Anatomy of Breathing:

Respiratory System
 To body
O2-rich blood The Relationship between
Circulatory and Respiratory
From
O2-poor blood
body
System
Right Left
lung lung

Right atrium
Left atrium
Valves Valves

Right
ventricle
Left
Prior Knowledge
From body ventricle
 Gas Transportation CO2 in
exhaled air
O2 in
inhaled air
Air spaces
CO2 O2 Alveolus
CO2 O2

O2
CO2

Capillaries
of lung

CO2-rich, O2-rich,
O2-poor CO2-poor
blood blood
Heart
Tissue
Alveolus capillaries

CO2 O2
Capillaries
Interstitial
CO2 O2
From heart To heart fluid

Tissue cells throughout body

 Blood Vessel: Capillaries Function

• The critical exchange of substances

between the blood and interstitial fluid
takes place across the thin endothelial
walls of the capillaries.
• The difference between blood
pressure and osmotic pressure drives
fluids out of capillaries at the arteriole
end and into capillaries at the venule
end.

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Figure 23.8a Figure 23.8b

Tissue cell

Diffusion Diffusion
of O2 and of CO2 and
nutrients out wastes out
of capillary of tissue
and into cells and
tissue cells into capillary
To vein

Interstitial fluid

LM
(b) Chemical exchange
5
 Blood Vessel: Capillaries Function

• Capillaries in major organs are usually filled to

capacity. Blood supply varies in many other
sites.
• Two mechanisms regulate distribution of blood in
capillary beds:
• Contraction of the smooth muscle layer in the
wall of an arteriole constricts the vessel.
• Precapillary sphincters control flow of blood
between arterioles and venules.

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 Gas Transportation
Red Blood Cells
(cells that carry oxygen)
However, there is one problem with
this simple gas delivery system:
‘Oxygen does not readily
dissolve in blood’

Solution:
Oxygen is carried in hemoglobin

Colorized SEM
molecules within red blood cells.
 A Closer Look: Hemoglobin
Heme
group Iron atom

O2
O2 loaded
in lungs
O2

O2 unloaded
in tissues

Polypeptide chain
A Closer Look: Hemoglobin
A globular protein with
quaternary structure.

It consists of 4 polypeptide
subunits:
• Two α chains
• Two β chains
Both α and β subunits consist
primarily of α-helical secondary
structure.

Each subunit has a non-

polypeptide component, called
heme/ haem/ porphyrin ring,
with an iron atom that binds
oxygen.
 A Closer Look: Hemoglobin
The oxygen-binding protein of RBC
Each hemoglobin molecule contains
four polypeptide chains.
• Two α chains are shown in purple
and blue
• Two β chains in brown and orange.
Each polypeptide chain contains a
haem/ heme group, shown in yellow
and red.

The heme group contains an iron atom,

which can bond reversibly with an
oxygen molecule
 Solving the Mystery How
Haemoglobin is a conjugated protein. This means it consists of .......
(1) ....... that is a protein part and a ....... (2) ....... that is non-protein.
It has a quaternary structure because it consists of ....... (3) .......
polypeptide chains.

These are of two different sorts, two ....... (4) ....... and two ....... (5)
.......
Each polypeptide has its own non-protein group attached, which
contains an ....... (6) ....... atom where one molecule of ....... (7) .......
may bind. The number of molecules of oxygen that may bind to one
molecule of haemoglobin is ....... (8) .......
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Hemoglobin

The Hemoglobin Dissociation Curve

Oxyhemoglobin
Dissociation curves for hemoglobin at 37°C and pH 7.4

The Hemoglobin Dissociation Curve

 The S-shaped curve
The shape of the hemoglobin dissociation curve
is Sigmoid ➔ can be explained by the behavior
of a hemoglobin molecule as it combines with or
loses oxygen molecules. The Hemoglobin Dissociation Curve

When an oxygen molecule combines with one

heme group, the whole hemoglobin molecule is
slightly distorted ➔The distortion makes it
easier for a second oxygen molecule to Sigmoid Curve
(not Hyperbolic)
combine with a second heme group ➔ easier
for a third oxygen molecule to combine with a
third heme group ➔ still easier for the fourth
and final oxygen molecule to combine.
 Solving the Mystery How!

A. 1 gram of pure hemoglobin combines with 1.3 cm3

oxygen. How much oxygen which can be carried in 1
dm3
B. Use the dissociation curve to answer these questions.
a. The partial pressure of oxygen in the alveoli of the
lungs is about 12 kPa. What is the percentage
The Hemoglobin Dissociation Curve
saturation of haemoglobin in the capillaries in the
lungs?
b. If 1 g of fully saturated haemoglobin is combined
with 1.3 cm3 of oxygen, how much oxygen will 1 g
of haemoglobin in the capillaries in the lungs be
combined with?

a. The partial pressure of oxygen in an actively

respiring muscle is about 2 kPa. What is the
percentage saturation of haemoglobin in the
capillaries of such a muscle?
b. How much oxygen will 1 g of haemoglobin in the
capillaries of this muscle be combined with?
 Carbon-Dioxide Transport
The amount of oxygen the haemoglobin carries is affected not only by the partial
pressure of oxygen, but also by the partial pressure of carbon dioxide.

Carbon dioxide transport in

the blood:
1. Carbon dioxide in solution
in the plasma;
2. As Hydrogencarbonate
ions in solution in the
plasma;
3. Combined with
carbonic acid
haemoglobin in the red
blood cells form
Carbamino-hemoglobin.
 Bohr Effect

Hemoglobin readily combines with

the hydrogen ions H+, forming
Hemoglobinic acid – Hhb ➔ H+ cause acidity ➔ promotes oxygen release
 Bohr Effect
The presence of a high partial The effect of changes in carbon dioxide concentration
on haemoglobin saturation
pressure of carbon dioxide causes
hemoglobin to release oxygen.

• High concentrations of carbon

dioxide are found in actively
respiring tissues, which need
oxygen;
• High carbon dioxide concentrations
cause hemoglobin to release its
oxygen even more readily than it
would otherwise do.
 Bohr Effect
The hemoglobin
‘mops up’ the
hydrogen ions which
are formed when
carbon dioxide
dissolves and
dissociates.

High concentration of hydrogen ions means a low pH ➔ during the carbonic acid
dissociates, the blood would be very acidic (the hydrogen ions were left in solution)
➔ By removing the hydrogen ions from solution, hemoglobin helps to maintain the
pH of the blood close to neutral ➔ It is acting as a buffer.