 # + 18𝑠 𝑉(𝑠) 𝑠 + 8𝑠 + 18
𝑠 #

𝑉Y (𝑠)
𝑠𝐿 = 3 𝑉Y (𝑠) 3𝑠
⇒ = #
𝑉(𝑠) 𝑠 # + 8𝑠 + 18 𝑉(𝑠) 𝑠 + 8𝑠 + 18 43
ii) Node Voltages Method:
1 2 3
1Ω 𝑖1 (𝑡) 𝑖# (𝑡) 5Ω i. Define the nodes in the circuit and select one of them as
the reference node. (In general try to select the ground
𝑖# (𝑡)
𝑖' (t) + node as the reference)
1
𝑉(𝑡) 𝐹 1𝐻 𝑉Y (𝑡) ii. Attach the currents to the circuit
3
_
iii. Apply KCL for each node and write the equations using
generalized Ohm’s rule. While writing, if a node has only a
voltage source between the node and the reference node,
00 00 00 than the value of the node is equal to the source.

Reference node

1. 𝑉+ = 𝑉 𝑡 ⇒ 𝑉+ (𝑠) = 𝑉 𝑠
J$ 5 ' J# (5) J# 5 ' J! (5) J (5)
2. 𝑖+ = 𝑖7 + 𝑖( ⇒
K$
=
K#
+ #
LE (5)
J# 5 ' J! (5) J! (5)
3. 𝐼7 𝑠 = 𝑖7 𝑠 ⇒
K#
=
LB (5)
44
1. 𝑉1 𝑠 = 𝑉 𝑠

\ , $ \#(,) \# , $ \$(,) \#(,) \# , 1M%,W $\$ , %

2. 1
=
%
+ " ⟹ 𝑉 𝑠 − 𝑉# 𝑠 =
%
⟹ 5𝑉 𝑠 = 𝑉# 𝑠 6 + 𝑠 − 𝑉' 𝑠 = 5𝑉(𝑠)
'
&'
\# , $ \$(,) \$(,)
3. = ⇒ −𝑉# 𝑠 𝑠𝐿 + 𝑠𝐿 + 5 𝑉' 𝑠 = 0 ⇒ 𝑉# 𝑠 𝑠 − 𝑠 + 5 𝑉' 𝑠 = 0
% ,Y

%
6+ 𝑠 −1 𝑉# (𝑠) 5𝑉(𝑠) 5
' = 6 + 𝑠 5𝑉(𝑠)
3
−𝑠 𝑠 + 5 𝑉' (𝑠) 0
−𝑠 0 5𝑠𝑉(𝑠)
⟹ 𝑉Y 𝑠 = ⟹ 𝑉Y 𝑠 =
5 5
6 + 3 𝑠 −1 6+ 𝑠 𝑠+5 +𝑠
𝑉' 𝑠 = 𝑉Y 𝑠 3
−𝑠 𝑠+5
𝑉Y (𝑠) 5𝑠 3𝑠
⟹ = = #
𝑉(𝑠) 5 𝑠 # + 40 𝑠 + 30 𝑠 + 8𝑠 + 18
3 3

V(s) 1 𝑉Y (s) V(s) 1

3𝑠 𝑉Y (s)
𝐺(𝑠)
𝑠( + 3𝑠 + 4 𝑠 ( + 3𝑠 + 4
#
𝑠 + 8𝑠 + 18
45
 Modelling of Mechanical Systems
Ø In this section two types of mechanical systems are going to be considered:
I. Translational Mechanical Systems
II. Rotational Mechanical Systems
Ø And for each type of systems, static friction force will be neglected, as static friction violates the linearity
of the system.

I) Translational Mechanical Systems

Ø In those system, in general, the following quantities are taken as inputs and output:

ℒ
Input: 𝑓 𝑡 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 → 𝐹 𝑠
ℒ
Output: 𝑥 𝑡 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 → 𝑋 𝑠
ℒ
𝑣 𝑡 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 → 𝑉 𝑠

Ø Logically, the elements define a relationship between 𝑋 𝑠 , (or 𝑉 𝑠 ) and 𝐹 𝑠 .

Ø In general, three basic elements (spring, damper, mass) are used in translational mechanical systems.
46
i) Spring: Spring provides a reaction force directly proportional to the displacement of it.
ℒ
𝑘 (𝑁/𝑚 = 𝑘𝑔/𝑠 # ) 𝐹 𝑡 =𝑘𝑥 𝑡 → 𝐹 𝑠 =𝑘𝑋 𝑠
or
𝐹 𝑡 ℒ 𝑉 𝑠
𝐹 𝑡 = 𝑘 U 𝑣(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 → 𝐹 𝑠 = 𝑘
𝑠
𝑥(𝑡)
Viscous damper provides a reaction force directly proportional to the velocity of it.
ii) Viscous damper: ℒ
𝐹 𝑡 =𝑏𝑣 𝑡 → 𝐹 𝑠 =𝑏𝑉 𝑠
𝑏 (𝑘𝑔/𝑠) or
𝐹 𝑡 𝑑𝑥 𝑡 ℒ
𝐹 𝑡 =𝑘 → 𝐹 𝑠 = 𝑏𝑠𝑋(𝑠)
𝑑𝑡

𝑥(𝑡) Mass provides a reaction force directly proportional to the acceleration of it.
iii) Mass: ℒ
𝐹 𝑡 =𝑚𝑎 𝑡 → 𝐹 𝑠 =𝑚𝐴 𝑠
or
𝐹 𝑡 𝑑𝑣 𝑡 ℒ
𝑚 (𝑘𝑔) 𝐹 𝑡 =𝑚 → 𝐹 𝑠 = 𝑚𝑠𝑉(𝑠)
𝑑𝑡
or
]#^ & ℒ
𝑥(𝑡) 𝐹 𝑡 =𝑚 → 𝐹 𝑠 = 𝑠 # 𝑋(𝑠) 47
]& #
 Ø In order to write the dynamical equations of a mechanical system, two physical principle will be used:

1) Newton’s Second Law: 𝐹 𝑡 = 𝑚 𝑎 𝑡 (We have used it for deriving the force – acceleration
relation of the mass)
2) Newton’s Third Law: ∑ 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = ∑ 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒

Ø As those systems are considered to be linear, superposition principle can be used.

Example:

_"(,)
Supposing 𝐹(𝑠) is the input and 𝑋1 𝑡 is the output, obtain the transfer function of the system, i.e. 𝐺 𝑠 =
`(,)

48
 v According to superposition principle, only one mass will be allowed to move while deriving the equations.
Force acting on mass 𝑚1 Force acting on mass 𝑚#

𝑚1 𝑠 # 𝑋1 (𝑠) 𝑘# 𝑋# (𝑠) 𝑚# 𝑠 # 𝑋# (𝑠) 𝑘# 𝑋1 (𝑠)

𝑏1 𝑠𝑋1 (𝑠) 𝑘# 𝑋# (𝑠)
𝑚1 𝑚# 𝐹 (𝑠)
𝑘1 𝑋1 (𝑠)
𝑘# 𝑋1 (𝑠)

1) 𝑚1 𝑠 # 𝑋1 𝑠 + 𝑏1 𝑠𝑋1 𝑠 + 𝑘1 𝑋1 𝑠 +𝑘# 𝑋1 𝑠 − 𝑘# 𝑋# 𝑠 = 0 2) −𝑘# 𝑋1 𝑠 + 𝑚# 𝑠 # 𝑋# 𝑠 + 𝑘# 𝑋# 𝑠 = 𝐹 𝑠

⇒ 5𝑠 # + 2𝑠 + 6 𝑋1 𝑠 − 2𝑋# 𝑠 = 0 ⇒ −2𝑋1 𝑠 + 2𝑠 # + 2 𝑋# 𝑠 = 𝐹(𝑠)
0 −2
5𝑠 ? + 2𝑠 + 6 −2 𝑋< 𝑠 0 𝐹(𝑠) 2𝑠 ? + 2
= ⇒ 𝑋< 𝑠 =
−2 2𝑠 ? + 2 𝑋? 𝑠 𝐹(𝑠) 5𝑠 ? + 2𝑠 + 6 −2
−2 2𝑠 ? + 2

2𝐹(𝑠)
⇒ 𝑋< 𝑠 = 𝐹(𝑠) 1
1 𝑋1 (𝑠)
10𝑠 @ + 4𝑠 A + 22𝑠 ? + 4𝑠 + 12 − 4
𝑠 ( + 3𝑠 + 4
5𝑠 @ + 2𝑠 A + 11𝑠 ? + 2𝑠 + 4
𝑋< (𝑠) 1
⇒ = =𝐺 𝑠 49
𝐹(𝑠) 5𝑠 @ + 2𝑠 A + 11𝑠 ? + 2𝑠 + 4
 II) Rotational Mechanical Systems
Ø As in the translational system, in general, the following quantities are taken as inputs and outputs:

ℒ
Input: 𝜏 𝑡 𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 → 𝑇 𝑠
ℒ
Output: 𝜃 𝑡 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 → Θ 𝑠
ℒ
𝜔 𝑡 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 → Ω 𝑠
Ø Logically, the elements define a relationship between Θ 𝑠 , (or Ω 𝑠 ) and 𝑇 𝑠 .
Ø In general, three basic elements (torsional spring, torsional viscous damper, inertia) are used in rotational
mechanical systems.

i) Torsional Spring: Torsional spring provides a reaction torque directly proportional to the angular displacement of it.

ℒ
𝜃(𝑡) 𝜏(𝑡) 𝜏 𝑡 = 𝑘 𝜃 𝑡 → 𝑇 𝑠 = 𝑘Θ 𝑠
𝑘 (𝑁. 𝑚/𝑟𝑎𝑑)
ℒ Ω 𝑠
𝜏 𝑡 = 𝑘 U 𝜔 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 → 𝑇 𝑠 = 𝑘
𝑠

50
 ii) Rotational viscous damper: Torsional viscous damper provides a reaction torque directly
proportional to the angular velocity of it.
𝜃(𝑡) 𝜏(𝑡) ℒ
𝜏 𝑡 = 𝑏𝜔 𝑡 → 𝑇 𝑠 = 𝑏Ω 𝑠

𝑑𝜃(𝑡) ℒ
𝑏 (𝑁. 𝑚. 𝑠/𝑟𝑎𝑑) 𝜏 𝑡 =𝑏 → 𝑇 𝑠 = 𝑏 𝑠Θ 𝑠
𝑑𝑡
iii) Inertia: Inertia provides a reaction torque directly proportional to the angular acceleration of it.
ℒ
𝜏 𝑡 = 𝐽𝛼 𝑡 → 𝑇 𝑠 = 𝐽 𝐴 𝑠
𝐽 (𝑁. 𝑚. 𝑠 # /𝑟𝑎𝑑)
𝑑𝜔(𝑡) ℒ
𝜏 𝑡 =𝐽 → 𝑇 𝑠 = 𝐽 𝑠Ω 𝑠
𝑑𝑡

𝑑# 𝜃(𝑡) ℒ
𝜏 𝑡 =𝐽 #
→ 𝑇 𝑠 = 𝐽 𝑠#Θ 𝑠
𝑑𝑡
Ø In order to write the dynamical equations of a rotational system, two physical principle will be used:

1) Newton’s Second Law (for rotation): 𝑇 𝑡 = 𝐽 𝑎 𝑡 (We have used it for deriving the
torque – angular acceleration of the inertia)
2) Newton’s Third Law (for rotation): ∑ 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 = ∑ 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒

Ø Like translational mechanical systems, these systems are considered to be linear. Therefore, superposition principle
can be used here as well. 51
Example:
Supposing 𝜏(𝑡) is the input and 𝜃1 (𝑡) is
the output, obtain the transfer function
of the system. i.e.
Θ<(𝑠)
𝐺 𝑠 =
𝑇(𝑠)

v According to superposition principle, only one inertia will be allowed to move while deriving the equations:

Torque acting on inertia 𝐽1 Torque acting on inertia 𝐽#

𝐽1 𝐽#

1) 2𝑠 # + 𝑠 + 3 Θ1 𝑠 − 𝑠 + 1 Θ# 𝑠 = 0 2) − 𝑠 + 1 Θ1 𝑠 + 2𝑠 # + 𝑠 + 1 Θ# 𝑠 = 𝑇(𝑠)
52
2𝑠 7 + 𝑠 + 3 −(𝑠 + 1) Θ+ 𝑠 0
=
−(𝑠 + 1) 2𝑠 7 + 𝑠 + 1 Θ7 𝑠 𝑇(𝑠)

0 −(𝑠 + 1)
𝑇(𝑠) 2𝑠 7 + 𝑠 + 1 𝑠 + 1 𝑇(𝑠)
Θ+ 𝑠 = ⇒ Θ+ 𝑠 =
2𝑠 7 + 𝑠 + 3 −(𝑠 + 1) 4𝑠 9 + 4𝑠 ( + 8𝑠 7 + 4𝑠 + 3 − (𝑠 7 + 2𝑠 + 1)
−(𝑠 + 1) 2𝑠 7 + 𝑠 + 1

Θ1 (𝑠) 𝑠+1 𝑇(𝑠) 𝑠+11 Θ1 (𝑠)

𝐺 𝑠 = = 𝑠 ( + 3𝑠 + 4
𝑇(𝑠) 4𝑠 + + 4𝑠 ' + 7𝑠 # + 2𝑠 + 2 4𝑠 @ + 4𝑠 A + 7𝑠 ? + 2𝑠 + 2

53
 Gears in Rotational Mechanical Systems
Ø In rotational mechanical systems, gears are used frequently in order to amplify / transmit the torques.
Ø In this course, all the gear mechanisms will be considered to be ideal.

For an ideal gear pair: Ø The total displacements (translational) are equal: 𝑟+ 𝜃+ = 𝑟7 𝜃7
𝜃+ 𝑟7
𝜃1 =
𝜃7 𝑟+
𝜃#
𝑟1 𝑟# Ø The energy consumed in both gearwheels are equal: 𝜏+ 𝜃+ = 𝜏7 𝜃7
𝜃+ 𝜏7
=
𝜃7 𝜏+
𝑁# 𝑟1 𝑁1 𝜏1 𝜃#
𝑁1 Ø If those equations are combined: = = =
(number of teeth: 𝑁) 𝑟# 𝑁# 𝜏# 𝜃1

Ø If this fact is considered together with a rotational mechanical system:

𝜏1 𝜃1 𝑁1
𝑁+
𝜏+ = − 𝜏7
𝜏# 𝜃# 𝑁7
𝐽
𝑁7
𝜃+ = − 𝜃7 54
𝑁# 𝑁+
 Reflecting the Gear Effect on the Elements
⇒ 𝐽𝑠 # + 𝑏𝑠 + 𝑘 Θ# 𝑠 = 𝑇# 𝑠

Θ# (𝑠) 1
𝐺 𝑠 = = #
𝑇# (𝑠) 𝐽𝑠 + 𝑏𝑠 + 𝑘

Ø If a gear mechanism is added to the system:

a#(,)
𝑁< Ø If 𝐺 * 𝑠 = is required:
b"(,)
𝑁# −𝑁# /𝑁1
𝐽𝑠 # + 𝑏𝑠 + 𝑘 Θ# 𝑠 = − 𝑇1 𝑠 ⇒ 𝐺 * 𝑠 = # 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑
𝑁1 𝐽𝑠 + 𝑏𝑠 + 𝑘

𝑁?
a"(,) $R" $R# a"(,) R#⁄R" #
Ø However, if 𝐺 ** 𝑠 = is required: 𝐽𝑠 # + 𝑏𝑠 + 𝑘 Θ1 𝑠 = 𝑇1 𝑠 ⇒ 𝐺 ** 𝑠 = =
b"(,) R# R" b"(,) d, #M.,Me

Ø When the gear is eliminated from the system: 1

𝐺 ** 𝑠 =
𝐽* 𝑠 # + 𝑏 * 𝑠 + 𝑘 *

# # #
𝑁1 𝑁1 𝑁1
𝐽* = 𝐽 , 𝑏* = 𝑏 , 𝑘* = 𝑘
𝑁# 𝑁# 𝑁#
55
Example: Find the transfer functions of the system given below
𝜃1 (𝑠)
𝑖. 𝐺1 𝑠 =
𝑇1 (𝑠)

𝜃# (𝑠)
𝑖𝑖. 𝐺# 𝑠 =
𝑇# (𝑠)

𝜃' (𝑠)
𝑖𝑖𝑖. 𝐺' 𝑠 =
𝑇1 (𝑠)
1
2
3

≡
56
 Θ𝟏 𝒔
𝒊) 𝑮𝟏 𝒔 =
𝑻𝟏 𝒔
4𝑠 # + 4𝑠 −4𝑠 Θ1 (𝑠) 𝑇1 (𝑠)
1. 4𝑠 # + 4𝑠 Θ1 𝑠 − 4𝑠Θ# 𝑠 = 𝑇1 𝑠 ⇒ =
−4𝑠 4𝑠 # + 4𝑠 + 8 Θ# (𝑠) 0

2. −4𝑠Θ1 𝑠 + 4𝑠 # + 4𝑠 + 8 Θ# 𝑠 = 0
𝑇1 (𝑠) −4𝑠
0 4𝑠 #
+ 4𝑠 + 8 𝑇1 𝑠 (4𝑠 # + 4𝑠 + 8)
Θ1 𝑠 = ⇒ Θ1 𝑠 =
4𝑠 # + 4𝑠 −4𝑠 4𝑠 # + 4𝑠 4𝑠 # + 4𝑠 + 8 − 16𝑠 #
−4𝑠 4𝑠 # + 4𝑠 + 8

Θ1 𝑠 (4𝑠 # + 4𝑠 + 8) 𝑇1 (𝑠) 1 Θ1 (𝑠)

⇒ 𝐺1 𝑠 = = (𝑠 ?(+ 𝑠 + 2)
𝑇1 𝑠 16𝑠 + + 32𝑠 ' + 32𝑠 # + 32𝑠 𝑠 + 3𝑠 + 4
4𝑠 @ + 8𝑠 A + 8𝑠 ? + 8𝑠
Θ𝟐 𝒔
𝒊𝒊) 𝑮𝟐 𝒔 =
𝑻𝟐 𝒔

𝑁1 𝑁
Θ# 𝑠 = − Θ1 𝑠 , Θ<(𝑠) − ? Θ?(𝑠) 𝑁? ?
Θ?(𝑠) (𝑠 ? + 𝑠 + 2)
𝑁# 𝑁<
⇒ = = =
𝑁# 𝑇<(𝑠) 𝑁< 𝑁< 𝑇?(𝑠) 4𝑠 @ + 8𝑠 A + 8𝑠 ? + 8𝑠
𝑇# 𝑠 = − 𝑇1 (𝑠) − 𝑇?(𝑠)
𝑁?
𝑁1
+ M# (5) (5# )5)7) M# (5) 9(5# )5)7) (5# )5)7)
⇒ = ⇒ = =
9 N# (5) 95F ):5! ):5# ):5 N# (5) 95F ):5! ):5# ):5 5F )75! )75# )75 57
 Θ𝟑 𝒔
𝒊𝒊𝒊) 𝑮𝟑 𝒔 =
𝑻𝟏 𝒔
≡

≡
1 1
1. 16𝑠 # + 16𝑠 Θ# 𝑠 − 16𝑠Θ' 𝑠 = − 𝑇1 𝑠 1. 𝑠 # + 𝑠 Θ# 𝑠 − 𝑠Θ' 𝑠 = − 𝑇 𝑠
# '# 1
2. −16𝑠Θ# 𝑠 + 16𝑠 # + 16𝑠 + 32 Θ' 𝑠 = 0 2. −𝑠Θ# 𝑠 + 𝑠 # + 𝑠 + 2 Θ' 𝑠 = 0

1
𝑠# + 𝑠 −𝑠 Θ# (𝑠) − 𝑇1 (𝑠)
= 32
−𝑠 𝑠 + 𝑠 + 2 Θ' (𝑠)
#
0
1
𝑠# + 𝑠 − 𝑇 (𝑠)
32 1
−𝑠 0 −𝑠𝑇1 (𝑠) M! 5 '+
Θ' 𝑠 = ⇒ Θ' 𝑠 = ⇒ 𝐺( 𝑠 = =
𝑠# + 𝑠 −𝑠 32[ 2𝑠 + + 2𝑠 ' + 3𝑠 # + 2𝑠 − 𝑠 # ] N$ 5 ;9 5! )5# )5)+
−𝑠 𝑠# + 𝑠 + 2 58
 Modeling of Electromechanical Systems
Ø By the term of electromagnetic systems, we mean an
armature controlled DC motor (under a fixed
electromagnetic field) with a load.

Ø In general,
Input: 𝑉< (𝑠)
Output: ΘO 𝑠 𝑜𝑟 ΩO (𝑠)

Ø And the parameters belonging to the motor is:

𝐾< : 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 ∶ 𝑁. 𝑚/𝐴 𝐾. : 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝑒𝑚𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 ∶ 𝑉. 𝑠 /𝑟𝑎𝑑
ℒ 𝑑𝜃g (𝑡) ℒ
1 𝑇O 𝑡 = 𝐾< 𝐼< t ⇒ 𝑇O 𝑠 = 𝐾< 𝐼< 𝑠 2 𝑉. 𝑡 = 𝐾. ⇒ 𝑉. 𝑠 = 𝐾. 𝑠Θg 𝑠
𝑑𝑡
ℒ
𝑉. 𝑡 = 𝐾. 𝜔g (𝑡) ⇒ 𝑉. 𝑠 = 𝐾. Ωg 𝑠

v These two equations belong to the motor and relates the electric part to the mechanical part.

v To derive the transfer function of the motor, two parts must be considered separately as electrical and mechanical part
59
 i) Electrical part: 𝑉G) + 𝑉H) + 𝑉I 𝑠 = 𝑉J 𝑠

(s 𝐿J + 𝑅J ) 𝐼J 𝑠 + 𝑉I (𝑠) = 𝑉J 𝑠 (*)

ii) Mechanical part:

𝐽J : 𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑑
𝐽G : 𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝑏J : 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑑
𝑏G : 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑑

𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
If the system is moved to armature rod part:
?
𝑁<

≡
𝐽K = 𝐽J + 𝐽G
𝑁?
? ⟹ 𝑇K 𝑠 = 𝐽K 𝑠 ? + 𝑏K 𝑠 ΘK 𝑠 (∗∗)
𝑁<
𝑏K = 𝑏J + 𝑏G
𝑁?
a((,)
Ø To obtain 𝐺 𝑠 = , the equations belonging to the motor must be taken into account to relate the
\)(,)
mechanical part to the electrical part. If (*) is considered with (1) and (2)
60
 𝑇g 𝑠
𝑠𝐿- + 𝑅- 𝐼- 𝑠 + 𝑉. 𝑠 = 𝑉- 𝑠 ⟹ 𝑠𝐿- + 𝑅- + 𝐾. 𝑠Θg 𝑠 = 𝑉- (𝑠)
𝐾-
If (**) is considered in that equation:
(𝐽g 𝑠 # + 𝑏g 𝑠)
𝑠𝐿- + 𝑅- Θg 𝑠 + 𝐾. 𝑠Θg 𝑠 = 𝑉- 𝑠
𝐾-

⟹ Θg (𝑠)[𝐽g 𝐿- 𝑠 ' + 𝑏g 𝐿- + 𝐽g 𝑅- 𝑠 # + 𝑏g 𝑅- 𝑠 + 𝐾. 𝐾- 𝑠] = 𝐾- 𝑉- (𝑠)

Θg (𝑠) 𝐾-
𝐺 𝑠 = =
𝑉- (𝑠) 𝐽g 𝐿- 𝑠 ' + 𝑏g 𝐿- + 𝐽g 𝑅- 𝑠 # + (𝑏g 𝑅- + 𝐾. 𝐾- )𝑠

If Ωg 𝑠 is considered as the output:

PL (5) 5ML (5) 5QM QM
𝐺′ 𝑠 = = = =
JM (5) JM (5) 5[RL IM 5# ) SL IM ) RL KM 5)(SL KM ) QN QM )] RL IM 5# ) SL IM ) RL KM 5)(SL KM ) QN QM )

𝑉- (𝑠) 1
𝐾 Θg (𝑠)
𝑠 ( +J3𝑠 + 4 (Third order System)
𝐽K 𝐿J 𝑠 A + 𝑏K 𝐿J + 𝐽K 𝑅J 𝑠 ? + (𝑏K 𝑅J + 𝐾I 𝐾J )𝑠

𝑉- (𝑠) 𝐾-
1 Ωg (𝑠) (Second order System)
(
𝑠 + 3𝑠 + 4
𝐽g 𝐿- 𝑠 # + 𝑏g 𝐿- + 𝐽g 𝑅- 𝑠 + (𝑏g 𝑅- + 𝐾. 𝐾- ) 61