Respiratory Systems in Humans and Animals

RESPIRATORY
SYSTEMS IN
HUMANS
AND
ANIMALS
H’NG TAI MEI 方岱嵋师
Types of Respiratory System
•Gas exchange is the process of oxygen uptake from the environment

and carbon dioxide release to the environment by living organisms.
•Respiratory gas exchange takes place on the respiratory surface in
the respiratory structure of living organisms.
•The respiratory structure is adjusted to maximise the rate of gas
exchange between living organisms and their environments.
•Small and simple organisms have simple respiratory system
structures whereas bigger and more complex organisms have
specialised organs for gas exchange.
Respiratory Structure and Breathing Mechanism of
animals
Insects
Fish
Frogs
Insects
•Bodies of insects are protected

by a hard exoskeleton made of
chitin 几丁质.
•The exoskeleton is waterproof
and impermeable to gases.
•Gas exchange between the cell
body and the atmosphere takes
place through the tracheal
system.
Adaptations of respiratory
structure in insects
1. The tracheal system of insects consists of a complex network

of tubes of trachea and tracheoles that deliver
oxygen-containing air to every cell of the body.
2. Trachea that is strengthened with chitin rings to prevent it
from collapsing, divides into small tracheole tubes that
connect to every cell of the body.
3. Atmospheric air enters the tracheal system through the
spiracles, which are external respiratory pores with valves
that can open and close.
Adaptations of respiratory
structure in insects
4. The pathway of oxygen diffusion from the

environment into the tracheal system:
Spiracle 🡪 Trachea 🡪 Tracheole 🡪
Body cells
5. Insect such as the grasshopper also have

air sacs to pump air into and out of the
tracheal system when the insect is active.
Respiratory mechanism of the
tracheal system
1. For inactive smaller insects, gas exchange in their tracheal
system happens through simple diffusion.
2. For larger insects like grasshoppers, exhalation involves
contraction of abdominal muscles to compress the abdomen.
3. The reduction in the volume of the abdominal cavity raises the
air pressure in the tracheal system, pushing air out through
the spiracles into the environment.
4. During inhalation, the abdominal muscles relax and the
volume returns to normal.
5. The air pressure in the trachea reduces and higher
atmospheric pressure pushes the surrounding air into the
tracheal system through the open spiracles.
Respiratory mechanism of the
tracheal system
6. Air sacs are present throughout the main

tracheal system for some insects such as
grasshoppers.
7. Air sacs filled with air are deflated to
push air through the trachea, when
insects are physically active.
8. A circulatory system is not needed to
transport respiratory gases to cells in the
body of insects.
Adaptations of tracheoles for gas
exchange
1. A tracheole is a fine terminal respiratory tube that ends within each
cell body of the insect.
2. The large number of tracheoles provides a very large surface area
for gas exchange.
3. Tracheole walls are thin and permeable and make up the
respiratory surface of insects.
4. When cells (or muscles) relax, body fluids diffuse into the
tracheoles and air (as well as oxygen) in the tracheoles dissolves
oxygen moves into the cells in the body.
5. This will speed up the simple diffusion process of oxygen to cells.
Adaptations of tracheoles for gas
exchange
6. Carbon dioxide released during respiration

is diffused out from the cells, following the
concentration gradient of carbon dioxide
from the cells into tracheoles, then the
trachea and finally into the environment
through the spiracles.
Fish
•Fish are multicellular aquatic animals that breathe through the
gills.
Adaptations in the respiratory
structure of fish
1. Most fish have four gills that are protected by
the operculum on each side of the pharynx.
2. Gill arch
i. A bony skeleton which support the gills
ii. There are two lines of filaments on each arch
arranged in a “V” shape
iii. Gill rakers that are located on the gill arches
function to filter sand from the water so prevent
injury to the gill lamellae
Adaptations in the respiratory
structure of fish
3. Gill filaments
i. Gill filaments have multiple thin and flat projections called gill
lamellae on both sides, the upper surface and below it. The
presence of many filaments and lamellae provides a large surface
area for gas exchange.
ii. The thin epithelial layer (one cell thick) that coats the filament
and lamellae shortens the distance and increases the rate of
oxygen diffusion into and carbon dioxide out of the blood
capillaries.
iii. Gill lamellae are supplied by a network of blood capillaries to
ease transportation of respiratory gases to the gas exchange
surface.
H’NG TAI MEI 方岱嵋师 Breathing Mechanism of a
Fish
Inhalation:
1. Mouth opens, floor of the buccal
cavity is lowered and operculum
bulges outwards to the sides to
increase volume and reduce air
pressure within the buccal cavity.
2. The high water pressure outside
closes the operculum opening.
3. Water is pushed into the buccal
cavity due to high pressure.
H’NG TAI MEI 方岱嵋师 Breathing Mechanism of a
Fish
Exhalation:
1. Mouth closes, buccal cavity floor
ascends and operculum moves
inwards to reduce the volume and
increase water pressure within the
buccal cavity.
2. The high water pressure inside the
buccal cavity pushes water through
the filament and outside via the
opening of the operculum.
Gaseous Exchange at the Respiratory
Surface of Gill Lamellae
1. Fish maximise gas exchange efficiency by the countercurrent
exchange mechanism, where the blood flowing through the
gills (deoxygenated) is in the opposite direction of the water
flowing over the gills (oxygenated).
2. This mechanism ensures that diffusion takes place on the
entire surface area of the lamellae and maximises the oxygen
intake.
3. When water (rich in dissolved oxygen) is sucked in and flows
through the lamellae, oxygen is diffused following its partial
pressure gradient into the blood capillaries to be transported
to the cell bodies.
Gaseous Exchange at the Respiratory
Surface of Gill Lamellae
4. At the same time, carbon dioxide

from the blood capillaries is diffused
out following its partial pressure
gradient into the atmosphere.
5. Finally, water that has flowed through
the respiratory surface of the
lamellae is forced out when the
operculum opens.
Frogs
•Amphibians, such as frogs,
have a respiratory structure
adapted for gas exchange
on land and in water.
•Three respiratory structures
of frogs are skin, lungs and
lining of the mouth.
•On land, frogs use their
moist skin and lungs for gas
exchange.
Frogs
•When in water and when frogs are less active, gas exchange
happens through their skin.
•Only a small amount of gas exchange happens through the
lining of the mouth.
•Oxygen is diffused through the membrane and moist throat
into the blood capillary network beneath it.
•In the same way, carbon dioxide is diffused into the blood
capillaries in the mouth and released through the nostrils.
Adaptation of frog skin and
mechanism of gas exchange
1. Skin mucous glands: release mucus to ensure that frog’s
skin is always moist to dissolve respiratory gases.
2. Thin and permeable skin: helps in increasing the rate or
diffusion of respiratory gases.
3. Dissolved oxygen in surrounding water is diffused through the
moist skin into the blood capillaries following the concentration
gradient of oxygen.
Carbon dioxide is diffused from the blood capillaries through
the skin and released into the environment following the
concentration gradient of carbon dioxide.
Adaptation of the lungs of
a frog for gas exchange
1. Frog’s lungs are pair of air sac organs
connected to its mouth through an
opening called glottis that can be
opened and closed.
2. The walls of lungs are thin and moist
and are the respiratory surface of gas
exchange.
3. The walls of the lungs also have a
network of blood capillaries
underneath them.
4. Oxygen dissolves into the moist lungs

before being diffused following the
partial pressure gradient of oxygen
through the lung walls into the blood
capillaries.
In exchange, carbon dioxide is diffused
following partial pressure gradient from
the blood capillaries and into the lungs
to be excreted via exhalation.
5. The blood capillary network

transports respiratory gases to and
from the cell bodies through the
blood circulatory system.
Gaseous Exchange within the
mouth
•The upward and downward movement of the floor of the

buccopharyngeal also enables gas exchange to take place
through the thin and moist membrane layer present in the
mouth.
•There are a network of blood capillaries underneath the
membrane layer responsible for transporting respiratory gases
to the cell bodies.
Respiratory Mechanism of
the Lungs of a Frog
•Inhalation
Mouth and glottis close, the floor of
the buccopharyngeal cavity moves
downwards to increase the volume
of the mouth cavity and to reduce
the air pressure.
The surrounding air that is of higher
atmospheric pressure will flow in
through the nostrils into the mouth.
the Lungs of a Frog
•Pumping air into the lungs

To channel air into the lungs, the
nostril close, the glottis opens and
the floor of the buccopharyngeal
cavity moves upwards to reduce
the volume of the mouth cavity as
well as increase the air pressure
which then pushes the air from the
mouth cavity into the lungs.
Gas exchange takes place in the
lungs.
the Lungs of a Frog
•Exhalation
Glottis opens while the lung and
abdominal muscles contract to reduce
the volume of the lungs and increase
their pressure.
The air in the lungs is forced out
through the glottis into the mouth and
then out through the nostrils.
The contraction of the lung muscles is
helped by the elasticity of the lungs.
Breathing mechanism of humans

Inhalation
1. The external intercostal muscles contract while the internal
intercostal muscles relax.
2. This action causes the ribcage to move upwards and
outwards.
3. At the same time, the diaphragm muscles contract and the
diaphragm moves downwards to become flat and horizontal.
4. Both mechanisms cause the volume of the thorax cavity to
increase and the pressure of thorax cavity decreases.
5. The higher atmospheric pressure from outside forces air into
the lungs.
Breathing mechanism of humans

Exhalation
1. The external intercostal muscles relax while the internal
intercostal muscles contract.
2. This action causes the ribcage to move downwards and
inwards.
3. At the same time, the diaphragm muscles relax and the
diaphragm curves upwards to form a dome.
4. Both mechanisms cause the volume of the thorax cavity to
reduce and the pressure of thorax cavity increase.
5. Air is pushed out of the lungs.
Gaseous Exchange in Humans
Partial pressure of oxygen and

carbon dioxide
•Gas diffusion depends on the partial
difference between two areas
•Gas diffuses from an area where its
partial pressure is higher to an
area where its partial pressure is
lower / down a partial pressure
gradient
Gaseous exchange and the
transport of respiratory
gases
1. Blood from blood capillaries surrounding the alveoli carries low
partial pressure of oxygen and high partial pressure of carbon
dioxide
2. Oxygen diffuse from alveoli to
blood capillaries following the
partial pressure gradient
3. Carbon dioxide diffuse from blood
capillaries to alveoli following the
partial pressure gradient
H’NG TAI MEI 方岱嵋师 Transport of respiratory
gases from the lungs to the
tissues
• Oxygen is diffused from the alveoli (high partial pressure of
oxygen) into the blood capillaries (low partial pressure oxygen)
and binds with haemoglobin in the red blood cells (erythrocytes)
to form oxyhaemoglobin
tissues
tissues
Gas exchange between
blood and tissue
1. Active cell bodies carry out metabolism using oxygen and

releasing carbon dioxide
2. This causes cell bodies to have low partial pressure of
oxygen and high partial pressure of carbon dioxide
compared to blood capillaries
3. Oxygen will be diffused following the partial pressure gradient
from the blood capillaries into the cell bodies
4. Carbon dioxide diffuses following the partial pressure gradient
from the cell bodies and into the blood capillaries, and then is
transported back to the lungs to be eliminated through
exhalation
Blood capillaries:
-Partial pressure
of CO2 is low
-Partial pressure
of O2 is high
Cell bodies:
-Partial pressure
of CO2 is high
-Partial pressure
of O2 is low
Transport of carbon dioxide in
the blood circulatory system
•Carbon dioxide is transported in
three ways:
1. Bicarbonate ions (70%)
2. Carbaminohaemoglobin (23%)
3. Dissolve gas in the blood
plasma (7%)
Transport of carbon dioxide from
body cells to tissue capillaries
•
body cells to tissue capillaries
lung capillaries to the alveolus
•
lung capillaries to the alveolus
H’NG TAI MEI 方岱嵋师 Health issues related to
the human respiratory
system
•World Health Organisation (WHO) defines chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease (COPD) as a lung disease characterized by
blockage of the airways that disrupts normal respiration
•COPD includes
1. Asthma
2. Chronic bronchitis
3. Emphysema
Asthm
a
1. Causes chronic inflammation of the airways (bronchus &
bronchioles)
2. Lifelong disease
3. Symptoms are prolonged cough, shortness of breath and
wheezing 喘息/气喘
4. Asthma attacks are triggered by irritants and allergens
a) Irritant consist of particles such as dust, smoke, chemicals, cold
weather and others
b) Allergens cause an allergic response of the body’s immune system,
consisting of protein molecules, e.g.: mite, spore, pollens etc.
Asthm
a
5. Effects of asthma on human respiratory system
i. During an asthma attack, the walls of the airway become
swollen and inflamed. Mucus excretion will increase and the
airway muscles will contract, narrowing the lumen of the
airway
ii. The effort to breathe through the narrow and congested
airway becomes difficult and produces a wheezing sound
iii. The congestion and blockage of the bronchioles causes
reduced oxygen to the alveoli causing other respiratory
problems such as hypoxemia (low levels of oxygen) and
can damage other organs in the body
iv. An airway that is constantly congested and inflamed will
eventually injure the lungs
Chronic
bronchitis
1. Is the inflammation of the bronchiole tubes
2. Symptoms:
i. Prolonged cough with excessive production of mucus
within the bronchiole tubes for a long period of time (3
months, more than 1 year for 2 years in a row)
ii. Tight chest
iii. Difficulty in breathing
iv. Wheezing
v. coughing with sputum 痰
vi. Runny and blocked nose
vii. Sore throat 喉咙痛
viii. Lethargy 嗜睡
Chronic
bronchitis
3. Cause: repeated inflammation of the bronchiole tubes by
irritants (such as cigarette smoke and air pollution) and
allergens
4. Effects of chronic bronchitis on human respiratory system
a) Inflammation and mucus production narrows the lumen
of the bronchus, therefore blocking the airway to the
lungs and from the lungs, causes the patient difficulty in
breathing and hypoxemia 低氧血症
b) Inflammation injures the cilia on the bronchiole lining and
exposes the patient to bacterial and viral infection
Emphysema
1. Involves the damage to alveoli causing difficulty in breathing
2. Emphysema happens when the alveoli walls are damaged,
collapse and combine with adjacent alveoli to form larger air
sacs
3. Main symptom: difficulty in breathing (dyspnea 呼吸困难)
4. Exposure of lungs to irritants
causes damage to the elastic
alveoli walls and elastic fibres
in the bronchiole tubes
Emphysema
5. Effects of emphysema on human respiratory system
a. Damage to the alveoli walls prevents gas exchange
between the respiratory surface and air within the alveoli
b. The walls between the adjacent alveoli that collapse
reduces the number of individual alveoli and form larger
alveoli that will reduce the total surface area of respiration
c. Alveoli walls that lose their elasticity cause difficulties in
exhalation
d. Damage to the elastic fibres within the walls of the
bronchiole tubes will destroy the airways and trap air into
the large alveoli at the end

Respiratory Systems in Humans and Animals

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Respiratory Systems in Humans and Animals

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RESPIRATORY

Types of Respiratory System

•Gas exchange is the process of oxygen uptake from the environment

•Bodies of insects are protected

1. The tracheal system of insects consists of a complex network

4. The pathway of oxygen diffusion from the

5. Insect such as the grasshopper also have

6. Air sacs are present throughout the main

6. Carbon dioxide released during respiration

4. At the same time, carbon dioxide

4. Oxygen dissolves into the moist lungs

5. The blood capillary network

•The upward and downward movement of the floor of the

•Pumping air into the lungs

Breathing mechanism of humans

Breathing mechanism of humans

Gaseous Exchange in Humans

Partial pressure of oxygen and

1. Active cell bodies carry out metabolism using oxygen and

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