Comparative Anatomy

of
Respiratory System
 Respiratory System
Is a system consisting of specific organs and
structures used for the process of respiration in an
organism
 General function
• Respiration is the act or process of inhaling or exhaling
• Respiration includes:
Ventilation is the pumping of water in gills and air in lungs
External Respiration is exchange of gases with the
environment
Internal Respiration is essential gases then are exchange
with the tissues in the respective capillary beds
 Gas exchange in animals
CO2 O2

Gill filament
CO2
Body wall O2
Gill

Fish Blood vessels

Flatworm

Tracheoles Trachea
Mammalian lung Blood vessels
O2 Trachea

Spiracles
CO2
CO2 O2

O2
Alveoli

Mammal
CO2

Terrestrial arthropod Spiracle

 Respiratory Organs
 GILLS
• Vertebrate gills are designed for water
breathing
• Mechanism of ventilation depends on
whether the gills are located internally
or externally

INTERNAL GILLS

EXTERNAL GILLS
Lungfish
 Respiratory Organs
 LUNGS
• Vertebrate lungs are designed for air breathing
• Elastic bags that lie within the body
• Volume expands when air is inhaled and
decreases when air is exhaled
 Respiratory Organs
 GAS BLADDERS
• Are filled with the air
• Swim bladders are used to control the
buoyancy of a fish
 Respiratory System
SWIM BLADDERS

Gas or swim bladders of fishes may be located high in

the cavity to remain upright
 Swim Bladder
• Red glands (gas glands) is a network of small
arteries
– Provide oxygen to swim bladder

Figure 12.5: Swim bladder

(red) of fish.

Figure 12.6: Rete mirabile

in fish, red indicates high
oxygen concentration.
 Swim Bladder

FIGURE 17.38
Route of sound transfer
to the inner ears of
fishes. (a) In some fishes,
the swim bladder includes
anterior extensions that
contact the inner ear. Ostariophysi
(b) In other fishes, the
Weberian ossicles, a tiny
series of bones, connect the
swim bladder to the inner
ear.
 Swim Bladder (cont.)
• Weberian ossicles
– Swim bladder may act as sound chamber

Figure 12.7: Weberian

Figure 12.8: Weberian ossicles.
apparatus for transmitting swim
bladder vibrations to ear.
 Swim Bladder & Lungs
• Every vertebrate has lung
diverticulum
– Pneumatic sac
• Which came first?
• Physostomous
– Esophagus connected to swim
bladder
• Physoclistous Figure 12.3: Swim bladders
and urodele lungs.
– Esophagus not connected to
swim bladder
 Respiratory Organs

• Gas bladders differs in lungs with 2 ways

1) Gas bladders are usually situated dorsal to the
digestive tracts
2) Gas bladders are not paired
• Oxygen is released into the bladder
• Gas in the swim bladder is mainly oxygen
Cutaneous respiration

 Respiration through the skin

 Amphibians rely heavily in cutaneous respiration

 Cutaneous respiration: up to 30% total gas
exchange

Anguilla anguilla (ikan sidat eropa= European eel)

Plaice fish, up to 30% gas
exchange by cutaneous respiration
Sea snakes can supplement up to 30% of their oxygen intake
via cutaneous respiration across the skin on their sides and back.
Adult Plethodontid salamander, lack lungs and gills and depend
entirely on cutaneous respiration to meet their metabolic needs.
Cutaneous respiration on
MAMMALS
Bats, take advantage of cutaneous respiration across their wellvascularized
wing membranes to eliminate as much as 12% of their total carbon dioxide
waste, but they take up only 1% or 2% of their total oxygen requirement
through this cutaneous route
 Cutaneous respiration on
BIRDS & REPTILES?
Feathers and poorly vascularized skin of birds preclude
cutaneous respiration. Similarly, in reptiles, the surface
covering of scales limits cutaneous respiration.

However, in areas between scales (at the hinges of scales)

and in areas with reduced scales (e.g., around the cloaca), the
skin is heavily vascularized to allow some cutaneous
respiration.
Many turtles pass the cold winter in hibernation safely at
the unfrozen bottom of ponds where the limited respiration
around their cloaca is sufficient to meet their reduced
metabolic needs.
Tricobatrachus robustus
Telmatobius culeus
Monopterus albus,
uses predominantly
cutaneous respiration
during its early life
 Accessory Air-breathing Organs

Air-breathing fishes. Fishes that temporarily breathe air

usually live in waters where oxygen depletion occurs
seasonally or frequently. Gulping air supplements
depressed oxygen uptake through gills and helps a fish
through short periods of hypoxia.
Hoplosternum thoracatum (catfish), gulps air and swallows it into its
digestive tract. Oxygen in the gulped air diffuses across the wall of the digestive
tract into the bloodstream
The electric eel Electrophorus gulps and holds air in its
mouth to expose capillary networks of the mouth to oxygen
Mnierpes use gills for air breathing

Mnierpes macrocephalus

Malacoctenus boelhkei
Chorioallantoic in birds
acts as respiratory organs
Fetal Circulation

Figure 13.33: Circulation of mammalian

 Ventilatory Mechanism
1) CILIA MECHANISM

 For small animal (protochordates)

with metabolic demands modest:
Cilia lines the routealong which
water current flows.

 In large vertebrates, the respiratory

channels often retain cilia, but they
are involved in clearing surface
debris:
 ciliated & mucous cell
 Surfactant: lowers surface tension,
helps stabilize these compartments,
and maintains their structural
integrity as elaborated surfaces for
respiratory exchange.
 Ventilatory Mechanism
2) MUSCULAR MECHANISM
•Ventilation on vertebrate usually depends on much muscle
action
•Ram ventilation is a technique by which the fish’s own
forward locomotion contributes to gills ventilation. They
open their mouths slightly, allowing water to enter and
irrigate the gills (tuna & sharks).

a.Water ventilation : Dual pump (two-stroke pump)

suction phase & force phase
FIGURE 11.10 Water-breathing fishes: dual pump. In most fishes, the buccal and opercular cavities form dual pumps on opposite sides of
the gill curtain. Muscle action expands both cavities, represented by the falling pistons (downward dark arrows, left) in the suction phase.
During the force phase, muscles contract to compress the cavities, represented by the rising pistons (upward dark arrows, right). As pressure
within each cavity falls and rises, more water (suction phase) is drawn in and expelled (force phase). Because of the slight difference in pressure
between buccal and opercular cavities, water is almost continuously moving from buccal to opercular cavity. The valves of the mouth and
operculum prevent reverse flow of water. Thus, a one-way and more or lesscontinuous flow of water across the gills is established.
 Ventilatory Mechanism
2) MUSCULAR MECHANISM
b.Air ventilation : Buccal pump (Pulse pump)
2-stroke (expansion & compression)

(based on Ambystoma tigrinum)

 Ventilatory Mechanism
2) MUSCULAR MECHANISM
b.Air ventilation : Buccal
pump (Pulse pump) 4-stroke
(expansion & compression)

(based on Amphiuma tridactylum)

 Ventilatory Mechanism
2) MUSCULAR MECHANISM
c. Air ventilation : Aspiration pump
FIGURE 11.15 Ventilation in the adult lamprey.
(a) Longitudinal section. Because the adult lamprey’s
mouth often is attached to prey, water must
alternatively enter as well as exit via pharyngeal slits.
Thus, gill ventilation in the lamprey, unlike most fishes, is
tidal. (b) Frontal section of three gill arches. Double arrows
indicate tidal flow of water: black, inflow; gray, outflow.
Hagfish

Hagfish (ikan pasuk) Craniata; Myxinidae; Myxine

Habitat: marine, river, lake
FIGURE 11.16 Ventilation in
the hagfish. (a) Longitudinal
section.Water (indicated by
arrows) enters via the nostril, not
the mouth, to reach the pharynx.
The scrollshaped velum rolls up
and down as the branchial
pouches contract to drive this
current across the gills and out
the gill pores. (b) Cross section
of the scroll-shaped velum. (c)
Lateral view of velum scrolling
and unscrolling to move water
through the pharynx. (d) An
individual branchial pouch
showing the sites of entry and
exit of water and the position of
the capillary beds within. The
muscular walls of these pouches
are compressed by contraction
but expanded by elastic recoil.
Respiratory System of Vertebrate
FISHES  Gills
•External gills: develop from surface ectoderm
and extend beyond the head
 Respiratory System
Internal Gills
•Develop from the pharynx as evaginations called
endodermal pouch (pharingeal pouch)
 Figure 3.6: Pharyngeal arches.
 Each pharyngeal arch contains a cartilage, artery,
mesoderm component, and cranial nerve.
 Pharynx (fair-inks) with slits

Figure 3.1: Pharyngeal

arches
(a) lateral view and
(b) ventral cross section.
 Pharyngeal arches- associated with slits
 Anamniotes (lower vertebrates)- have gill slits
 Amniotes- have slits in embryo but gills never form
 Endodermal pouches- pharyngeal pouch that grows
toward surface of animal
 Ectodermal groove- pharyngeal groove on outside that
grows toward each pouch
 Post-trematic demibranch

Pre-trematic demibranch

48
FIGURE 11.17 Shark gill. (b) Structural units include a hemibranch
and a holobranch as well as a functional respiratory unit.
 (a)
• In tetrapods, 1st
pharyngeal slit
becomes auditory tube
and middle ear cavity
• Aortic arches housed
by pharyngeal arch
(b)

Figure 3.4: Early pharyngeal

devel.. of shark (a) early stage
(b) later stage.
Internal Gills
•The general structure of a mature gill is composed of several
parts:
- gill bars (support the gill)
- gill rakers (prevents food particles from entering)
- gill rays
- gill filaments and gill lamellae
 6
5
4
3
 Respiration in Aquatic Vertebrates
Countercurrent exchange Concurrent exchange

• Moving the water past the Blood (85% Water (100% Blood (50%
Water (50%
O2 saturation)
O2 saturation) O2saturation) O2 saturation)
gills in the same direction
permits countercurrent 85% 100%
flow. 80% 90%
– This process is an extremely 70% 80% No further
efficient way of extracting net diffusion
oxygen. 60% 70%

– Blood flows through a gill 50% 60% 50% 50%

filament in an opposite 40% 50% 40% 60%
direction to the movement 30% 40% 30% 70%
of water. 20% 30% 20% 80%
– The blood in the blood 10% 15% 10% 90%
vessels always encounters
water with a higher oxygenBlood (0% Blood (0%
concentration, resulting in O saturation)
2
O2 saturation)
the diffusion of oxygen into Water(15% Water(100%
O2 saturation) O2saturation)
the blood vessels.
(a) (b)
 Gill Slit

Agnathans Cartilaginous Bony Fishes

Fishes (Teleost)
Pouched Gills Septal Gills Opercular Gills
6 – 15 Gills pouched 5 “naked” gill Usually 5 gill
slits slits
Hag fish & Lampreys Sharks & Rays Eels, Milk Fish,
Salmon
 Respiratory System
AGNATHAN
•Pouch gills
•6 – 15 pairs of gill pouches
•No gill slits ????.........
•Hagfishes and Lampreys
FIGURE 11.16 Ventilation in
the hagfish. (a) Longitudinal
section.Water (indicated by
arrows) enters via the nostril, not
the mouth, to reach the pharynx.
The scrollshaped velum rolls up
and down as the branchial
pouches contract to drive this
current across the gills and out
the gill pores. (b) Cross section
of the scroll-shaped velum. (c)
Lateral view of velum scrolling
and unscrolling to move water
through the pharynx. (d) An
individual branchial pouch
showing the sites of entry and
exit of water and the position of
the capillary beds within. The
muscular walls of these pouches
are compressed by contraction
but expanded by elastic recoil.
Hagfish (Mixyne glutinous)
 Respiratory System
CARTILAGINOUS FISHES
•Septal gills
•5 “naked” gill slits
•Sharks and Rays
 Respiratory System
BONY FISHES
•Opercular gills (operculum)
•5 gill slits
•Eels, Salmon, and Milk Fish
Pseudobranch
AMPHIBIANS
AMPHIBIANS
They are cool blooded meaning that they don’t
need much oxygen

Lung
•2 simple sacs
•Do not have diaphragms and they force air into
their lungs by moving their mouth (like
swallowing)  Buccal pumping

•The short trachea devides into 2 short bronchi

leading to the apex of each lung. The opening from
trachea to pharynx is called the glottis supported
by the larynx
 SKIN
• Highly vascularized and moist
• Very thin and allows water to go through it
• Aquatic amphibians and salamander
 cutaneous respiration

 GILLS (aquatic salamanders & tadpoles)

• Made up of very thin blood vessels surrounded
by water channels
• When amphibians undergo metamorphosis into
adult, gills are lost
Amphibian larva
(Ex: Salamander)
FIGURE 11.23 Ventilation of
tadpole gills. (a) The
chondrocranium and major
components of the visceral
cranium are illustrated. (b) The
floor of the buccal cavity is raised
and lowered (double-headed
arrow) to produce the movement
of water. Two sets of muscles are
primarily responsible. The
orbitohyoideus depresses the
floor, and the interhyoideus
elevates it.
 Ascaphus truei

Ascaphus montana
FIGURE 11.24 Gill ventilation
in the tailed frog larva. The
tadpole uses the extensive oral
sucker around its mouth to
establish a secure attachment to
the undersurface of a rock in a
fast-moving stream (solid
arrows). (a) When the oral
sucker is attached, water (solid
arrows) to irrigate the gills
enters through the nares, passes
through the buccal cavity across
the gill curtain, and then exits.
(b) Water removed from the area
to which the oral suction was
attached creates a vacuum that
helps the sucker hold the rock.
The oral valve prevents a break
in this seal.
Ventilation in Adult frog
Scanning electron
microscopy of the inner
surface of the lung of
Melanophryniscus
stelzneri. A, Third order
septa (S) divide the
lumen into edicular
spaces (Ed)
D, Dome-shape
protrusions (arrows) are
located on the septum (S)
of the lung.
C, Portion of the septum (S) with small area of
ciliated epithelium (Ci)
B, Respiratory epithelium.
The network of capillaries is
covered by thin cytoplasmic
process of pneumocytes
(Pp). Cell bodies (Cb) are
located deep in the capillary
meshes or at the side of
capillaries. Longer microvilli
(arrowhead) are located near
the border between two
cells.
REPTILIANS
 REPTILIAN RESPIRATORY ORGAN

LUNGS
•Rely largerly on lungs for gas exchange
•Lungs are large & varied
•Have large lung volumes (10X more volume
compared to animals)
•Trachea & bronchi are larger than for amphibian
and are supported by cartilaginous rings
Squamata
FIGURE 11.26 Lung
ventilation in a lizard. (a) The
lungs are located in the thorax,
surrounded by ribs and
connected to the trachea.
Compression and expansion of
the rib cage force air in or out
of the lungs. (b) Cutaway view
of the internal lining of the
lungs showing numerous
faveoli that collectively give the
lining a honeycomb appearance.
The internal faveoli of the lungs
increase their respiratory
surface area and function in gas
exchange with capillaries lining
their walls.
Birds do not have these. This is a
scanning electron micrograph of
the alveoli-like faveoli in which
savannah monitor lizards absorb
oxygen from air. As in mammals,
fresh and “old” air must mix in
such dead-end terminal gas
exchange sacs. Along with the
presence of a diaphragm and the
absence of air sac reservoirs
outside the thoracic cavity
demarcated by the diaphragm,
these faveoli emphasize the
essential un-birdy-ness of reptilian
breathing (fv=faveolus; ps & ss
are primary and secondary septa
separating the faveoli).
 REPTIL RESPIRATORY ORGAN

LUNGS
Supplemental cutaneous respiration is significant,
but for the most part, paired lungs meet their
respiratory need

Filling of the lungs in all the reptiles is based on

aspiration pump

Exhalation is passive
Lung ventilation of crocodile
Fig. 3. Aspiration breathing by a combination of hepatic piston pumping (via the diaphragmaticus
muscle) and pubic bone rotation (via the ischiopubis muscle) in Alligator mississippiensis . From
Carrier and Farmer (2000). 
 REPTIL RESPIRATORY ORGAN

SQUAMATE ventilation (snakes and lizards)

•do not have diaphragm muscle for lung
ventilation
•The muscles used for locomotion are the same
used for their respiratory systems
•Contracting and flexing body muscles move their
ribs and lungs
Fig. 4. Costal aspiration and gular pumping during locomotion in a savannah
monitor lizard, Varanus exanthematicus . In the upper X-ray negative images,
air in the lungs appears dark and bones appear white. In the lower schematic
diagrams, the laterally projected areas of the lungs and gular cavity are shown
in grey. (A) Costal expiration. (B) Costal inspiration and gular cavity filling.
(C) Hyobranchial elevation pumps air into the lungs. A single or multiple
pumps may occur between each large expiration. From Owerkowicz et al.
(1999).
REPTIL RESPIRATORY ORGAN
 REPTIL RESPIRATORY ORGAN

LUNGS
•In most SNAKES, there are usually 2 regions of
the lung:
1) Anterior respiratory portion OR paveoli
2) Posterior saccular portion OR avascular
•Submergence in water: have large lungs for large
amount of oxygen for long dives (Hydrophinae &
Arochordidae)
Lung of Snakes
 REPTIL RESPIRATORY ORGAN

LUNG ventilation in Testudines

•Shells make lung expansion of TESTUDINES
(turtle) more difficult
•Must use their limbs for lung ventilation to expel
air from the lungs and pushing their limbs out of
their shells expands the lungs
•Have complex lungs/ large surface areas and
volumes
Digital reconstruction of the
skeleton, lungs and hypaxial
muscles of C. serpentina (b, dorsal
view; c dorsolateral view). Ap,
tendinous aponeurosis; Lu, lung;
Oa, M. obliquus abdominis; Ta, M.
transversus abdominis; Tr, trachea;
Tt, M. transversus thoracis.
Lung ventilation in semi-
aquatic turtles
Platysternon megacephalum
Figure 1: Evolution of
ventilatory mechanisms
in Amniota.

(a)Plesiomorphic costal
ventilation (1) is employed in
Lepidosauria (for example, V.
exanthematicus) and in taxa
with a diaphragm (Mammalia:
Hylobates sp.; 2), hepatic
piston (Crocodylia: A.
mississippiensis; 4) and sternal
pump (G. domesticus; 5), but
not in turtles (Testudines: C.
serpentina), which have a
unique abdominal muscle-
based mechanism (3).
Aves
 BIRD RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Lungs are small but compact.

Bird lung are not elastic. They do not change in
size when bird breath.
Specialized elastic structure called air sac are
connected to the lungs and draw air through the
lungs
Bones contains air, not marrow
 This diagram shows the location of
many bellows-like air sacs in a bird.
Unlike anything found in alligators
Trachea or lizards, these air sacs are scattered
throughout the body. They are
Cervical Air Sac supported by attachments to skeletal
Air Sac in Interclavicular Air structures so that they will not
Cavity of
Sac
collapse. They hold fresh air until
Humerus Syrinx the bird exhales, when they are
Bronchus Anterior Tho-racic Air Sac squeezed to provide the bird’s gas
exchanging parabronchial tubes with
Lung
fully oxygenated air. Image:
Posterior
Thoracic Air Courtesy of Dr. David Menton.
Sac
Abdominal Air Sac
Trachea is divided into 2 primary bronchi
termed mesobronchi, that do not enter the
lung but extend posteriorly to reach the
posterior air sacs
 BIRD RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Has 2 lungs connected to trachea and ventilated

by an aspiration pump

No Diaphragm

Inhalation into the air sac is produced by

expansion of the chest and abdominal cavity. The
sternum swing forward and downward while the
ribs and chest wall move laterally
 BIRD RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Exhalation is caused the movement sternum

upward and backward while the ribs and chest wall
move medially contracting abdominal cavity
 One-way Flow (Unidirectional Air
Flow)
The lungs are continously ventilated in a single
direction with freshly inspired air during both
inspiration and expiration

The lungs of bird more completely ventilated

than lungs of mammals
MAMMALS
 MAMMALS RESPIRATORY ORGAN (LUNGS)

More finely, homogenously devided and more efficient

 The trachea, bronchi and bronchioles that transport gas to and
from the alveoli is called the respiratory tree
 No gas exchange occurs along the conducting passageway of the
respiratory tree until air reaches the alveoli
 Mammals Respiratory Track

is supported by rings of hyaline or fibrous

cartilage and elastic connective tissue joins the
ring and completes the tube where cartilage is
absent.
- splits into 2 bronchi branches each enters its
lung anterior and dorsal to the center
- devides into numerous membranous
bronchioles
- alvelolus (tiny air sacs): increase surface area
where actual gas exchange occurs
 MAMMALS LUNG VENTILATION

•Aspiration pumps ventillates of mammals

•Breathing is depend on the rib muscles and
diaphragm
 MAMMALS LUNG VENTILATION

 AIR FLOW IS BIDIRECTIONAL

• Trachea primary bronchi secondary
bronchi tertiary bronchi alveoli
 One-way Flow (Unidirectional Air
Flow)
The lungs are continously ventilated in a single
direction with freshly inspired air during both
inspiration and expiration

The lungs of bird more completely ventilated

than lungs of mammals
Thank ye