Action Potentials

Neuroscience Fundamentals > The Nerve Cell > The Nerve Cell

ACTION POTENTIALS

SUMMARY

See: Action Potential

OVERVIEW

• All-or-nothing (like firing a gun)

DEFINITIONS

Depolarization

• Decrease in membrane potential relative to resting potential (membrane becomes more positive)

Hyperpolarization

• Increase in membrane potential relative to resting potential (membrane becomes more negative)

Graded potentials

• Depolarization signals that operate over short distances

Action potentials

• Depolarization signals that operate over long distances

4 STEPS OF AN ACTION POTENTIAL

1) Resting state - ~70mV membrane potential

• Voltage-gated sodium channels closed

• Voltage-gated potassium channels closed

2) Depolarization phase

• Graded potentials cause slight depolarization until threshold (~ -55mV) when voltage-gated sodium channels open
(voltage-gated potassium channels still closed)

• Sodium rushes into the cell and membrane potential rapidly increases and peaks at about +30mV

3) Repolarization phase

• Inactivation gate of sodium channel "plugs" the channel, stopping sodium from entering the cell

• Potassium gates open allowing potassium out of the cell and membrane potential decreases

4) Hyperpolarization phase

• Sodium channels transition from inactivated to closed

• Some potassium channels are still open so the membrane potential overshoots the resting state and becomes more
negative

• About 4ms after the original change in membrane potential, resting potential is restored

REFRACTORY PERIODS

Absolute Refractory Period

• Time from when sodium channels open to when they reset (no stimulus, no matter how large, can cause another
action potential during this period)

Relative Refractory Period

• Time when most of the sodium channels have reset but some potassium channels are still open (it is possible for a
stronger than normal stimulus to cause an action potential during this period)

FULL-LENGTH TEXT

• Here, we will learn about nerve cell action potentials, which arise from a change in membrane potential.

- We will learn about the signals that induce action potentials elsewhere.
• First, start a table to denote some key concepts regarding action potentials.

• Denote that, much like firing a gun, action potentials are: all-or-none, which reflects the large shift in membrane
potential that occurs during them.

• Denote that depolarization refers to a decrease in membrane potential relative to the resting potential (membrane
becomes more positive).

• Denote that hyperpolarization refers to an increase in membrane potential relative to the resting potential (membrane
becomes more negative).

• Denote that graded potentials are depolarization signals that operate over short distances.

• Denote that action potentials are depolarization signals that operate over long distances (along the axon).

Now let's walk through the 4 steps of an action potential, as we do, we'll create a graph to help visualize how the change
in ion concentrations affects the membrane potential.

Begin with the resting state.

• Draw the plasma membrane.

• Label the extracellular side and the intracellular side.

• Show a voltage-gated sodium channel, which spans the membrane.

• And a voltage-gated potassium channel, which also spans the membrane.

• Draw the activation gates for both channels in the closed state.

• Next, draw the inactivation gate of the sodium channel; we discuss it further soon.

• Draw sodium ions in the extracellular space, which cannot pass through the channel.
• Draw potassium ions in the intracellular space, which also cannot pass through the channel.

Now, switch over to draw our graph.

• Label the x-axis as time in ms.

• Label the y-axis as membrane potential in mV.

• Indicate the resting state potential at -70mV.

• And, write that all gated ion channels are closed.

Be aware that the membrane potential and time values we use here are generic and they vary by cell type.

Now, the depolarization phase.

• Redraw the plasma membrane.

• Here, start with the potassium channel because it is unchanged: in the closed configuration, so the potassium ions
cannot pass through the channel.

• Next, re-draw the sodium channel but here show that its activation gates are open.

• Indicate that when a membrane potential reaches a specific threshold, it activates (opens) the channel.

• Show that the sodium ions can now pass through the channel, which makes the intracellular environment even more
positive.

Let's use our membrane potential graph to visualize the loss of membrane potential that occurs during depolarization.

• Show that beginning at time = 1ms, graded depolarization occurs: the membrane potential slowly becomes less
negative.

• Indicate that we interrupt this climb at -55mV and mark this value as "threshold".

• Now, show that at the threshold, rapid depolarization occurs: wherein the membrane potential rapidly increases and
peaks at about +30mV.

• The threshold is where depolarization becomes self-generating, meaning from this point forward, the influx of positive
ions occurs rapidly – membrane permeability FAVORS sodium influx.

• Write a note that during depolarization, the sodium channels are open while the potassium channels are still closed.

Now, for repolarization.

• Again, redraw the plasma membrane.

• Redraw the sodium channel.

• Show that the activation gates are still open but show that the inactivation gate "plugs" the channel, which functionally
closes off the channel which is now described as inactivated.

• Show, however, that even before the inactivation gate is activated, the rush of sodium influx drives the membrane
potential near to the sodium equilibrium potential.

• Show that the sodium ions can no longer traverse the channel.

• Then, draw the potassium channel with the activation gates open.

- Write that these channels are slower to open than the sodium channels, so they open after the sodium channels.

• Show that the potassium ions can now traverse the channel, which reduces the positivity of the intracellular space as
positive charges leave the cell.

• In our graph, indicate the increasing negativity (decreasing positivity) of the membrane potential.

• Write that the sodium channels are inactivated and the potassium channels are open, which allows positive charges to
leave the cell.

• Finally, redraw the plasma membrane.

• Redraw the sodium channel in its resting, closed, state.

- These channels transition to this state from the inactivated state as the membrane voltage decreases towards the
threshold.

• Draw sodium ions in the extracellular space and indicate that they cannot travel through the channel.

• Redraw the potassium channel with its activation gates in the open conformation.

• Draw potassium ions and indicate that they can continue to traverse the channel.

• Indicate that this is the hyperpolarization phase of the action potential because the potassium channels stay open a
little longer past when the membrane reaches the resting potential.

- Eventually the resting potential is achieved and the channels are ready to activate again.

• Indicate that the membrane potential dips below the level of the resting state (becomes slightly more negative).

• Write that this is the hyperpolarization phase of the action potential where the sodium channels are reset in the closed
positions but some potassium channels are still open.

• Finally, indicate that around 4ms after the original change in membrane potential began (time = 5ms), the membrane
potential again reaches the resting state level.

Finally, let's address, in brief, the refractory periods – we discuss it in further detail in our Neuronal Signaling tutorial.

• Indicate that the absolute refractory period is the time when the sodium channels are open until they reset.

- No stimulus can cause another action potential during this period (no matter how strong the stimulus).

• In our graph, show the onset of this period at the point the voltage reaches the threshold and its ending at a point
during the repolarization phase.

• So can action potentials propagate in reverse?

- No, because the preceding channels are still in an absolute refractory period.

• Indicate that the relative refractory period is the time when most of the sodium channels have reset but some
 potassium channels are still open.

- It is possible for a stronger than normal stimulus to cause another action potential during this period.

• In our graph, show the onset of this period at the end of the absolute refractory period and its ending at the point that
the membrane potential returns to the resting potential.

• We only looked at what happens to a small section of axonal membrane, but understand that what was discussed
occurs along the entire length of the axon as the action potential propagates along the axon like a wave.

This ends our tutorial on action potentials.

UNIT CITATIONS: 1. Marieb, E. N. & Hoehn, K. Human Anatomy & Physiology, 10th ed. (Pearson, 2016). 2. Campbell,
N. A. & Reece, J. B. Biology, 7th ed. (Pearson Benjamin Cummings, 2005). 3. Alberts, B., Johnson, A., Lewis, J., Raff,
M., Roberts, K. & Walter, P. Molecular Biology of the Cell, 5th ed. (Garland Science, 2008). 4. Alberts, B., Bray, D.,
Hopkin, K., Johnson, A., Lewis, J., Raff, M., Roberts, K. & Walter, P. Essential Cell Biology, 3rd ed. (Garland Science,
2010). 5. Bear, M. F., Connors, B. W. & Paradiso, M. A. Neuroscience: Exploring the Brain, 4th ed. (Wolters Kluwer,
2016). 6. Haines, D. E. (edited by). Fundamental Neuroscience for Basic and Clinical Applications, 3rd ed. (Churchill
Livingstone Elsevier, 2006). 7. Rosenberg, R. N. (edited by). The Molecular and Genetic Basis of Neurologic and
Psychiatric Disease. (Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2008). 8. Herring, N. & Wilkins, R. (edited by). Basic Science for
Core Medical Training and the MRCP. (Oxford University Press, 2015). 9. Kuriyan, J., Konforti, B. & Wemmer, D. The
Molecules of Life: Physical and Chemical Principles. (Garland Science, 2012).

Powered by TCPDF (www.tcpdf.org)