CHAPTER VIII

TRANSPORTATION
AND ITS ENVIRONMENT
A. Caroline Sutandi
Civil Engineering Department
Parahyangan Catholic University
2021
INTRODUCTION [4, 5, 6, 7]

Energy is the source and control of all

things, all value, and all actions of
human beings and nature .
(odum and odum, 1976)

However, we are at the beginning of an

energy crisis for example petroleum is
non renewable.
ENERGY ISSUES IN TRANSPORTATION

Urban spatial structure refers to the order

and relationship among physical
elements (health, safety, convenience,
environmental quality, social equity) and land
uses (have to be most efficient and least
costly) in urban and regional areas.

Energy efficiency (cost efficiency) and a

part of energy problem that has long
range implication to environment.
ENERGY ISSUES IN TRANSPORTATION

Energy demand consists of:

• Industrial (53%): process steam, direct

combustion systems, motors, lighting,
electrolysis, electrical heating;

• Transportation (23%): urban auto

mobile, truck freight, automobile,
intercity airplane, military;
ENERGY ISSUES IN TRANSPORTATION

• Residential (14%): space heating,

water heating, cooking, AC;

• Commercial (10%): space heating, AC,

refrigeration, water heating.
ENERGY ISSUES IN TRANSPORTATION

Production and consumption of energy:

 Hydro: electricity.
 Nuclear: electricity.
 Coal: electricity.
 Natural gas: electricity, fuel.
 Petroleum: electricity, fuel.
ENERGY CONSERVATION [4, 5, 6, 7]

Conservation of energy used for

transportation is vital concern.

There are at least three basic strategies

for meeting energy needs:
 Develop new sources of energy;
 Reduce energy waste;
 Adopt new life-styles that use less
energy.
ENERGY CONSERVATION [4, 5, 6, 7]

The alternatives for reducing

transportation energy consumption:

1. Shift traffic to more efficient modes:

bus, rail;
2. Increase the load factor: car pooling;
3. Reduce the demand: land use and
urban planning, telecommunication,
more efficient trip planning;
ENERGY CONSERVATION [4, 5, 6, 7]

4. Increase the energy conservation:

smaller cars, reduce drag, reduce
accessory load, more efficient
engines, better maintenance, hybrid
drives;
5. Improve the use pattern: traffic control,
better driving techniques, air
congestion.
ENERGY CONSERVATION [4, 5, 6, 7]

Summary of highway energy

conservation strategies:

 Vehicle technology improvements:

reduce weight, reduce drag, improve
transmission;
 Ride sharing: employer programs,
HOV incentives;
ENERGY CONSERVATION [4, 5, 6, 7]

 Traffic flow improvements: advance

traffic signal, one-way street,
intersection widening, ramp metering,
freeway surveillance and control;
 Goods movement efficiency
improvement: truck deregulation;
 Transit improvements: improved
routing and scheduling, vehicle
rehabilitation, fare reduction;
ENERGY CONSERVATION [4, 5, 6, 7]

 Construction and maintenance:

improved highway maintenance,
pavement rehabilitation;
 Improved driving habits and
vehicle maintenance: higher tire
inflation, improved maintenance, travel
planning trip linking;
 Pricing: gas tax, parking fees, road
pricing, vehicle registration.
LAND USE PATTERNS [4, 5, 6, 7]

Land use plans provide a pattern or

arrangement of land uses which are
adopted by a city to achieve the goals
and objectives of the city

The cost of public services such as

transportation, water supply, sewers,
telephones, gas, electricity is almost
directly dependent on land form.
LAND USE PATTERNS [4, 5, 6, 7]

Urban shapes:

Grid Pure linier

Polynucleated Cruciform
THE COST EFFECTIVENESS [4, 5, 6, 7]

The cost effectiveness actions in urban

transportation is highly variable.
There is need to improve traffic
operations to reduce congestion without
building new freeway-type facilities.

Transportation policy, land use planning,

and improve accessibility, can reduce
environmental damage.
FUEL CONSUMPTION MODELS
[Sutandi, 2007; OECD, 1985]

Fuel consumption models are

mathematical relationships giving fuel
consumption as a function of other
measurable or calculable quantities that
are usually aggregated over the portion
of the transportation system being
analysed (vehicle-miles travelled, number of
stops per unit of time, total vehicular delay
per unit of time, average speed)
FUEL CONSUMPTION MODELS
[Sutandi, 2007; OECD, 1985]

Drive Mode Elemental Model

The model is made up of the elements

that contribute to fuel consumption while
driving (fuel used in cruising, idling,
accelerating).

The simplest form of the model is:

FUEL CONSUMPTION MODELS
[Sutandi, 2007; OECD, 1985]

G = f1L + f2D + f3S

G = fuel consumed per veh over a measured distance (total

section distance)
L = total distance section traveled
D = stop delay per veh (time spent in idling)
S = number of stops
f1 = fuel consumption rate per unit distance while cruising
f2 = fuel consumption rate per unit distance while idling
f3 = excess fuel used in decelerating to stop and
accelerating back to cruise speed.
FUEL CONSUMPTION MODELS
[Sutandi, 2007; OECD, 1985]

Average Speed Model

The basic model relating fuel consumption to

trip time or its inverse, average speed (v), is:

Fa = c1 + c2av
Fa = fuel consumed per veh per unit distance (lt/km; gal/mi)
T = travel time per unit distance (min/km; min/mi)
a = vehicle acceleration
k1 , k2= fuel consumption parameters
FUEL CONSUMPTION MODELS
[Sutandi, 2007; OECD, 1985]

Example [Sutandi, 2007] :

A large road network area in Bandung,

Indonesia was used as a study area. Four
types of data were collected in this study
including geometric detail data, traffic demand
data, traffic control data, and fuel consumption
and pollution emission data. The observed
intersections in this research were the 90
signalised intersections connected to SCATS.
FUEL CONSUMPTION MODELS
[Sutandi, 2007; OECD, 1985]

Evaluate the impact of SCATS on fuel

consumptions and pollution emissions
in Bandung, a large city in a developing
country with specific geometric and
traffic behaviour.
AIMSUN (Advanced Interactive
Microscopic Simulator for Urban and
Non Urban Networks) is used as a
microscopic traffic simulator.
FUEL CONSUMPTION MODELS
[Sutandi, 2007; OECD, 1985]

Fa = (c1 + c2av)

dF v3
 k1 (1  3 )  k 2 v
dt 2vm

( F1  F2 )v1v 2 v m3
k1 
180(2v 2 v m3  2v1v m3  v 2 v13  v1v 23

2 F2 v 2 v m3  2 F1v1v m3  F2 v 2 v13  F1v1v 23

k2 
360(2v 2 v m3  2v1v m3  v 2 v13  v1v 23
FUEL CONSUMPTION MODELS
[Sutandi, 2007; OECD, 1985]

Fuel consumed (TSS, 2004b)

Vehicle State Fuel Consumption (ml) during t
Idling Fit
Accelerating with acceleration a (m/s/s) (c1+c2av) t
and speed v (m/s)
Cruising at speed v (m/s) v 3
(k1 (1  ( ) )  k 2 v)t
vm
Decelerating Fdt

Fi and Fd are the fuel consumption rate in ml/s for idling and
decelerating vehicle respectively and c1 and c2 are constants.
FUEL CONSUMPTION MODELS
[Sutandi, 2007; OECD, 1985]

Fuel consumption laboratory test results (Sutandi, 2007)

Vehicle State Fuel Consumption
Fuel consumption rate for idling vehicles, Fi 0.2083 ml/s
Fuel consumption rate for vehicles travelling at a 10.9 litres per 100 km
constant speed of 90 km/h, F1
Fuel consumption rate for vehicles travelling at a 11.3 litres per 100 km
constant speed of 120 km/h, F2
Speed at which the fuel consumption rate is at a 60 km/j
minimum for a vehicle cruising at constant speed,
vm
Minimum fuel consumption needed by vehicle 7.35 litres per 100 km
cruising at constant speed vm
fuel consumption rate for decelerating vehicles, 0.2083 ml/s
Fd
FUEL CONSUMPTION MODELS
[Sutandi, 2007; OECD, 1985]

Fuel consumption rate for cruising vehicle at constant speed

(Sutandi, 2007)

Speed (km/h) Fuel Consumption (lt/100 km)

10 22.22
20 21.74
30 15.63
40 8.93
50 8.62
60 7.35
70 7.35
90 10.9
120 11.3
FUEL CONSUMPTION MODELS
[Sutandi, 2007; OECD, 1985]
fuel consumption (lt/100km)

25

20

15

10

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
speed (km/h)

Fuel consumption rates for various cruise speeds

in litre per 100 km (Sutandi, 2007)
FUEL CONSUMPTION MODELS
[Sutandi, 2007; OECD, 1985]

Pollution emission rates for car (Sutandi, 2007)

Pollutant Pollution Emission (g/s)

CO 0.013
NOx 0.011
HC 0.035
FUEL CONSUMPTION MODELS
[Sutandi, 2007; OECD, 1985]

4898 4878
5000 4617
4385
4204 4070
4000
Fuel (litres)

3000

under SCATS
under Fixed
2000

1000

Morning Peak Off Peak Afternoon Peak

Fuel consumptions in Bandung road network (Sutandi, 2007)

FUEL CONSUMPTION MODELS
[Sutandi, 2007; OECD, 1985]

11278
10582
10000
Fuel (litres)

under SCATS
5000 under Fixed

2440 2751

CBD Residential Area

Fuel consumptions in Bandung road network based location

(Sutandi, 2007)
FUEL CONSUMPTION MODELS
[Sutandi, 2007; OECD, 1985]

2354
2167
1990
2000
1737
1494 1537
Fuel (litres)

arterial roads
collector roads
1000 913
808 local roads
720

Morning Peak Off Peak Afternoon Peak

Fuel consumptions in Bandung road network under SCATS

based on road hierarchy (Sutandi, 2007)
AIR QUALITY IMPACTS [4, 5, 6, 7]

There is a close relationship between

traffic congestion and air pollution.

Air pollution (CO, NOx, HC) is the

contamination of the ambient air by
chemical compounds or particulate
solids at a concentration that adversely
affects human health, materials,
vegetation, or aesthetics.
AIR QUALITY IMPACTS [4, 5, 6, 7]

Concentration of Air pollution is a

contribution of:

 type of engine
 the mode of operation
 the fuel composition
 the emission control devices attach
 the engine
 atmospheric condition
AIR QUALITY IMPACTS [4, 5, 6, 7]

Example : [4]

About 4000 veh enter the downtown area per

hour in the 1.5 hour morning peak.Because
of ARZ (auto restricted zone) during traffic
congestion, only 500 veh come into the area.
Avg speed is 15 mph during 2 miles section.
AIR QUALITY IMPACTS [4, 5, 6, 7]

Example : [4]

About 4000 veh enter the downtown area per

hour in the 1.5 hour morning peak.Because
of ARZ (auto restricted zone) during traffic
congestion, only 500 veh come into the area.
Avg speed is 15 mph during 2 miles section.

What is the reduction in veh-miles traveled in

peak period.
AIR QUALITY IMPACTS [4, 5, 6, 7]

The reduction in veh-miles traveled in

peak period.

= 3,500 veh/h x 1.5 hr/peak x 2 miles

= 10,500 veh-mile/peak period

For a speed of 15 mph, the CO emission rate

is 95 lb/1000 veh-mi, therefore,

Total load = (10,500 x 95)/1000 = 9975 lb.

NOISE QUALITY IMPACTS [4. 5, 6, 7]

Sound (spectrum, amplitude, time

history) is a vibratory disturbance
created by a moving or vibrating source.

Examples of transportation sound:

• Steady traffic;
• Construction equipment;
• A jet flying overhead.
NOISE QUALITY IMPACTS [4. 5, 6, 7]

Noise is a serious issue or unwanted

sound that should be considered in all
stages of transportation system projects.

There are 3 transportation modes where

noise issue are typically addressed:
• Highway traffic (200-2000 Hz);
• Aircraft (>1000 Hz);
• Rail (96 dB at 30m distance).
NOISE QUALITY IMPACTS [4. 5, 6, 7]

Examples of noise sources:

 135 dB: threshold of human pain;

 120 dB: rock concert;
 105 dB (60m): train horn;
 90 dB (305m): jet aircraft;
 75 dB (30m): gas lawn mover;
 40 dB: quite suburban;
 0 dB: threshold of human hearing.
REFERENCES

 Odum, Howard T., and Odum Elizabeth C.,

1976, Energy Basis for Man and Nature,
Studies, Institute of Transportation Engineers,
Mc Graw Hill, New York.

 Organization for Economic Cooperation and

Development (OECD), 1985. Energy Savings
and Road Traffic management, OECD, Paris.
REFERENCES

 Sutandi., A. Caroline, Advanced Traffic Control

System Impacts on Environmental Quality in A
Large City in A Developing Country, Journals
of the Eastern Asia Society for Transportation
Studies International Conference, Volume 7,
2007, ISSN: 1881-1124, pp. 1169 – 1179, Dalian,
China, September 2007;
REFERENCES

 TSS (2004a). Transport Simulation Systems,

available from http://www.tss-bcn.com

 TSS (2004b). GETRAM Manual, Open Traffic

Simulation Environment, February 2004,
available from
http://www.aimsun.com/v4.2/Manual.zip