Heart

329

Skeletal Muscle Cardiac Muscle

Repolarization Plateau
phase phase
2
0 0

(mV)

(mV)
2 1 3
Repolarization
Depolarization Depolarization phase
phase phase

–85 –85

1 2 1 2 500
Time (ms) Time (ms)

3
Tension

Tension
4

1 2 1 2 500
Time (ms) Time (ms)

(a) 1 Depolarization phase (b) 1 Depolarization phase

Na+ channels open. Na+ channels open.
K+ channels begin to open. Ca2+ channels open.

2 Repolarization phase 2 Plateau phase

Na+ channels close. Na+ channels close.
K+ channels continue to open, causing Some K+ channels open, causing
repolarization. repolarization.
K+ channels close at the end of Ca2+ channels are open, producing the
repolarization and return the membrane plateau by slowing further repolarization.
potential to its resting value.
3 Repolarization phase
3 Refractory period effect on tension Ca2+ channels close.
Maximum tension is obtained after the Many K+ channels open.
refractory period (purple shaded area)
is completed, allowing for increased 4 Refractory period effect on tension
tension with additional stimulation. Cardiac muscle contracts and relaxes almost
completely during the refractory period (purple
shaded area).

PROCESS Figure 12.14  Comparison of Action Potentials in Skeletal and Cardiac Muscle
(a) An action potential in skeletal muscle consists of depolarization and repolarization phases. The refractory period is indicated by the purple shaded area.
(b) An action potential in cardiac muscle consists of depolarization, plateau, and repolarization phases. Cardiac muscle does not repolarize as rapidly as
skeletal muscle (indicated by the break in the curve) because of the plateau phase. Due to the prolonged action potential and refractory period (indicated by
the purple shaded area), cardiac muscle contracts and relaxes almost completely before another action potential can be produced.
? Using the tension graph, explain why skeletal muscle can exhibit tetany (sustained contraction) but cardiac muscle cannot.
 Semilunar Semilunar
valves closed valves closed

AV valves AV valves
opened opened

1 The atria and ventricles are relaxed. 2 The atria contract and complete
AV valves open, and blood flows into ventricular filling.
the ventricles. The ventricles fill to
approximately 70% of their volume.

Semilunar
Semilunar
valves closed
valves closed

AV valves AV valves
closed closed

5 At the beginning of ventricular 3 Contraction of the ventricles causes

diastole, the ventricles relax, and the pressure in the ventricles to increase.
semilunar valves close (the second Almost immediately, the AV valves
heart sound). close (the first heart sound). The
pressure in the ventricles continues
to increase.

Semilunar
valves opened

AV valves
closed

4 Continued ventricular contraction

causes the pressure in the ventricles
to exceed the pressure in the pulmonary
trunk and aorta. As a result, the
semilunar valves are forced open,
and blood is ejected into the
pulmonary trunk and aorta.

PROCESS Figure 12.17    Cardiac Cycle

The cardiac cycle is the sequence of events that occurs from the beginning of one heartbeat to the beginning of the next heartbeat, during which time the
atria and ventricles contract, ensuring blood flow.
? Often, ventricular systole is divided into two phases: the isovolumetric (same-volume) phase and the ventricular ejection phase. What are
some differences between these two phases?
334 Chapter 12

Active Period of Period of Period of Passive

Time periods: ventricular isovolumetric ejection isovolumetric ventricular
filling contraction relaxation filling

R R

T T
(mV)

P P

Q Q
Systolic
S pressure S

120 Semilunar Semilunar

valves valves
close. Semilunar close.
Semilunar
100 valves open. valves
open.
Pressure (mm Hg)

80 Dicrotic
notch
Diastolic
60 pressure

40 AV valves
AV valves
close.
close.
AV valves AV valves
20 open. open.

End-diastolic
volume End-diastolic volume
125
Left ventricular
volume (mL)

90

55
End-systolic volume End-systolic volume
"Sound" frequency
(cycles/second)

First Second Third First Second

heart heart heart heart heart
sound sound sound sound sound

Atrial Ventricular Ventricular

systole systole diastole

Figure 12.18  Events of the Cardiac Cycle

(Top) The cardiac cycle is divided into five periods. From top to bottom, these graphs show an electrocardiogram; pressure changes for the left atrium
(blue dashed line), the left ventricle (black line), and the aorta (red dashed line); left ventricular volume curve; and the sequence of the heart sounds.
336 Chapter 12

3 Stimulus 4 Response

Receptors and
control center: Effectors:
Baroreceptors in the carotid arteries The SA node and cardiac
and aorta detect an increase in blood muscle decrease activity and
pressure. heart rate and stroke volume
decrease.
The cardioregulatory center in the
brain decreases sympathetic
stimulation of the heart and adrenal
medulla and increases
parasympathetic stimulation of the
heart.

5 HOMEOSTASIS RESTORED:
2 HOMEOSTASIS DISTURBED:
Blood pressure increases. Blood pressure decreases.
Blood pressure

Blood pressure
(normal range)

(normal range)
1 Start here 6

HOMEOSTASIS DISTURBED: HOMEOSTASIS RESTORED:

Blood pressure decreases. Blood pressure increases.

Stimulus Response

Receptors and
control center: Effectors:
Baroreceptors in the carotid arteries The SA node and cardiac
and aorta detect a decrease in blood muscle increase activity
pressure. and heart rate and stroke
volume increase.

The cardioregulatory center in the

brain increases sympathetic
stimulation of the heart and adrenal
medulla and decreases
parasympathetic stimulation of the
heart.

Homeostasis Figure 12.20    Baroreceptor Reflex

The baroreceptor reflex maintains homeostasis in response to changes in blood pressure. (1) Blood pressure is within its normal range. (2) Blood pressure
increases outside the normal range, which causes homeostasis to be disturbed. (3) Baroreceptors in the carotid arteries and aorta detect the increase in
blood pressure and the cardioregulatory center in the brain alters autonomic stimulation of the heart. (4) Heart rate and stroke volume decrease. (5) These
changes cause blood pressure to decrease. (6) Blood pressure returns to its normal range, and homeostasis is restored.
338 Chapter 12

3 Stimulus 4 Response

Receptors and
Effectors:
control centers:
The SA node and cardiac
Chemoreceptors in the medulla
muscle decrease activity and
oblongata detect an increase in
heart rate and stroke volume
blood pH (often caused by a
decrease.
decrease in blood CO2). Control
centers in the brain decrease
stimulation of the heart and adrenal
medulla.

5 HOMEOSTASIS RESTORED:
2 HOMEOSTASIS DISTURBED:
Blood pH increases. Blood pH decreases.
(normal range)

(normal range)
Blood pH

Blood pH
1 Start here 6

HOMEOSTASIS DISTURBED: HOMEOSTASIS RESTORED:

Blood pH decreases. Blood pH increases.

Stimulus Response

Receptors and
control centers:
Chemoreceptors in the medulla
oblongata detect a decrease in blood
pH (often caused by an increase in
blood CO2). Control centers in the
brain increase stimulation of the
heart and adrenal medulla.
Effectors:
The SA node and cardiac
muscle increase activity and
heart rate and stroke volume
increase, increasing blood flow
to the lungs.

Homeostasis Figure 12.21    Chemoreceptor Reflex—pH

The chemoreceptor reflex maintains homeostasis in response to changes in blood concentrations of CO2 and H+ (or pH). (1) Blood pH is within its normal
range. (2) Blood pH increases outside the normal range. (3) Chemoreceptors in the medulla oblongata detect increased blood pH. Control centers in the
brain decrease sympathetic stimulation of the heart and adrenal medulla. (4) Heart rate and stroke volume decrease, reducing blood flow to lungs.
(5) These changes cause blood pH to decrease (as a result of increase in blood CO2). (6) Blood pH returns to its normal range, and homeostasis is restored.