EARTH AS A SYSTEM

The first time people got a glimpse of the whole Earth was December 1968. Apollo 8 astronauts took pictures of the Earth as they traveled to and
from the Moon.  In their photographs, the Earth looks like a small blue and white marble in a sea of black space.  Looking at the planet from that far
away makes it easy to see that all its parts - the living things, the air, the water, the ice, and therocks - are connected.  Everything on Earth is in the
same boat floating through space - a system.

Since the 1980s, NASA scientists have been studying the Earth as they study other planets - mainly from above with satellites. Based on this way of
looking at Earth, they developed the idea of Earth system science.  

"From space we can view the Earth as a whole system, observe the net results of complex interactions, and begin to understand how the planet is
changing in response to natural and human influences," NASA explained in a 2003 report.

There are five parts of the Earth system. Each part has its own collection of materials and processes. However, the parts of the Earth system do not
operate on their own.  They all interact with other parts in many ways.
 The atmosphere extends up from the Earth surface for several hundred kilometers. The lowest part is home to clouds and weather.
 The biosphere is all living things, from single-celled bacteria to plants and animals.
 The geosphere includes all minerals, rocks, molten rock, sediments, and soils (although there are important living components to soils as
well).
 The hydrosphere includes the ocean, rivers, lakes, streams, groundwater, water vapor, and even puddles.
 The cryosphere is the frozen part of the Earth system and includes snow, glaciers, and sea ice.

The Sun has a large impact on the Earth and so it is also considered a part of the Earth system. Almost all the energy on Earth comes from the Sun.  
The factors outside the planet, like the Sun and solar system, which have an impact on the Earth system, are sometimes called the Exosphere.

Earth's Atmosphere

The atmosphere is a mixture of nitrogen (78%), oxygen (21%), and other gases (1%) that surrounds Earth. High above the planet, the atmosphere
becomes thinner until it gradually reaches space. It is divided into five layers. Most of the weather and clouds are found in the first layer.

The atmosphere is an important part of what makes Earth livable. It blocks some of the Sun's dangerous rays from reaching Earth. It traps heat,
making Earth a comfortable temperature. And the oxygen within our atmosphere is essential for life.

Over the past century, greenhouse gases and other air pollutants released into the atmosphere have been causing big changes like global
warming, ozone holes, and acid rain.

The Earth's Biosphere

The biosphere is all life on our planet. This includes all the things that are living as well as the remains of those that have died but have not yet
decomposed. The biosphere includes life on land and in the oceans - multitudes of plants, animals, fungi,protists, and bacteria.

Have you heard the expression “carbon-based life forms”? The living things on our planet are called carbon-based because most of the molecules in
them are chains of carbon atoms linked together. These carbon chains really add up when you consider the total amount of life on the planet. Add
it all up and the life on our planet contains approximately 1900 gigatons of carbon. That’s heavier than 116 billion school buses!

The biosphere has a great impact on theclimate because the biosphere is closely connected to the atmosphere. When plants harness the Sun’s
energy throughphotosynthesis, oxygen is released into the atmosphere and carbon dioxide is taken out. When plants and animals respire, carbon
dioxide gas is added to the atmosphere and oxygen is taken out. Microbes living in soils can add nitrous oxide gas to the atmosphere. As humans
burn components of the biosphere such as fossil fuels, forests and fields, greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide and nitrous oxide are released
into the atmosphere.
Geology

Geology means, literally, the study of the Earth. Explore this section to understand the structure of the Earth and its surface features, what causes
earthquakes and tsunamis, and why volcanoes form and erupt. Learn about minerals, which form the building blocks of rocks, and how rocks are
made and destroyed. Learn about Earth’s fascinating history, the variety of life forms which have roamed the surface over the millennia, and the
dramatic changes that have happened over Earth’s long history.

Water
Water is found in many places on Earth including on the surface of the planet, within rocks below the surface, and in the atmosphere.  Water
travels between different areas of the Earth through the water cycle. About 70% of the Earth surface is covered with water, and most of that is
the ocean. Only a small portion of the Earth's water is freshwater, which is found in rivers, lakes, and groundwater. Freshwater is needed for
drinking, farming, and washing. In addition to liquid water, water is also present on Earth in the form of ice. Without water, life as we know it
would not exist.

The Cryosphere
Frozen water is found in many different places on Earth.Snow blankets the ground at mid and high latitudes during winter. Sea
ice and icebergs float in the chilly waters of polar oceans. Ice shelves fringe lands inEarth’s polar regions. Glaciers and larger ice sheetsmove slowly
over land in polar regions. Glaciers are also found on high mountaintops around the world. The soils of polar regions, called permafrost, are filled
with frozen water. Together, these different types of frozen water are known as the Earth’s cryosphere. Approximately three-quarters of the
world’s fresh water is frozen in the cryosphere.
Some parts of the cryosphere, such as snow and the ice on ponds and lakes in mid-latitude locations, are only around during winter months. Other
parts of the cryosphere, such as glaciers and ice sheets, stay frozen year-round and, in fact, can stay that way for tens of thousands or even
hundreds of thousands of years. Some of the ice in the ice sheet that covers most of the continent of Antarctica has been there for nearly a million
years.

The cryosphere is tied to the other parts of the Earth system.

o Because snow and ice are light in color, they reflect more of the Sun’s energy back into space. When snow and ice melt, darker ocean and
land are exposed. The darker colors absorb and then radiate more of the Sun’s energy, warming the atmosphere.
o When ice and snow melt, the water becomes part of the hydrosphere. For example, in the state of Washington in the western United
States, melting snow and glaciers during summer provide 470 billion gallons of water each summer. The amount of snow and ice that melts
each summer is increasing because of global warming.
o Many different living organisms within the biosphere rely on parts of the cryosphere for water and habitat. Polar bears roam across Arctic
sea ice as they hunt for seals. Arctic cod take shelter in areas underneath the sea ice. Some penguins rely on ice during their breeding season.
Snow and ice that melt seasonally, provides the freshwater that many different plants and animals need to survive.
o Glaciers and ice sheets shape the land surface. They erode rocks of the geosphere as the ice moves slowly across the land and then the
eroded sediments are deposited in other places. In the tundra ecosystem, soils stiff with ice, called permafrost, sequester greenhouse gases
from the atmosphere.

Everything in Earth's system can be placed into one of four major subsystems: land, water, living things, or air. These four subsystems are called
"spheres." Specifically, they are the "lithosphere" (land), "hydrosphere" (water), "biosphere" (living things), and "atmosphere" (air). Each of these
four spheres can be further divided into sub-spheres. To keep things simple in this module, there will be no distinction among the sub-spheres of
any of the four major spheres. 

Lithosphere
The lithosphere contains all of the cold, hard solid land of the planet's crust (surface), the semi-solid land underneath the crust, and the liquid land
near the center of the planet. *The surface of the lithosphere is very uneven (see image at right). There are high mountain ranges like the Rockies
and Andes (shown in red), huge plains or flat areas like those in Texas, Iowa, and Brazil (shown in green), and deep valleys along the ocean floor
(shown in blue). 

The solid, semi-solid, and liquid land of the lithosphere form layers that are physically and chemically different. If someone were to cut through
Earth to its center, these layers would be revealed like the layers of an onion (see image above). The outermost layer of the lithosphere consists of
loose soil rich in nutrients, oxygen, and silicon. Beneath that layer lies a very thin, solid crust of oxygen and silicon. Next is a thick, semi-solid mantle
of oxygen, silicon, iron, and magnesium. Below that is a liquid outer core of nickel and iron. At the center of Earth is a solid inner core of nickel and
iron.

*Note: The word "lithosphere" can take on different meanings depending on the speaker and the audience. For example, many geologists--
scientists who study the geologic formations of Earth--reserve the word "lithosphere" to mean only the cold, hard surface of Earth, not the entire
inside of the planet. For the purpose of this module, however, there will be no distinction among the various layers of land. The word "lithosphere"
will be used in reference to all land in Earth's system. 

Hydrosphere
The hydrosphere contains all the solid, liquid, and gaseous water of the planet. **It ranges from 10 to 20 kilometers in thickness. The hydrosphere
extends from Earth's surface downward several kilometers into the lithosphere and upward about 12 kilometers into the atmosphere. 

A small portion of the water in the hydrosphere is fresh (non-salty). This water flows as precipitation from the atmosphere down to Earth's surface,
as rivers and streams along Earth's surface, and as groundwater beneath Earth's surface. Most of Earth's fresh water, however, is frozen. 

Ninety-seven percent of Earth's water is salty. The salty water collects in deep valleys along Earth's surface. These large collections of salty water
are referred to as oceans. The image above depicts the different temperatures one would find on oceans' surfaces. Water near the poles is very
cold (shown in dark purple), while water near the equator is very warm (shown in light blue). The differences in temperature cause water to change
physical states. Extremely low temperatures like those found at the poles cause water to freeze into a solid such as a polar icecap, a glacier, or an
iceberg. Extremely high temperatures like those found at the equator cause water to evaporate into a gas. 

**Note: Some scientists place frozen water--glaciers, icecaps, and icebergs--in its own sphere called the "cryosphere." For the purpose of this
module, however, frozen water will be included as part of the hydrosphere. The word "hydrosphere" will be used in reference to all water in
Earth's system. 

Biosphere
The biosphere contains all the planet's living things. ***This sphere includes all of the microorganisms, plants, and animals of Earth. 

Within the biosphere, living things form ecological communities based on the physical surroundings of an area. These communities are referred to
as biomes. Deserts, grasslands, and tropical rainforests are three of the many types of biomes that exist within the biosphere. 

It is impossible to detect from space each individual organism within the biosphere. However, biomes can be seen from space. For example, the
image above distinguishes between lands covered with plants (shown in shades of green) and those that are not (shown in brown). 

***Note: Some scientists place humans in their own sphere called the "anthrosphere." For the purpose of this module, however, humans will be
included as part of the biosphere. The word "biosphere" will be used in reference to all living things in Earth's system. 

Atmosphere
The atmosphere contains all the air in Earth's system. ****It extends from less than 1 m below the planet's surface to more than 10,000 km above
the planet's surface. The upper portion of the atmosphere protects the organisms of the biosphere from the sun's ultraviolet radiation. It also
absorbs and emits heat. When air temperature in the lower portion of this sphere changes, weather occurs. As air in the lower atmosphere is
heated or cooled, it moves around the planet. The result can be as simple as a breeze or as complex as a tornado. 

****Note: The atmosphere is made up of many layers that differ in chemical composition and temperature. For the purpose of this module,
however, we will not differentiate among the layers of the atmosphere. The word "atmosphere" will be used in reference to all of the layers.
THE STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH
Most of what we know about the interior of the Earth comes from the study of seismic waves from earthquakes. Seismic waves from large
earthquakes pass throughout the Earth.
These waves contain vital information about the internal structure of the Earth. As seismic waves pass through the Earth, they are refracted, or
bent, like rays of light bend when they pass through a glass prism.
Because the speed of the seismic waves depends on density, we can use the travel-time of seismic waves to map change in density with depth, and
show that the Earth is composed of several layers.
The crust
This brittle outermost layer varies in thickness from 25 to 60 km under continents, and from 4 to 6 km under the oceans. Continental crust is quite
complex in structure and is made from many different kinds of rocks.
The mantle
Below the crust lies the dense mantle, extending to a depth of 2890 km. It consists of dense silicate rocks. Both P- and S-waves from earthquakes
travel through the mantle, demonstrating that it is solid.
However, there is separate evidence that parts of  the mantle behaves as a fluid over very long geological times scales, with rocks flowing slowly in
giant convection cells.
The core
At a depth of 2890 km is the boundary between the mantle and the Earth's core. The core is composed of iron and we know that it exists because it
refracts seismic waves creating a 'shadow zone' at distances between 103º and 143º (see above diagram).
We also know that the outer part of the core is liquid, because S-waves do not pass through it.

THREE PARTS OF EARTH’S INTERIOR

A knowledge of earth's interior is essential for understanding plate tectonics. A good analogy for teaching about earth's interior is a piece of fruit
with a large pit such as a peach or a plum. Most students are familiar with these fruits and have seen them cut in half. In addition the size of the
features are very similar. 

If we cut a piece of fruit in half we will see that it is composed of three parts: 1) a very thin skin, 2) a seed of significant size located in the center,
and 3) most of the mass of the fruit being contained within the flesh. Cutting the earth we would see: 1) a very thin crust on the outside, 2) a core
of significant size in the center, and 3) most of the mass of the Earth contained in the mantle.

EARTH’S CRUST

There are two different types of crust: thin oceanic crust that underlies the
ocean basins and thicker continental crust that underlies the continents.
These two different types of crust are made up of different types of rock. The
thin oceanic crust is composed of primarily of basalt and the thicker  
continental crust is composed primarily of granite. The low density of the
thick continental crust allows it to "float" in high relief on the much higher
density mantle below.

EARTH’S MANTLE
Earth's mantle is thought to be composed mainly of olivine-rich rock. It has
different temperatures at different depths. The temperature is lowest
immediately beneath the crust and increases with depth. The highest
temperatures occur where the mantle material is in contact with the heat-
producing core. This steady increase of temperature with depth is known as
the geothermal gradient. The geothermal gradient is responsible for different
rock behaviors and the different rock behaviors are used to divide the mantle  
into two different zones. Rocks in the upper mantle are cool and brittle, while
rocks in the lower mantle are hot and soft (but not molten). Rocks in the
upper mantle are brittle enough to break under stress and produce
earthquakes. However, rocks in the lower mantle are soft and flow when
subjected to forces instead of breaking. The lower limit of brittle behavior is
the boundary between the upper and lower mantle.

EARTH’S CORE
Earth's Core is thought to be composed mainly of an iron and nickel alloy.
This composition is assumed based upon calculations of its density and upon
the fact that many meteorites (which are thought to be portions of the
interior of a planetary body) are iron-nickel alloys. The core is earth's source
of internal heat because it contains radioactive materials which release heat
as they break down into more stable substances. 
 
The core is divided into two different zones. The outer core is a liquid because
the temperatures there are adequate to melt the iron-nickel alloy. However,
the inner core is a solid even though its temperature is higher than the outer
core. Here, tremendous pressure, produced by the weight of the overlying
rocks is strong enough to crowd the atoms tightly together and prevents the
liquid state.