Cal - Chapter1 - Functions and Limits

1
CALCULUS
Chapter 1
2
Objectives
§ Four ways to represent a function
§ Basis functions and the transformations of functions
§ Calculating limits of functions
(limits at a point, limits involving Infinity)
§ Verifying continuity of a function

3
FUNCTIONS AND LIMITS
1.1
Functions and
Their Representations
4
FUNCTION
A function f is a rule that assigns to each element x in a

set D exactly one element, called f(x), in a set E.
The set D is called the domain of the function f.
The range of f is the set

of all possible values
of f(x) as x varies
throughout the domain.
Fig. 1.1.3, p. 12
4
FUNCTION


of f(x) as x varies
Fig. 1.1.3, p. 12
4
FUNCTION


of f(x) as x varies
Fig. 1.1.3, p. 12
5
GRAPH
The graph of f is the set of all points (x, y) in the

coordinate plane such that y = f(x) and x is in the domain
of f.
The graph of f also allows us to picture:

§ The domain of f on the x-axis
§ Its range on the y-axis

5
GRAPH
The graph of f is the set of all points (x, y) in the

coordinate plane such that y = f(x) and x is in the domain
of f.
The graph of f also allows us to picture:

§ The domain of f on the x-axis
§ Its range on the y-axis

6
GRAPH Example 1
The graph of a function f is shown.

a. Find the values of f(1) and f(5).
b. What is the domain and range of f ?
6
GRAPH Example 1

f(1) = 3
6
GRAPH Example 1

f(1) = 3
f(5) » - 0.7
6
GRAPH Example 1

f(1) = 3
f(5) » - 0.7
D = [0, 7]
6
GRAPH Example 1

f(1) = 3
f(5) » - 0.7
D = [0, 7]
Im(f) = [-2, 4]
7
REPRESENTATIONS DISCUSSION
Find the the domain and region of the

functions ( if it is a function).
a.
f ( n) = n for all natural numbers n.
b.
g ( x) is any real number such that larger than x

8
REPRESENTATIONS OF FUNCTIONS
There are four possible ways to represent a function:
§ Algebraically (by an explicit formula)
§ Visually (by a graph)
§ Numerically (by a table of values)
§ Verbally (by a description in words)

9
EXAMPLE B
The human population of the world P depends on

the time t.
§ The table gives estimates of the
world population P(t) at time t,
for certain years.
§ However, for each value of the

time t, there is a corresponding
value of P, and we say that
P is a function of t.
10
REPRESENTATIONS Example 4
"When you turn on a hot-water faucet, the temperature T of

the water depends on how long the water has been
running".
Draw a rough graph of T as a function of the time t that has
elapsed since the faucet was turned on.
10
REPRESENTATIONS Example 4
"When you turn on a hot-water faucet, the temperature T of

the water depends on how long the water has been
running".
Draw a rough graph of T as a function of the time t that has
elapsed since the faucet was turned on.
11
THE VERTICAL LINE TEST
A curve in the xy-plane is the graph of a function of

x if and only if no vertical line intersects the
curve more than once.
12
THE VERTICAL LINE TEST
The reason for the truth of the Vertical Line Test can be
seen in the figure.
13
SYMMETRY: EVEN FUNCTION movie
If a function f satisfies:
f(-x) = f(x), " x Î D

then f is called an even function.
§ The geometric significance of an even function is that its
graph is symmetric with respect to the y-axis.
13
SYMMETRY: EVEN FUNCTION movie
If a function f satisfies:
f(-x) = f(x), " x Î D

then f is called an even function.
§ The geometric significance of an even function is that its
graph is symmetric with respect to the y-axis.
y = x4
14
SYMMETRY: ODD FUNCTION movie
If f satisfies:
f(-x) = - f(x), " x Î D

then f is called an odd function.
§The graph of an odd function is symmetric about the origin.

14
SYMMETRY: ODD FUNCTION movie
If f satisfies:
f(-x) = - f(x), " x Î D

then f is called an odd function.
§The graph of an odd function is symmetric about the origin.
y= x3 y = x5 y = x7
15
Example
Let f be an odd function. If (-3,5) is in the graph of f then

which point is also in the graph of f?
a. (3,5) b. (-3,-5) c. (3,-5) d. All of the others

15
Example
Let f be an odd function. If (-3,5) is in the graph of f then

which point is also in the graph of f?
a. (3,5) b. (-3,-5) c. (3,-5) d. All of the others
Answer: c
16
INCREASING AND DECREASING FUNCTIONS

A function f is called strictly increasing on an
interval I if:
f(x1) < f(x2) whenever x1 < x2 in I
It is called strictly decreasing on I if:
f(x1) > f(x2) whenever x1 < x2 in I

17
INCREASING AND DECREASING FUNCTIONS
The function f is said to be increasing on the

interval [a, b], decreasing on [b, c], and
increasing again on [c, d].
18
FUNCTIONS AND MODELS
1.2
MATHEMATICAL MODELS:
A CATALOG OF
ESSENTIAL FUNCTIONS
In this section, we will learn about:

The purpose of mathematical models.
19
MATHEMATICAL MODELS
A mathematical model is a mathematical
description—often by means of a function or an
equation—of a real-world phenomenon such as:
§ Size of a population
§ Demand for a product
§ Speed of a falling object
§ Life expectancy of a person at birth

§ Cost of emission reductions
20
TRANSFORMATIONS
§Label the following graph from the graph of

the function y=f(x) shown in the part (a)
y=f(x)-2, y=f(x-2), y=-f(x), y=2f(x), y=f(-x)?
21
SHIFTING
• Suppose c > 0.
§To obtain the graph of
y = f(x) + c, shift the
graph of y = f(x)
a distance c units
upward.
§To obtain the graph
of y = f(x) - c, shift
the graph of y = f(x)
a distance c units
downward.
21
SHIFTING
• Suppose c > 0. Why don’t we consider the case c<0?
§To obtain the graph of

y = f(x) + c, shift the
graph of y = f(x)
a distance c units
upward.
of y = f(x) - c, shift
a distance c units
downward.
22
SHIFTING
§ To obtain the graph of y = f(x - c), shift the graph of

y = f(x) a distance c units to the right.
§ To obtain the graph

of y = f(x + c), shift
a distance c units to
the left.
23
NEW FUNCTIONS FROM OLD FUNCTIONS
§Label the following graph from the graph of

the function y=f(x) shown in the part (a)
24
Label the following graph from the graph of

the function y= x shown in the part (a):
§ y = x -2 by shifting 2 units downward.
§ y = x-2 by shifting 2 units to the right.
25
TRANSFORMATIONS
•Suppose c > 1.

of y = cf(x), stretch
vertically by a factor
of c.

of y = (1/c)f(x),
compress the graph
of y = f(x) vertically by
a factor of c.
25
TRANSFORMATIONS
•Suppose c > 1. How about the case c<1?

of y = cf(x), stretch
vertically by a factor
of c.

of y = (1/c)f(x),
compress the graph
of y = f(x) vertically by
a factor of c.
26
TRANSFORMATIONS
§ In order to obtain the graph of y = f(cx),

compress the graph of y = f(x) horizontally
by a factor of c.

of y = f(x/c), stretch
horizontally by a factor
of c.
27
TRANSFORMATIONS
§ In order to obtain the graph of y = -f(x),

reflect the graph of y = f(x) about the x-axis.

of y = f(-x), reflect
about the y-axis.
28

29

§y=- x by reflecting about the x-axis.
§y = 2 x by stretching vertically by a factor of 2.
§ y = -x by reflecting about the y-axis
30
TRANSFORMATIONS
• The figure illustrates these stretching

• transformations when applied to the
cosine
• function with c = 2.
31
COMBINATIONS OF FUNCTIONS
• Two functions f and g can be combined to form

new functions:
§ (f + g)x = f(x) + g(x)
§ (f – g)x = f(x) – g(x)

31
COMBINATIONS OF FUNCTIONS
• Two functions f and g can be combined to form

new functions:
§ (f + g)x = f(x) + g(x)
§ (f – g)x = f(x) – g(x)

æ f ö f ( x)
§ ( fg )( x) = f ( x) g ( x) ç ÷ ( x) =
ègø g ( x)
32
LIMITS
1.3
The Limit of a Function
In this section, we will learn:

About limits in general and about numerical
and graphical methods for computing them.
33
THE LIMIT OF A FUNCTION
In general, we write lim f ( x ) = L

x®a
if we can make the values

of f(x) arbitrarily close to L
by taking x to be
sufficiently close to a
but not equal to a.
34
ONE-SIDED LIMITS Definition 2
We write
lim- f ( x ) = L
x®a
if we can make the values of f(x) arbitrarily close to L by

taking x to be sufficiently close to a and x less than a.
35
ONE-SIDED LIMITS
Similarly, “the right-hand limit of f(x) as x approaches a is

equal to L” and we write
lim+ f ( x ) = L
x®a
35
ONE-SIDED LIMITS
Similarly, “the right-hand limit of f(x) as x approaches a is

equal to L” and we write
lim+ f ( x ) = L
x®a
lim- g ( x ) lim+ g ( x )
x®2 x®2
lim g ( x ) lim- g ( x )
x®2 x ®5
lim+ g ( x ) lim g ( x )
x ®5 x ®5
36
PRECISE DEFINITION OF LIMIT Definition 2

Let f be a function defined on some open interval that contains
the number a, except possibly at a itself. Then,
we write lim f ( x) = L
x®a
if, "e>0, $d>0 such that
if 0 < x - a < d then f ( x) - L < e

36
PRECISE DEFINITION OF LIMIT Definition 2

Let f be a function defined on some open interval that contains
the number a, except possibly at a itself. Then,
we write lim f ( x) = L
x®a
if, "e>0, $d>0 such that
if 0 < x - a < d then f ( x) - L < e

37
PRECISE DEFINITION OF LIMIT
If lim f ( x) = L , then we can find a number

x®a
d >0
such that, if we restrict x to lie in the interval ( a - d , a + d )
and take x ¹ a , then the curve

y = f(x) lies between
the lines y = L - e
and y = L + e .
38
PRECISE DEFINITION OF LIMIT Example 2
Prove that: lim(4 x - 5) = 7

x ®3
38

x ®3
The first step is the preliminary analysis - guessing

a value for d.
§ Let e be a given positive number.
§ We want to find a number d such that
if 0 < x - 3 < d then ( 4 x - 5 ) - 7 < e

38

x ®3
The first step is the preliminary analysis - guessing

a value for d.
§ Let e be a given positive number.
§ We want to find a number d such that
if 0 < x - 3 < d then ( 4 x - 5 ) - 7 < e

§ However,
( 4 x - 5) - 7 = 4 x - 12 = 4 ( x - 3) = 4 x - 3
39
STEP 1: GUESSING THE VALUE Example 2

§ Therefore, we want if 0 < x - 3 < d then 4 x - 3 < e
§ That is, if 0 < x - 3 < d then x - 3 <

e
4
§ This suggests that we should choose d = e
4
39
STEP 1: GUESSING THE VALUE Example 2

§ Therefore, we want if 0 < x - 3 < d then 4 x - 3 < e
§ That is, if 0 < x - 3 < d then x - 3 <

e
4
§ This suggests that we should choose d = e
4
Step 2: The second step is the

proof - showing that this d
works.
40
LIMITS
1.4
Calculating Limits
Using the Limit Laws
In this section, we will:
Use the Limit Laws to calculate limits.
41
THE LIMIT LAWS

Suppose that c is a constant and the limits lim f ( x)
x®a
and lim g ( x) exist. Then
x®a
1.lim [ f ( x) ± g ( x) ] = lim f ( x) ± lim g ( x)

x®a x®a x®a
41
THE LIMIT LAWS

x®a
x®a

x®a x®a x®a
3.lim [ cf ( x) ] = c lim f ( x)
x ®a x ®a
41
THE LIMIT LAWS

x®a
x®a

x®a x®a x®a
3.lim [ cf ( x) ] = c lim f ( x)
x ®a x ®a
4.lim [ f ( x) g ( x) ] = lim f ( x) × lim g ( x)

x ®a x ®a x ®a
41
THE LIMIT LAWS

x®a
x®a

x®a x®a x®a
3.lim [ cf ( x) ] = c lim f ( x)
x ®a x ®a
4.lim [ f ( x) g ( x) ] = lim f ( x) × lim g ( x)

x ®a x ®a x ®a
f ( x) lim f ( x)
5.lim = x®a
if lim g ( x) ¹ 0
x®a g ( x) lim g ( x) x ®a
x®a
42
USING THE LIMIT LAWS

n
6.lim [ f ( x) ] = élim f ( x) ù
n
x ®a ë x ®a û
7.lim c = c
x®a
8.lim x = a
x®a
9.lim x n = a n
x®a
10.lim n x = n a
x®a
11.lim n f ( x) = n lim f ( x)
x ®a x ®a
where n is a positive integer.

43
USING THE LIMIT LAWS Theorem 1
lim f ( x) = L if and only if lim- f ( x) = L = lim+ f ( x)

x®a x®a x ®a
44
USING THE LIMIT LAWS Example 8
x
Prove that lim does not exist.
x ®0 x
45
PROPERTIES OF LIMITS Theorem 2
If f ( x) £ g ( x) when x is near a (except possibly at a)

and the limits of f and g both exist as x approaches a,
then
lim f ( x) £ lim g ( x)
x ®a x ®a
46
SQUEEZE THEOREM Theorem 3

The Squeeze Theorem (the Sandwich Theorem or the Pinching Theorem)
states that, if
f ( x) £ g ( x) £ h( x) when x is near a (except possibly at a)
and lim f ( x) = lim h( x) = L .Then lim g ( x) = L
x ®a x ®a x®a
47
1
Show that lim = x sin = 0.
2
x ®0 x
47
1
Show that lim = x sin = 0.
2
x ®0 x
§ Note that we cannot use
1 1
lim x sin = lim x × lim sin
2 2
x ®0 x x ®0 x ®0 x
§ This is because lim sin(1/ x) does not exist.
x ®0
48

1
§ However, since -1 £ sin £ 1 ,
x
we have: 1
- x £ x sin £ x
2 2 2
x
48

1
§ However, since -1 £ sin £ 1 ,
x
we have: 1
- x £ x sin £ x
2 2 2
§ Taking f(x) = -x2, and h(x) = x2

in the Squeeze Theorem,
we obtain:
1
lim x sin = 0
2
x ®0 x
49
LIMITS
1.5
Continuity
In this section, we will:

See that the mathematical definition of continuity
corresponds closely with the meaning of the word
continuity in everyday language.
50
CONTINUITY 1. Definition
A function f is continuous at a number a if:
lim f ( x) = f (a)
x®a
Notice that :
§ f(a) is defined - that is,
a is in the domain of f
§ lim f ( x) exists.
x®a
§ lim f ( x) = f (a )
x®a
51
If f is defined near a - that is, f is defined on an open interval

containing a, except perhaps at a - we say that f is
discontinuous at a if f is not continuous at a.
The figure shows the graph of a

function f.
At which numbers is f
discontinuous?
Why?
52
A function f is continuous from the right

at a number a if
lim+ f ( x) = f (a)
x®a
and f is continuous from the left at a if
lim- f ( x) = f (a)
x®a
53
A function f is continuous on an interval if it is

continuous at every number in the interval.
§ If f is defined only on one side of an endpoint of the interval,
we understand ‘continuous at the endpoint’ to mean
‘continuous from the right’ or ‘continuous from the left.’
54
CONTINUITY 4. Theorem
If f and g are continuous at a; and c is a constant, then the
following functions are also continuous at a:
1. f + g
2. f - g
3. cf
4. fg
5. f if g (a ) ¹ 0
g
55
The following types of functions are continuous at

every number in their domains:
§ Polynomials
§ Rational functions
§ Root functions
§ Trigonometric functions
56
If f is continuous at b and lim g ( x) = b then

x®a
lim f ( g ( x)) = f (b)

x®a
In other words,
(
lim f ( g ( x)) = f lim g ( x)
x ®a x ®a
)
§ If x is close to a, then g(x) is close to b; and, since f
is continuous at b, if g(x) is close to b, then f(g(x))
is close to f(b).
57
If g is continuous at a and f is continuous at g(a),

then the composite function ( f ! g ) ( x) = f ( g ( x))
is continuous at a.
§ This theorem is often expressed informally by saying
“a continuous function of a continuous function is
a continuous function.”
57
If g is continuous at a and f is continuous at g(a),

then the composite function ( f ! g ) ( x) = f ( g ( x))
is continuous at a.
§ This theorem is often expressed informally by saying
“a continuous function of a continuous function is
a continuous function.”
58
INTERMEDIATE VALUE THEOREM 10. Theorem
Suppose that f is continuous on the closed interval

[a, b] and let N be any number between f(a) and f(b),
where f ( a ) ¹ f (b)
Then, there exists a number c in (a, b) such that f(c) = N.

58
INTERMEDIATE VALUE THEOREM 10. Theorem
Suppose that f is continuous on the closed interval

[a, b] and let N be any number between f(a) and f(b),
where f ( a ) ¹ f (b)
Then, there exists a number c in (a, b) such that f(c) = N.

59
INTERMEDIATE VALUE THEOREM Example 9
Show that there is a root of the equation
4 x3 - 6 x 2 + 3 x - 2 = 0 between 1 and 2.
59
4 x3 - 6 x 2 + 3 x - 2 = 0 between 1 and 2.
§ Let f ( x) = 4 x 3 - 6 x 2 +. 3x - 2
§ We are looking for a solution of the given equation—
that is, a number c between 1 and 2 such that f(c) = 0.
§ Therefore, we take a = 1, b = 2, and N = 0 in the theorem.

59
4 x3 - 6 x 2 + 3 x - 2 = 0 between 1 and 2.
§ Let f ( x) = 4 x 3 - 6 x 2 +. 3x - 2
§ We are looking for a solution of the given equation—
that is, a number c between 1 and 2 such that f(c) = 0.
§ Therefore, we take a = 1, b = 2, and N = 0 in the theorem.
§ We have
f (1) = 4 - 6 + 3 - 2 = -1 < 0
and
f (2) = 32 - 24 + 6 - 2 = 12 > 0
60
1.6
Limits involving infinity
We will study:
Infinity Limits
Limits at Infinity
61
INFINITE LIMITS Definition 4
Let f be a function defined on both sides of a, except

possibly at a itself. Then,
lim f ( x ) = ¥
x®a
means that the values of f(x)

can be made arbitrarily large
by taking x sufficiently
close to a,but not equal to a.
61
Let f be a function defined on both sides of a, except

possibly at a itself. Then,
lim f ( x ) = ¥
x®a

can be made arbitrarily large
by taking x sufficiently
close to a,but not equal to a.
62

Let f be a function defined on some open interval that
contains the number a, except possibly at a itself.
Then, lim f ( x) = ¥ means that, "M>0, $d>0 such

x®a
that if 0 < x - a < d then f ( x) > M

63
Let f be defined on both sides of a, except possibly at a

itself. Then,
lim f ( x ) = -¥
x®a

can be made arbitrarily
large negative by taking x
sufficiently close to a,
but not equal to a.
64
INFINITE LIMITS
Similar definitions can be given for the one-sided limits:
lim- f ( x ) = ¥ lim+ f ( x ) = ¥
x®a x®a
lim- f ( x ) = -¥ lim+ f ( x ) = -¥
x®a x®a
65
DEFINITIONS
• x=a is called the vertical asymptote of f(x)

if we have one of the following:
lim- f ( x ) = ¥ lim+ f ( x ) = ¥
x®a x®a
lim- f ( x ) = -¥ lim+ f ( x ) = -¥
x®a x®a
66
LIMITS AT INFINITY
Let f be a function defined for every x>a. Then
lim f ( x) = L means that "e > 0, $M > 0

x ®¥
if x > M then f ( x) - L < e

67
DEFINITION
The line y=L is called the horizontal asymptote

of f(x) if we have one of the following:
lim f ( x ) = L lim f ( x ) = L
x ®¥ x ®-¥
68
Find the asymptotes of the function

x3 - 1
f ( x) = 3
x + x2 - 2
68

x3 - 1
f ( x) = 3
x + x2 - 2
Solution
1
1- 3
x3 - 1 x
lim 3 = lim =1
x ®¥ x + x 2 - 2 x ®¥ 1 2
1+ - 3
x x
68

x3 - 1
f ( x) = 3
x + x2 - 2
Solution
1
1- 3
x3 - 1 x
lim 3 = lim =1 y=1 is horizontal asymptote
x ®¥ x + x 2 - 2 x ®¥ 1 2
1+ - 3
x x
68

x3 - 1
f ( x) = 3
x + x2 - 2
Solution
1
1- 3
x3 - 1 x
lim 3 = lim =1 y=1 is horizontal asymptote
x ®¥ x + x 2 - 2 x ®¥ 1 2
1+ - 3
x x
x3 - 1 ( x - 1) ( x 2 + x + 1)
=
x + x - 2 ( x - 1)( x 2 + 2 x + 2)
3 2
x3 + 1 3
lim 3 =
x ®1 x + x 2 - 2 5
69
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Cal - Chapter1 - Functions and Limits

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1

§ Four ways to represent a function

§ Basis functions and the transformations of functions

§ Calculating limits of functions

(limits at a point, limits involving Infinity)

§ Verifying continuity of a function

FUNCTIONS AND LIMITS

A function f is a rule that assigns to each element x in a

The set D is called the domain of the function f.

The range of f is the set

A function f is a rule that assigns to each element x in a

The set D is called the domain of the function f.

The range of f is the set

A function f is a rule that assigns to each element x in a

The set D is called the domain of the function f.

The range of f is the set

The graph of f is the set of all points (x, y) in the

The graph of f also allows us to picture:

§ Its range on the y-axis

The graph of f is the set of all points (x, y) in the

The graph of f also allows us to picture:

§ Its range on the y-axis

The graph of a function f is shown.

The graph of a function f is shown.

The graph of a function f is shown.

The graph of a function f is shown.

The graph of a function f is shown.

Find the the domain and region of the

g ( x) is any real number such that larger than x

There are four possible ways to represent a function:

§ Algebraically (by an explicit formula)

§ Visually (by a graph)

§ Numerically (by a table of values)

§ Verbally (by a description in words)

The human population of the world P depends on

§ However, for each value of the

"When you turn on a hot-water faucet, the temperature T of

"When you turn on a hot-water faucet, the temperature T of

THE VERTICAL LINE TEST

A curve in the xy-plane is the graph of a function of

THE VERTICAL LINE TEST

SYMMETRY: EVEN FUNCTION movie

f(-x) = f(x), " x Î D

SYMMETRY: EVEN FUNCTION movie

f(-x) = f(x), " x Î D

SYMMETRY: ODD FUNCTION movie

f(-x) = - f(x), " x Î D

§The graph of an odd function is symmetric about the origin.

SYMMETRY: ODD FUNCTION movie

f(-x) = - f(x), " x Î D

§The graph of an odd function is symmetric about the origin.

Let f be an odd function. If (-3,5) is in the graph of f then

a. (3,5) b. (-3,-5) c. (3,-5) d. All of the others

Let f be an odd function. If (-3,5) is in the graph of f then

a. (3,5) b. (-3,-5) c. (3,-5) d. All of the others

INCREASING AND DECREASING FUNCTIONS

f(x1) < f(x2) whenever x1 < x2 in I

It is called strictly decreasing on I if:

f(x1) > f(x2) whenever x1 < x2 in I

INCREASING AND DECREASING FUNCTIONS

The function f is said to be increasing on the

FUNCTIONS AND MODELS

In this section, we will learn about: