Chapter 1 Self-Study Concepts 1.1 ATOMS, MOLECULES, AND MOLES Atoms Atoms, the building blocks of matter, consist of three types of particles: protons, neutrons, and electrons. Protons have a positive (+) charge, electrons have a negative (-) charge, and neutrons are electrically neutral, Protons and neutrons are found in the atom’s nucleus, while electrons occupy the space around the nucleus. Protons and neutrons have almost the same mass and make up most of the mass of the atom, The mass of an clectron is only 1/183é6th of the mass of a proton or a neutron, ATOMIC NUMBER The number of protons in an atomic nucleus gives the atomic number of the element. All atoms of the same element have the same number of protons. For example, the atomic number of carbon (symbol C) is 6 because every carbon atom contains 6 protons. Likewise, the atomic number of tin (symbol Sn) is $0 because every tin atom has 50 protons. Any atom with 6 protons is a carbon atom; any atom with 50 protons is a tin atom, and so on. MASS NUMBER The mass number is the total number of protons and neutrons in an atom. Mass number = number of protons + number of neutrons The mass number always has an integer value (1, 2, 3,...). The notation 3X is often used to show both the mass number and the atomic number of an element. In this notation, X represents the chemical symbol of the clement, A is the mass, DFTTFFFTFFIIVDFTIGIIIFIFAIITITIFIIIIIIIIIVIFIGS Chemistry: that mast excellent child of intellect and art. Sir Cyril Hinshelwood (1897-1967) Topics Covered: 1.1 Atoms, Molecules, and Moles 1.2 Solutions 1.3 Reaction Stoichiometry 14 Reaction Types CH, | ONL ZC. NO, Noho" eal H Se ony NO, trinitrotoluene (TNT) =o >CHAPTER 1 SELF-STUDY CONCEPTS 12 number, and Z is the atomic number. Another notation used for an element is its chemical symbol followed by the mass number. For example, Na-23 denotes, sodium and C-12 denotes carbon, Example 1.1.1 Determine the Number of Neutrons in CI-37 Solution: The number of protons in 2 chlorine atom is 17. Since the mass number is 37, the number of neutrons is 37 ~ 17 = 20, ATOMIG MASS AND ATOMIG MASS UNIT Atomic mass is the physical mass of an atom expressed in grams, kilograms, or other units. The chemical unit of atomic massis the atomic mass unit, also known as Dalton. One atomic mass unit is defined as exactly 1/12 of the mass of a C-12 atom and is denoted by the symbol “u.” The symbol for Dalton is “Da.” ISOTOPES Most elements have both protons arid neutrons in the nucleus, and usually there are at least as many neutrons as protons. Atoms with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons are called isotopes. Isotopes have the same atomic number but a different mass number. For example, if C-12 denotes carbon with a mass number of 12 (6 protons + 6 neutrons), C-14 denotes a heavier isotope of carbon with a mass number of 14 (6 protons + 8 neutrons}. For instance, chlorine has two stable isotopes, Cl-35 and Cl-37. Certain elements have more than two isotopes, and in some cases there is a large quantity of one isotope and only a small quantity of the others. Isotopic abundance is the percent by number of each of the isotopes of an element. ISOTOPIC ABUNDANCE AND AVERAGE ATOMIC MASS ‘The atomic mass assigned to each element in the periodic table is the average of the masses of all of the isotopes of that element. In other words, the average atomic mass for each element is PIIFIFIFIZIIIIIIIIFIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIGDFIFFTFVPIIIFFVDIIITITIFTIFTIIITIIIIIIIITIIVITGTI8D CHAPTER 1 SELF-STUDY CONCEPTS 13 Consider an example, There are three stable isotopes of silicon: $i-28, Si-29, and Si-30. Their abundances are 92.23%, 4.67%, and 3.10%, respectively. This means, that in a sample of silicon, 92.23% of all Si atoms will be Si-28, 4.67% will be 29, and 3.10% will be Si-30. Since most of the naturally occurring silicon is 28, the average atomic mass of silicon should be close to 28. ‘When expressed in atomic mass units, the atomic mass of an isotope (isotopic mass} normally has a fractional value that is close to the mass number. For ex- ample, the atomic mass of Cl-35 is 34.9688527. Carbon-12 is the only exception because its atomic mass is exactly equal to 12 u by definition. You may wonder how itis possible that when 17 protons combine with 18 neutrons to form a nu- cleus of C1-35, the atomic mass of the nucleus is less than 35 u. This is even more puzzling since the atomic masses of a proton and a neutron are greater than 1 u (nt, = 1.0072765 u, mr, = 1.086659 u). It turns out that when protons and neu- trons combine to forma nucleus, some of their total mass is converted into energy. ‘The precise energy-mass relation is given by Einstein's famous equation, E = me’ In general, the mass of a nucleus is less than the sum of the combined masses of its protons and neutrons. The difference is called mass defect. Non-integer masses of protons and neutrons and the mass defect are the two reasons why all isotopes ‘except C-12 have irregular atomic masses. Example 1.1.2 Caloulate the average atomic mass of silicon using the isotopic abun- dances given above. Approximate isotopic masses with mass numbers. Solution: average atomicmassot Si = (2223 x 28) + (487 29) + (320.x 30) =28.1u Remark: The average atomic mass of Si listed in the periodic table is 28.09 u, To obtain this value, you would have to look up and use the actual isotopic masses of Si-28, Si-29, and Si-30.CHAPTER 1. SELF-STUDY CONCEPTS 14 IONS All neutral atoms have an equal number of protons and electrons. Therefore, the atomic number, Z, is also the number of electrons in a neutral atom. An atom that loses one or more electrons will have a positive charge equal to the number of electrons lost. In this case the atom becomes a cation. For example: Li Lit +e (Lit isa cation) An atom that gains one or more electrons will have a negative charge equal to the number of electrons gained, and becomes an anion. For example: Cl+e > Ch (Chis an anion) ‘The collective term ion is used for atoms (or groups of atoms) that have gained or lost electrons (i.e., cations or anions). [ons of molecules are called molecular (or complex) ions. MOLECULES Atoms combine into molecules in specifc ratios. For example, the molecular formula of nitric acid is HNO,. This means that each molecule of nitric acid contains one hydrogen atom, one nitrogen atom, and three oxygen atoms. A compound is a molecule containing atoms of more than one element. Thus H,O is a compound but O, is not. A molecule with only two atoms, such as O,.is called a diatomic molecule, while a molecule with more than two atoms, such as HNO, or HO, iscalled a polyatomic. The Mole and Avogadro's Number ‘The amount of atoms or molecules in a sample of a substance is usually expressed in moles. One mole is defined as the number of atoms contained in exactly 12 ‘grams of pure carbon-12. This number of atoms is called Avogadro’s number, N,y and has an approximate value of 6.02 x 10° mol'!. The symbol used for the number of moles is 7. PIDIZFIFZIFZIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIZIIIIIIIIGDTTFFFTIFFIFTGIFDIDIVDIVDIFITFIIIGTIIIIBVIITIIFIFISIO9 CHAPTER 1 SELF-STUDY CONCEPTS 15 In general terms, the mole is a word used to represent a number in the same way that “pair” represents “2” and “dozen” represents “12.” One mole of anything, would be 6.02 x 10° of those items. This is a large number (about 10" times Earth’s population), so it is used for atoms, molecules, and ions. For any caleu- lations using Avogadro’s number, itis essential to understand what entities the number of moles refers to. For example: ‘One mole of silicon means 6,02 x 10" Si atoms One mole of glucose means 6.02 x 10* C,H,,O, molecules ‘One mole of nitrate ions means 6.02 x 108 NO, ions USING AVOGADRO’S NUMBER To determine the number of individual atoms, molecules, or ions in a sample, use Avogadro's number. The basic formula is: ‘number of moles x N, = number of particles (atoms, molecules, ions, etc.) Answers for this type of calculation are usually very large numbers. Example 1.1.3 Converting Number of Molecules into Moles CHO 6-08 HO—C—H 6-08 H—G—OH CH,OH glucose ‘A sample of glucose contains 2.58 x 10 molecules. Determine the number of moles of glucose in the sample, numberofmolecules _ __2.58x 10 molecules = 02x 10 molecules mol = 0.00429 molCHAPTER 1 SELF-STUDY CONCEPTS 16 Example 1.1.4 Determining the Number of Atoms in a Glucose Sample Find the number of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms, and the total number of atoms, in 1.85 mol of glucose, C,H,,0,. 1.85 mol x 6.02 x 10 molecules mol = 1.11 x 10% molecules = 6.68 x 10% C atoms 34 x 10 H atoms 6.68 x 10% 0 atoms 67 10 atoms The total number of atoms could also be found by adding the numbers of carbon, ‘oxygen, and hydrogen atoms together. 1.11 x 10% molecules x 6 C atoms molecule” 1.11 x 10 molecules x 12 H atoms molecule 1.11 x 10% molecules x 6 0 atoms molecule 1.11 x 10% molecules x 24 atoms molecul Molecular Mass and Molar Mass Molecular mass is the mass of one molecule computed as the sum of atomic masses of all the atoms in the molecule. Molecular mass is usually expressed in atomic mass units. The average atomic mass assigned to each element in the periodic table is nu- merically the same as the average mass of the one mole of atoms of that element. The mass of one mole of molecules is called molar mass. The molar mass can be computed as the sum of the atomic masses of all the atoms in the molecule. The symbol for molar mass used throughout this textbook will be MM, which has units of grams per mole, g mol", Be sure that you ttderstand (not just memorize) the relationship among moles (nt), mass (r), and molar mass (MM), as it will be used in many calculations: mel) ~ yang Example 1.1.5 Determining Molecular and Molar Masses Find the molecular mass of (a) methanol, CH,OH, and the molar masses of (b) alu- minum nitrate, AI(NO,),, and (c) copper sulfate pentahydrate, CuSO, #5H,0. PIDIFIDZIIFIIIIIIIIIIIIIAIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIGDFFFFFFIASFAIIFTIFIIIIITVIFIVIIVITIIIFITIIIIIIVG99 CHAPTER 1 SELF-STUDY CONCEPTS 17 Solution: Use the periodic table to find the atomic masses and complete the sums as follows: 2) CH,OH: Molecular mass = 12.01 u + (4 x 1,008) u + 16.00 u = 32.042 u. The molar mass (Mf) will have the same value but the units are diferent Mid = 32.04 g mol* ) AKINO,),: The brackets followed by the subscript 3 indicate there are 3 nitrate ions, NO,-, in the molecule, MM = 26.98 g + (3 x 14.01) g+ (9 x 16.00) g = 213.01 gmol ©) CuSO,*5H,0: The “«” indicates there are other molecules attached. In this case, there are 5 water molecules attached to copper sulfate and these must be included in the molar mass. ‘MIM = 63.55 g + 32.07 g+ (4 x 16.00) g + (10 x 1.008) g + (5 x 16.00) 49.7 g mal Example 1.1.6 Relating Moles, Mass, and Molar Mass Find the following: a) The number of moles of CuSO,*5H,0 in 0.38 g of that compound. 1) The mass of 3.068 moles of AI(NO.), ©) The molar mass of CH,OH given that 2.68 moles has a mass of 85.87 g. Solution n=l = 0.388 CuSO,*5H,0: 9 = sar = 249.7 gral AI(NO,),: m= 0 x MM = 3.068 mol x 213.01 g mot im. 85878 = 2.68mol 0.0015moI 653.52 CH,OH: Mit 32.0gmolCHAPTER 1 SELF-STUDY CONCEPTS 18 MASS PERCENT ‘The mass percent is defined by the formula: mass of one species total mass of sample * 100% where the numerator and the denominator must be expressed in the same wi Mags percent = ‘The mass percent of a species cannot exceed 100%. The sum of the mass percents of all species present in a sample must add up to 100%. Example 1.1.7 Determining Mass Percent a. Find the mass percent of carbon in glucose, C,H,,0,, Mass % of © = Mass of carbon, = ME Grease x 100% _ SX 12.01gmol ang = "T8015 gmor* * 100% = 40.00% b. Find the mass percentages of NaCl and NaNO, given a mixture of 13.77 g of NoG! and 30.29 g of NaNO, Mass % of NaCl = mass ofNaCl = Fofalmass of sample * 100% 13.776 113.77 + 30.29)g * aoe = 31.25% Mass % of NaNO, massofNaNO, = Fotalmassof sample * 100% 30.298 = 15.77 + 30.2978 * aa = 68.75% ‘There are two species involved. The sum of the mass percents must equal 100% (ie., 31.25% + 68.75% = 100%). PIDIDIFIFZIFIIFSIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIVIGSDFFFIFFFIFDAIOTIFASIDIFTIVIIVIVIIIIIITIIITIITIFIIIFIO9 CHAPTER 1 SELF-STUDY CONCEPTS 19 EMPIRICAL AND MOLECULAR FORMULAS ‘The empirical formula represents the simplest ratio of the numbers of atoms in a molecule, For example, the empirical formula of glucose is CH,O, while the molecular formula is C,H,,O,. Note that the ratio of the atoms is 1:2:1 in both formulas, The molar mass of the molecular formula is used to determine the number of empirical “units” in the molecular formula. ‘The empirical formula for a compound can be determined from the mass percents of the atoms, as illustrated by the following example. Example 1.1.8 Determination of Empirical and Molecular Formulas ‘A compound contains 18.50% N, 2.22% H, 37.02% C, and 42.26% O by mass. What is the empirical formula? What is the molecular formula? The molar mass is, 227 g mor Solution: To find the empirical formula, the mole ratios between the elements are needed. First assume that there are 100 g of sample and find the moles of each 1h ABEe Ale RAR READ aie wre | 320 120 120 1320 From these results, one would think that the empirical formula is N, opcH, ea ses o01" but this would be incorrect because only whole numbers are allowed. While 1.000 for Nand 2.001 for 0 are already whole numbers (within experimental error), 1.668 and, 2.335 are too far from their nearest whole numbers to be valid, To correct this, do not round up to the nearest whole number; rether, multiply the ratios by a common factor until they are all whole numbers. Multiplying the ratios by 2 would result in N, gagH,ss.Cx Osos Which is still un acceptable. However, multiplying the ratios by 3 results in N,H,C,0,, the correct empirical formula.CHAPTER 1 SELF-STUDY CONCEPTS 1-10 What isthe molecular formula of the compound? The molecular formula must have an integral number of empirical formula “units.” Since the molar mass of the empirical formula is 227 g mot, and this is the molar mass of the compound, the molecular formula of the compound in this case is simply the empirical formula (i.e, it contains one empirical formula unit) ie ON ZC. NO, ‘eo? Noo Il H-ONo oN | No, trinitrotoluene (TNT) MOLE FRACTION AND MOLE PERCENT ‘Two other terms are often used in chemistry to describe mole amounts, and these are mole fraction and mole percent, They are related as follows: amber of moles of one species Mole fraction = “oral number of mo number of moles of one species total number of moles Mole percent = x 100% ‘The sum of the mole fractions of all species involved must be 1, and the sum of the mole percents of all species involved must be 100%. The symbol X is used with a subscript of the element or compound to represent mole fractions. Example 1.1.9 Determining Mote Fraction and Mole Percent Determine the mole fraction and mole percent of carbon in glucose (C,H,,0,). = x =fumberofmolesofC ____6moles__ Mole fraction C = X. = totainumber of moles ~ {6+ 12 + 6)moles ~ 0-25 Mole % C = mole fraction x 100% = 0.25 x 100% = 25% IJIIIIIJIIIIIIIIIIIIIIQIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIGDFFFITFFITFFTAGTFHSIFAGIFIADIFITSITITFIVIVITITIIFIIIIIIGI9G CHAPTER 1 SELF-STUDY CONCEPTS Lu Determine the mole fraction and mole percent of NaCi and NaNO, in a mixture of 0.2356 moles of NaCl and 0.3564 moles of NaNO, x molesofNaCl______0.2356mol___ ‘sci = Yotalnumber of moles ~ 10,2359 + 0.3564)mol .3980 molesof NaNO, 0.3564mol >, ~ Totalnumber of moles ~ (0.2359 + 0.356a)mar ~ 6017 Xe, mole % NaCl = 39.80% mole % NaNO, = 60.17% AVERAGE MOLAR MASS OF A MIXTURE To find the average molar mass of 2 mixture, MM, use the formula MM =(X, x MM,) + (X, x MM,] + (X_x MM, ete. Where X, is the mole fraction of A, X, is the mole fraction of B, and so on. In a mixture of two components, the value of the average molar mass will be closer to the molar mass of the component present in the greater quantity. Example 1.1.10 Determining the Average Molar Mass of a Sample ‘A sample contains 0.187 mol of NaCl(s), 0.850 mol of CaCl,(s) and 1.250 mol of SiO,(s). Find the average molar mass ofthis mixture. The total number of moles present: 0.187 mol NaCl + 0.850 mol CaCl, + 1.250 mol SiO, = 2.287 mol The average molar mass is (note the use of a common denominator) (molesAx MM,) + (molesBx MM,) + (moles x Mil) 77 = KROES ASM) + moles BX MMy) + (omoles CMM) _ totalmoles __ (0.187 mol x 58.44 gmol") + (0.850 mol x 110.98 gmol") + (1.250mol x 60.08 gol") 7 "7 mol = 78.86 g mol! 378.9 g molCHAPTER 1 SELF-STUDY CONCEPTS Laz Practice Problems 1. What is an isotope? 2. How many protons, neutrons, and electrons are there in Ba-135? 3. Accharged atomic species has 12 neutrons and 10 electrons. What is its correct symbol if itis a cation with a charge of +1? 4, Natural gallium contains two isotopes, 60.4% is the isotope Ga, the molar mass is 68.926 g mol", Using the (average) atomic mass of Ga from the pe~ riodic table, determine the mass number of the other gallium isorope. 5. A certain amount of a compound has a mass of 14.44 g and is found to con- tain 0.1256 moles. What is the molar mass of the compound? 6. Decermine the following: a, The number of moles of C atoms in 3.20 moles of C,H,O. b. The number of molecules in 3.20 moles of C,H,O. c. The number of C atoms and the total number of atoms in 3.20 moles of CHO. d, The number of molecules of C,H,O required to have 135 atoms in total. €. The mass percent of C and O in the molecule, f, The mole fraction of each atom in the molecule. 7. Ina particular mixture of SiO, and NaCl, determine the mass percent of SiO, given there are 0.235 moles of SiO, and 0.358 moles of NaCl in the mixture. Find the mole percent for each species. 8. Find the empirical formula for a compound « following mass percents: C = 44.77%, H= taining C, H, and O given the 2%, and O = 47.71% 9. A compound has the mass composition: C = 53.31%; H = 11.19% 0=35.51%. Find its empirical (simplest) formula, Another experiment shows the molar mass to be 90 + 4 g mol. Determine the molecular formula and the molar mass of the compound. 3IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIDFFFFFFFFDFFAFIGFIVAVITADFIITITIIIIVIFITIIIIIFIO99 CHAPTER 1 SELF-STUDY CONCEPTS 113 10. A compound containing only carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen is found to consist of 55.12% C and 12.72% H by mass. If the molar mass of the com- pound is found by experiment to be 87 #2 g mol", what is the molecular formula of the compound? 11. How many geams of magnes am sulfare, MgSO, could be produced from 1.00 x 10" molecules of oxygen and stoichiometric amounts of magnesium and sulfur? 12. A.compound with the formula C,H,,O, is known to contain 10.06% H by mass. What is the value of x in the formula? 13. How many atoms of Os are there in 1.0 x 10° g of OsO,? 14. What is the mole fraction of Ne in a mixture containing equal masses of Ne and Ar? 15. The abundance of "C in naturally occurring carbon is 1.11% by mole. How many moles of "Care present in 5.00 moles of C,H,,? 16. What is the element, M, in a compound, M,O,, that is 30.0% by mass O? 17. The common analgesic acetaminophen (the active ingredient in Tylenol®) has the formula C,H,NO,, One extra strength tablet contains 500 mg of acetaminophen, Determine the number of moles and molecules of acetaminophen in each tablet. b. On the assumption chat an average human adult contains 10 eillion cells, and that each cell accepts the same number of acetaminophen molecules, determine the number of acetaminophen molecules each human cell ac- cepts from one extra strength tablet. 18. Boron has two naturally occurring isotopes: '°B, atomic mass 10.0129 amu and "'B, atomic mass 11.0093 amu, What is the percent abundance of the isotope "B? 19. How many grams of iron, Fe, are there in a 65.2 g sample of rust, FCHAPTER 1 SELF-STUDY CONCEPTS 11d NOTES PIDIDIFIIIIVIIFIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIDIFFIFFFFIFFVIFITIFITIIITIVFIFIVIIIIITIIIFIIGG99 CHAPTER 1 SELF-STUDY CONCEPTS 1-15 1.2 SOLUTIONS Introduction Solutions are homogeneous mixtures of two or more substances. The substance dissolved is called a solute, whereas the dissolving substance is called a solvent. Usually, che solute isa solid (e.g., NaCl) and the solvent isa liquid (e.g., water), but other combinations (e.g., solution of one liquid in another) are also possible. Molarity There are several ways of expressing the concentration of a solution. The most common type of concentration is molarity, defined as the number of moles of solute in one litre of the solution. The symbol used for molarity is M. Note that when calculating molarity, the volume must always be in litres (L): amount of solute(in moles) volume of solution (in litres) °* Molarity = Mat The volume of a solution is affected by temperature, so molarity may change if the temperature is changed. Furthermore, when solutions are mixed, volumes may not be additive (e.g., mixing two 50 mL. solutions may not result in a 100 ‘ml solution). Example 1.2.1 Molarity of a CuSO, Solution What is the molarity of a 350 mL. solution containing 25.00 g of CuSO,*5H,0? Solution: First find the moles, then the molarity:CHAPTER 1 SELF-STUDY CONCEPTS 1-16 Example 1.2.2 Molarty of an HCI Solution A solution of HC! has a concentration of 1.258 mol L, What volume of this solution contains 0.258 mol of HCI? Solution: Rearrange the formula for molarity and substitute the values: 0.258mol 258molLT = 0-205. vee Note that 1 L of this solution contains 1.258 mol of HCI. Dilution of a Solution Dilation isthe process of reducing the concentration of a solution, either by adding the solvent or by adding another solution. When a solution is diluted with the solvent or mixed with a solution of another substance, the number of moles of solute does not change, provided that no chemical reaction takes plac For the purposes of this course, you can safely assume that the volumes of mixed solutions are additive, that is, the total volume of a mixture of two or more solu- tions is equal to the sum of the volumes of the solutions combined. (In reality, this is true only approximately.) ‘When the number of moles of solute does not change during dilution, the molatity of the resulting solution may be calculated as : amount of solute (in moles) Molarity = [rat volume of resulting solution (in Titres) A useful relation between the molarities of the starting and diluted solutions in that case is M,V,=M,V, {'his equation simply expresses the fact that the amount of solute betore and after the dilution with a solvent (or with a solution of another nonreactive substance) is the same, Obviously, this equation does not hold if the solution is diluted with another solution of the same substance or when the solute is reacted. IPIDIDIZIZIVZIZDIVFIVIIIIIFIIIZIVIZIIIIIIIIIVIIIIIIIISIDFFFFFIITFIFIFFIITITIITITFITIIIIIFIFIVIIIFIIIIIG99 CHAPTER 1 SELF-STUDY CONCEPTS 17 Density of a Solution Density of a solution is defined as the mass of a unit volume of the solution: = _massof solution Density = Yolume of solution Density is often expressed in units of g mL". Although there are at least wo components in every solution, the solute and the solvent, the density of a solution always refers to the entire solution, not just to one of its components. Consider, for example, an aqueous solution that contains 70.0% HNO, by mass and has a density of 1.42 g mL", The solution is 70.0% HNO, by mass. Therefore, in 100.0 g of the solu- tion, there are 70.0 g of INO, and 30.0 g of water. ‘The density of the solution is 1.42 g mL", Therefore, 1.00 mL. of the solu- tion has a mass of 1.42 g. What is the volume of 100.0 g of this nitric acid solution? The density value tells us that 1.00 mL has a mass of 1.42 g, so the volume of the solution can be calculated. From the definition of density we have mass of solution. volume of solution = 552i 50% Therefore, in this case volume = 747 gmb* ~ Using this information, we can calculate the molarity of the HNO, solution. We know that 100.0 g of the solution contains 70.0 g of nitric acid, so the number of moles of HNO, present is: 1.1108 mol ‘The 1.1108 moles of nitric acid are contained in 70.42 mL of solution, so the molarity of the solution is: 1108 mol Molarity of HNOCHAPTER 1 SELF-STUDY CONCEPTS 1-18 Parts Per Million and Parts Per Billion Another method of expressing concentration involves only the masses of the solute and the solvent, Parts per million (ppm) is defined as ratio of the mass of solute to the mass of solution expressed in the same units and multiplied by one million (10°): mass ofsolure_ 196 Pm = “mass of solution * 1 ‘The term ppm is generally used when the mass of the solute is very small relative to the mass of the solution. In certain instances, ppm concentration is used when dealing with solids. For example, the amount of iron in an iron pls listed in ppm. ‘The term ppm also can be used to describe mixtures of gases. For example, the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is often stated in terms of ppm. Example 1.2.3 ppm of a CuSO, Solution Find the ppm of copper sulfate in a solution prepared from 0.200 g of CuSO, and 350 mL of water. Assume the density of the water is 1.00 g ml Solution: Using the density to find the mass of the water yields 360 g. The total mass of the solution (water plus copper sulfate) must be: 350 g + 0.200 g= 350.2 pom = Sez 98 x 10° = 571ppm Parts per billion (ppb) is a concentration term similar to ppm. It is defined as mass of solute ppb = Grass of solution 10” where both masses must be expressed in the same units, The term ppb is used for describing very low concentrations of solute, PIDIDIDZIFZIIIIIZIIIIIIIIIIZIZIIZIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII’aDFTIIFIIVITIFITITIITFIIIIITFIIIIIIIIFTIFIIVIGG99 CHAPTER 1 SELF-STUDY CONCEPTS 1-19 Practice Problems 1. Find the molarity of a solution made by taking 0.358 g of NaOH and dis- solving it to a volume of 250 mL. What volume of this solution is required to provide 0.560 moles of NaOH? 2. 45.00 mL of 1.25 M HClis diluted to a volume of 150 mL. What is the con centration of the solution, in mol L~', after dilution? 3. An aqueous solution of NaCl is 350 ppm. What is the mass of NaCl in 1.00 L of the solution? Assume the density of the solution is 1.00 g mL". 4, Determine the ppm of K* ions in an aqueous solution, given that there are (0.300 g of KCl in 1.50 L of solution, Assume that the density of the solution is 1.00 g mL 5. Concentrated HCl is 37% HCI by weight and has a density of 1.19 g mL! What is the molarity of HCI?CHAPTER 1 SELF-STUDY CONCEPTS: 1-20 PIZFIDIIFIZIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIGDIFFFFITIFDIIDFIIFIIIFFIVIFIIIIIFIFIIIIIIIIFGOGSD CHAPTER 1 SELF-STUDY CONCEPTS 1-21 1.3 REACTION STOICHIOMETRY Introduction A chemical reaction is a process in which one set of substances, called reactants, is converted to a new set of substances, called products. In a chemical equation, the reactants are written on the left side, followed by an arrow, and the products, are written on the right side, as follows: Reactants > Products Unlike nuclear processes, chemical reactions obey the law of conservation of mass, which states: ‘The combined mass of the reactants equals the combined mass of the products. All the atomis present at the start of a reaction must be present when the reaction is complete. Therefore, an equation for a chemical reaction must be balanced so that the number of atoms of each element on the left-hand side of the equation, is the same as on the right-hand side, The reaction between propane and oxygen isan example of a combustion reaction. ‘The two equations below show the reaction in an unbalanced and balanced form. CH(g) + O,{g) > CO,(g) + H,0(1) unbalanced 1C,H,(g) + 50,(g) > 3CO,(g) + 4H,0(1) balanced ‘The balanced equation shows that propane and oxygen reactin a 1:5 ratio produc- ing carbon dioxide and water in a 3:4 ratio. These ratios are called the mole ratios. Chemical equations are balanced by placing numbers (multipliers) in front of each species. These numbers are referred to as stoichiometric coefficients. (The Greek word stoicheion means element, so stoichiometry literally means “the measurement of elements.”) In the balanced equation above, one molecule of propane (C,H,) reacts with five oxygen molecules to produce three carbon dioxide molecules. Another way to express this is to say that one mole of propane reacts with five moles of oxygen to produce three moles of carbon dioxide and four moles of water.CHAPTER 1 SELF-STUDY CONCEPTS: 1-22 When balancing a chemical equation, follow these three basic rules: 1. The equation must include only the reactants and products known to par- ticipate in the reaction. 2. The equation for the reaction may be balanced only by adjusting the stoi- chiometric coefficients. (Fractional coefficients may be used but integer values are preferred.) 3. Never balance an equation by changing the formula of the substances involved. Percent Yield Given the amounts of reagents used in a reaction, one can always calculate the expected amounts of products. This calculated amount is called the theoretical ‘yield. Theoretical yield gives the amount of product that would be produced if the reaction went perfectly and the product were collected without any loss. Since perfection is rarely achieved in practice, the actual amount of product is usually smaller than the theoretical yield. When a reaction is carried out, the amount of product collected is called the actual yield. The ratio of the actual yield to the theoretical yield is called the percent yield. actual yield theoretical yield where the actual and theoretical yields must be expressed in the same units (either moles or masses). Percent yield x 100% Example 1.3.1 Determining Percent Yield 0.360 g of propane, C.H,, is reacted with excess oxygen to form CO, and H,0. Find the maximum mass of carbon dioxide that can be formed. If the actual yield is (0.95 g, find the percent yield, Solution: The balanced equation for the reaction is: C.H,(g) + 50,(8) > 3C0,(g) + 44,011) [As soon as all the propane reacts, the reaction stops. Therefore, the amount of pro- pane must be used to determine the amount of carbon dioxide produced. The mole ratio between propane and carbon dioxide is 1:3. First, find the amount of propane: JI IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIDIFFFFIFIFFIFVITVDIVDIFITFGIIIIIIFIIIFIIITIIIIGG999 CHAPTER 1 SELF-STUDY CONCEPTS 1-23 0.3608 44. Gagmor = 0-00816molesC,H, Now use the mole ratio to determine the amount of carbon dioxide produce. A{CO,) = 3 x n{C,H,) = 3 x 0.00816 mol = 0.0245 mol Mass of carbon dioxide: nXCO,) = n(CO,) x MM = 0.0245 mol x 44.01 g mol” = 1.08 g. ‘The theoretical yield of CO. (g) is 0.0245 mol or 1.08 g. The percent yield is: 75g x 100% = 88.0% Limiting Reagent ‘The limiting reagent in a chemical reaction is the reagent whose amount (number ‘of moles) is insutficient to react completely with all other reagents, as determined by the stoichiometry of the reaction. Once the limiting reagent is consumed, the reaction stops even it other (excess) reagents may still be available. The number of moles of the limiting reagent determines the maximum amount of product that can be produced. To determine the limiting reagent, you may use the following algorithm. 1. Write out the balanced equation for the reaction 2. Calculate the number of moles of each reagent. 3. Divide the number of moles of each reagent by the corresponding stoichio- metric coefficient, 4. Compare the quotients from Step 3. The reagent with the smallest quotient is the LR, Example 1.3.2 Determining the Limiting Reagent (0.82 mol of HCI is reacted with 0.57 mol of NaOH to form H,0 and NaCl. Which is the limiting reagent (LR)? How many moles of the salt are made? How many moles of the excess reagent are left?CHAPTER 1 SELF-STUDY CONCEPTS 1-24 Solution: The balanced equation is Holtaq) + NaOH(aq) —> NaCltaq) + H,0() ‘Amount of the reagents: AHCI) = 0.82 mol 1{NaOH) = 0.57 mol Quotients: auch = 282.082 neon) = 282.2057 Hence, the LR is NaOH. The number of moles of NaCl produced: (NaCl) = n(NaOH) = 0.57 mol The number of moles of the excess reagent (HCI) left: (HCN = 0.82 ~ 0.57 = 0.25 mal Example 1.3.3 Determining the 0.613 moles of C,H,Cl(g) and 1.88 moles of O,(g) are reacted. Find the LR and the moles of CO, produced, Solution: Reagent in a More Complicated Reaction The balanced equation is: 20,H,Clig) + 50,(@) > 4C0,(g) + 2H,0(g) + 2HCICg) The number of moles ofthe reagents: HACH,CD = 1{0,) = 1.88 mol .6.13 mol 3I3IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIISITDIFVDFIFIIIVFIIAIIFIIIFIIITIIIIFIIITIFIIFITIIIIGOS CHAPTER 1 SELF-STUDY CONCEPTS 1.25 uotients: a¢,H.e0 = 9833 -0,3065 qo) = 188 -0.376 Thtefore,the LR C.C1. The theoretical eld of CO, is nico.) = 4x 6,400 = 40.613 mol = 1.226 mol - 1.23 mol ound)CHAPTER 1. SELF-STUDY CONCEPTS 1-26 Practice Problems 1, Disulfur dichloride is prepared by direct reaction of the elements: S,(s) +4Cl(g) > 48,C1,0) What is the maximum mass (in grams) of $,Cl, that could be made by the reaction of $4.0 g of sulfur with 132 g of chlorine? What quantity of which reagent would remain unreacted? 2. Phosphorus trichloride reacts with water according to the stoichiometry: PCI, + 3H,0 > H,PO, + 3HCL A 200 g sample of PCI, was reacted with excess water and 120 g of HCL was isolated. What was the percent yield of HCI in this experiment? 3. Dinitrogen pentoxide is made by the reaction: 4HNO, + PO, > 2N,0, + 4HPO, 15.1 g oF P,O,, is heated with 10.7 g of HNO,. a. What is the maximum mass (in grams) of N,O, that could be formed? b. Ionly 1.96 g ofN,O, is obtained, what isthe percent yield in the reaction? 4. Ethyne, C,H, burns in O, to form CO, and H,O. What is the maximum mass (ingrams) of CO, that can be obtained from 5.00 g of C,H, and 15.0 g of O,? 5. Copper metal (Cu) can be prepared by heating together Cu,S and Cu,0, according to the following equation: 2Cu,0 + Cu,S > 6 Cu +80, What is the maximum mass of copper metal (in grams) that can be ob- tained from 100 g of Cu,O and 100 g of Cu,S? 6. A mixture of CaCl, and CaO is known to contain 55.0% CaCl, by mass What is the maximum mass (in grams) of CaCO, that could be produced by the reaction of 80.0 g of this mixture with 40.0 g of CO,? The reaction is: CaO + CO, > Caco, PIDIZDIDZIZIZIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIG