THOUGHT FOR THE WEEK

Gossips & Jealousy bring:

• Additional problems
• Subtraction of love
• Multiplication of enemies
• Division of friendship

• GOSSIPS SEPARATES THE BEST OF FRIENDS…

Unit 3 Exchange of gases in humans

Objectives
o Describe gas exchange in simple organisms.
o Explain why some organisms do not need specialised
respiratory system.
o List the respiratory adaptations that enable organisms to live on
land.
o Describe the main types of animal respiratory systems.
o List the steps in the path taken by air as it moves from the
outside of the animal to the internal gas exchange site in the
lungs.
o Describe the role played by each part of the respiratory tract
o Explain how mammalian respiratory system is adapted to
reduce water loss.
o Distinguish between the concept of breathing and respiration.
o Describe the muscular processes involved in breathing.
o Explain the concept of respiratory capacity and respiratory
efficiency.
o Describe how environmental hazards can affect respiration.
Identify and describe the four stages of aerobic cellular respiration.
 INTRODUCTION
• All living organisms carry out respiration, resulting in the release of
energy within the cells. Respiration can be considered as two closely
related processes:

1. External respiration/gas exchange- the process by which oxygen from

the air is taken into the body of the organism, and carbon dioxide is
passes on into the air.

2. Internal respiration/cellular respiration – is the breakdown of organic

substances within cells to release energy.
All respiratory surfaces have the following features to maximise the
diffusion of gases:
• A large, well ventilated surface area
• A thin surface for rapid diffusion
• A moist surface so that gases are in solution
• A closely associated blood transport system.

GAS EXCHANGE AND THE SIZE OF AN ORGANISM

• One factor that determines how much oxygen an animal needs is its size.

• The larger the organism is, the more oxygen it requires.

• The animal’s gas exchange surface must permit oxygen intake at a rate
adequate to meet its demand. Also, the surface must permit an adequate
rate of carbon dioxide release.
Do Activity 3.1
 1cm Area of one side = 1cm
Total surface of cube = 6cm
1cm
Volume of cube = 1 cm3
Surface area to volume ration: 6:1
1cm

The surface area of the cube represents the area of an organism’s gas exchange
surface. The volume of the cube represents the volume of the organism. How
does the surface area to volume ratio change as the value of 1 is increased? Or,
how does the ratio of the area of the gas exchange surface to volume of the
organism change as 1 is increased? What problems can this cause for the large
organism?
•Look at the above figure. Calculate the surface area and volume of a cube with
side 2cm. Then calculate the total surface area to volume ration for this cube.
Record all your results in a table similar to the table given below. .
•Repeat step a for cubes with 3cm, 4 cm, 5cm, 6cm, 7cm and 8cm.
•Plot a graph with the length of the side on the horizontal axis and both surface
area and volume on the vertical axis.
Length of side (cm) Total surface area (cm2) Volume (cm3) Surface area to volume ration
(cm3)

1 6 1 6:1

8
RESPIRATORY SURFACES OF ORGANISMS: SMALL OR LARGE

Simple & Small Organisms

• Single-celled organisms exchange gases directly across their cell
membrane.
• However, the slow diffusion rate of oxygen relative to carbon dioxide
limits the size of single-celled organisms.
• Simple animals that lack specialized exchange surfaces have flattened,
tubular, or thin shaped body plans, which are the most efficient for gas
exchange.
• However, these simple animals are rather small in size.
Large & Complex Organisms

• Large animals cannot maintain gas exchange by diffusion across their

outer surface.
• They developed a variety of respiratory surfaces that all increase the
surface area for exchange, thus allowing for larger bodies.
• A respiratory surface is covered with thin, moist epithelial cells that allow
oxygen and carbon dioxide to exchange.
• Those gases can only cross cell membranes when they are dissolved in
water or an aqueous solution, thus respiratory surfaces must be moist.
Methods of Respiration

1. The Body Surface/Cutaneous Respiration

• Flatworms and annelids use their outer surfaces as gas exchange surfaces.
• Earthworms have a series of thin-walled blood vessels known as capillaries.
Gas exchange occurs at capillaries located throughout the body as well as
those in the respiratory surface.
• Amphibians use their skin as a respiratory surface.
• Frogs eliminate carbon dioxide 2.5 times as fast through their skin as they do
through their lungs.
• Eels (a fish) obtain 60% of their oxygen through their skin.
• Humans exchange only 1% of their carbon dioxide through their skin.

Constraints of water loss dictate that terrestrial animals must develop more
efficient lungs.
2. Gills/branchiae

• Gills greatly increase the surface area for gas exchange.

• They occur in a variety of animal groups including arthropods (including
some terrestrial crustaceans), annelids, fish, and amphibians.
• Gills typically are convoluted outgrowths containing blood vessels
covered by a thin epithelial layer.
• Typically gills are organized into a series of plates and may be internal (as
in crabs and fish) or external to the body (as in some amphibians).

• Gills are very efficient at removing oxygen from water: there is only 1/20
the amount of oxygen present in water as in the same volume of air.
• Water flows over gills in one direction while blood flows in the opposite
direction through gill capillaries. This countercurrent flow maximizes
oxygen transfer
Tracheal Systems
• Many terrestrial animals have their respiratory surfaces inside the body
and connected to the outside by a series of tubes.
• Tracheae are these tubes that carry air directly to cells for gas exchange.
• Spiracles are openings at the body surface that lead to tracheae that
branch into smaller tubes known as tracheoles.
• Body movements or contractions speed up the rate of diffusion of gases
from tracheae into body cells. However, tracheae will not function well in
animals whose body is longer than 5 cm
Lungs
• Lungs are ingrowths of the body wall and connect to the outside by as
series of tubes and small openings.
• Lung breathing probably evolved about 400 million years ago. Lungs are
not entirely the sole property of vertebrates, some terrestrial snails have
a gas exchange structures similar to those in frogs.
Do Activity 3.2
Human Respiratory System
 LETS IDENTIFY PARTS OF THE
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM!

1. The SINUSES are hollow spaces in the

bones of the head. Small openings
connect them to the nose. The functions
they serve include helping to regulate the
temperature and humidity of air breathed
in, as well as to lighten the bone structure
of the head and to give resonance to the
voice.
2. The NOSE (nasal cavity) is the preferred
entrance for outside air into the
respiratory system. The hairs that line the
wall are part of the air-cleaning system.
3. Air also enter through the MOUTH
(oral cavity), especially in people who
have a mouth-breathing habit or whose
nasal passages may be temporarily
obstructed, as by a cold or during heavy
exercise.
• 4. The ADENOIDS are lymph tissue at the top
of the throat. When they enlarge and
interfere with breathing, they may be
removed. The lymph system, consisting of
nodes (knots of cells) and connecting vessels,
carries fluid throughout the body. This
system helps to resist body infection by
filtering out foreign matter, including germs,
and producing cells (lymphocytes) to fight
them.

• 5. The TONSILS are lymph nodes in the wall

of the throat (pharynx) that often become
infected. They are part of the germ-fighting
system of the body.

• 6. The THROAT (pharynx) collects incoming

air from the nose and mouth and passes it
downward to the windpipe (trachea).

• 7. The EPIGLOTTIS is a flap of tissue that

guards the entrance to the windpipe
(trachea), closing when anything is
swallowed that should go into the esophagus
and stomach.
• 8. The VOICE BOX (larynx) contains
the vocal chords. It is the place where
moving air being breathed in and out
creates voice sounds.
9. The ESOPHAGUS is the passage
leading from the mouth and throat to
the stomach.
10. The WINDPIPE (trachea) is the
passage leading from the throat
(pharynx) to the lungs.
11. The LYMPH NODES of the lungs
are found against the walls of the
bronchial tubes and windpipe.
12. The RIBS are bones supporting
and protecting the chest cavity. They
move to a limited degree, helping the
lungs to expand and contract.
• 13. The windpipe divides into the two
main BRONCHIAL TUBES, one for
each lung, which subdivide into each
lobe of the lungs. These, in turn,
subdivide further.
14. The right lung is divided into
three LOBES, or sections. Each lobe is
like a balloon filled with sponge-like
tissue. Air moves in and out through
one opening -- a branch of the
bronchial tube.
15. The left lung is divided into two
LOBES.
16. The PLEURA are the two
membranes, actually one continuous
one folded on itself, that surround
each lobe of the lungs and separate
the lungs from the chest wall.
• 17. The bronchial tubes are
lines with CILIA (like very small
hairs) that have a wave-like
motion. This motion carried
MUCUS (sticky phlegm or
liquid) upward and out into the
throat, where it is either
coughed up or swallowed. The
mucus catches and holds much
of the dust, germs, and other
unwanted matter that has
invaded the lungs. You get rid
of this matter when you cough,
sneeze, clear your throat or
swallow.
18. The DIAPHRAGM is the
strong wall of muscle that
separates the chest cavity from
the abdominal cavity. By
moving downward, it creates
suction in the chest to draw in
air and expand the lungs.
• 19. The smallest subdivisions of
the bronchial tubes are called
BRONCHIOLES, at the end of
which are the air sacs or alveoli
(plural of alveolus).
20. The ALVEOLI are the very
small air sacs that are the
destination of air breathed in.

• 21. The CAPILLARIES are blood

vessels that are imbedded in the
walls of the alveoli. Blood passes
through the capillaries, brought
to them by the PULMONARY
ARTERY and taken away by the
PULMONARY VEIN.

• While in the capillaries the blood

gives off carbon dioxide through
the capillary wall into the alveoli
and takes up oxygen from the air
in the alveoli.
Blood Transports Gases Between Lungs and Tissues
Alveolus – Label & Explain this diagram
2 1

3
?

4
5
 Alveoli : Primary site for gas exchange
Structure Functional

• Alveoli are arranged in • Greatly increases surface area

grape-like clusters for gas exchange

• Thin walls - one cell thick • Increases rate of diffusion of oxygen and
carbon dioxide between alveoli and blood

• Large contact area between

• Densely covered with blood capillaries alveoli and blood supply.

• Inner walls are lined with • Lowers the surface tension within the
pulmonary surfactant alveoli and prevents them from collapsing

• Walls of alveoli are moist • Aids rate of diffusion of gases

• Prevents alveoli from over-filling with air

and causing damage to the thin walls
• Alveoli contain stretch receptors
Do Activity 3.3
 The Mechanics of Breathing

Breathing Involves 2 Phases:

• Inhalation/Inspiration
• Exhalation/Expiration
 Inhalation/inspiration
1. the diaphragm and the intercostal muscles
contract.

1. The diaphragm moves downwards increasing the

volume of the thoracic (chest) cavity,

1. the intercostals muscles pull the ribs up expanding

the rib cage and further increasing this volume.

• This increase of volume lowers the air pressure in

the alveoli to below atmospheric pressure.

• Because air always flows from a region of high

pressure to a region of lower pressure, it rushes in
through the respiratory tract and into the alveoli.

• This is called negative pressure breathing,

changing the pressure inside the lungs relative to
the pressure of the outside atmosphere.
Expiration/exhalation
1. the diaphragm and
intercostal muscles relax.

1. This returns the thoracic

cavity to it's original
volume, increasing the air
pressure in the lungs, and
forcing the air out.

• At rest, we breath 15-18

times a minute exchanging
about 500 ml of air.
 Composition of atmospheric air and expired air in a typical subject.
Note that only a fraction of the oxygen inhaled is taken up by the lungs.

Component Atmospheric Air (%) Expired Air (%)

• N2 (plus inert gases) 78.62 74.9

• O2 20.85 15.3
• CO2 0.03 3.6
• H2O 0.5 6.2
100.0% 100.0%
Do Activity 3.4
 Rate of Breathing
• Breathing is an involuntary response.

• Controlled by a section of the brain called the medulla

oblongata

• Sends impulses (electrical messages) to the intercostal

muscles of the ribs and diaphragm causing them to contract
producing inspiration

• When this impulse stops, the intercostal muscles and

diaphragm relax producing expiration

• The amount of CO2 in the blood determines the rate of

breathing

• When CO2 levels are high, breathing rate is fast

• When CO2 levels are low, breathing rate is slow

• Breathing rates vary with age and physical activity

Human Respiratory System
Functions:
– Works closely with circulatory system, exchanging gases
between air and blood:
• Takes up oxygen from air and supplies it to blood (for cellular
respiration).
• Removal and disposal of carbon dioxide from blood (waste product
from cellular respiration).

Homeostatic Role:
– Regulates blood pH.
– Regulates blood oxygen and carbon dioxide levels.
 Transport of carbon dioxide in the blood
• Carbon dioxide is formed in the tissue as a result of
metabolic activity. As the pressure of carbon dioxide is
higher in the tissues, it diffuses into the blood.

• In the blood plasma carbon dioxide combines with the

water to form carbonic acid. Small amounts of CO2 is
transported in the way.

• CO2+ H2O----- H2CO3 (CARBONIC ACID)

• Carbon dioxide - transported from the body cells back to the lungs as:

• 1. bicarbonate (HCO3) - 60% - formed when CO2 (released by cells making ATP)
combines with H2O (due to the enzyme in red blood cells called carbonic
anhydrase) as shown in the diagram below.

• 2. carbamino hemoglobin - 30% - formed when CO2 combines with hemoglobin

(hemoglobin molecules that have given up their oxygen)

• 3. dissolved in the plasma (carbonic acid)- 10%

Transport of Carbon dioxide
Transport of Carbon dioxide
 Hemoglobin

 Found in red blood cells

 Red pigment found in blood

Functions:
– Transports oxygen
– Helps buffer blood
 Hemoglobin helps buffer blood
As carbon dioxide is picked up from tissues it is
converted into carbonic acid:

CO2 + H2O H2CO3 H+ + HCO3 -

Carbon dioxide + water Carbonic acid hydrogen ion + carbonate ion

Hemoglobin picks up most H + ions, so they don’t acidify the blood.

Hemoglobin transport oxygen
Hemoglobin Loading and Unloading of Oxygen
Do Activity 3.5
CELLULAR/INTERNAL RESPIRATION

Cellular respiration is the breakdown of food substances by oxidation with the

release of energy in living cells.

There are two types of cellular respiration: Aerobic Respiration & Anaerobic
Respiration

1. AEROBIC RESPIRATION
The word aerobic means oxygen is needed for this chemical reaction.

Definition: It is the break down of food substances in the presence of oxygen

to release a large amount of energy, along with the release of carbon dioxide
and water as waste products.

The process is much more complicated than the summary. It involves a series
of enzymes and redox reactions. These reactions take place in the
Mitochondria – the energy producing factories of the cells.
 GLYCOLYSIS (1 glucose molecule)

Pyruvate (3c) Pyruvate (3c) Site: cytosol.

+2ATP, +2NADH

OXYDATIVE DECARBOXYLATION Site:

mitochondria
Acetyle (2c) Acetyle (2c)
+2NADH

Combines with Co-enzyme A

Acetyle Co-enzyme A Acetyle Co-enzyme A

KREB or CITRIC ACID CYCLE (oxidized to) Site: matrix of

mitochondria
+6NADH,
2CO2, H2O, ATP 2CO2, H2O, ATP +2FADH2, 2ATP
ATP – adeno triphosphate
o Glucose is broken down to produce a high energy phosphate molecule called ATP (adeno
triphosphate).
o It is the energy currency in cells & tissues and it is used to drive cellular processes.
o The formation of 1 mole of ATP requires 30kJ of energy. 38 moles of ATP produces 1140 kJ
of energy.
o ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is present in all cells.
o It is the universal energy supplier for all biochemical functions. Therefore, it must be readily
available for all living things. This is where Cellular Respiration comes in…
o The sole purpose of breaking down sugars is to provide a continuous supply of energy
for the production of ATP.
o The ATP produced drives all the biological activities in all living things. Mitochondria is the
site for cellular respiration

SIMPLIFIED VERSION OF CELLULAR RESPIRATION

Sugar + Oxygen CO2 + H2O

Chemical
Reaction
ADP + P ATP
The overall equation for aerobic respiration.

Glucose + oxygen carbon dioxide + water + energy

Word Equation

C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy

Symbol Equation
ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION

Definition: Aerobic respiration is the breakdown of food substances in the

absence of oxygen to release a small amount of energy compared to aerobic
respiration.

Word equation
o It is a less efficient form of respiration and was first observed in
microorganisms as yeast and fungi.
o Yeast cells for instance, can respire aerobically and anaerobically.
o Yeast can convert glucose to alcohol – ethonal and carbon dioxide.
o The small amount of energy produced (2 ATP for 1 mole of glucose) is
sufficient to support the yeast. This anaerobic respiration of yeast is called
anaerobic fermentation and the equation is as follows:
Glucose ethanol + carbon dioxide + energy (small amount of energy released)
 FERMENTATION
•The process by which complex organic compounds, such as glucose, are broken down by
the action of enzymes into simpler compounds without the use of oxygen.
•Fermentation results in the production of energy in the form of two ATP molecules, and
produces less energy than the aerobic process of cellular respiration.
•The other end products of fermentation differ depending on the organism.
•In many bacteria, fungi, protists, and animals cells (notably muscle cells in the body),
fermentation produces lactic acid and lactate, carbon dioxide, and water. In yeast and most
plant cells, fermentation produces ethyl alcohol, carbon dioxide, and water.
•The glucose is only partially broken down as the ethanol still contains locked enrgy. That is
why only a small amount of energy is produced. Anaerobic respiration is slightly different in
humans. Instead of alcohol, humans produce lactic acid.

ANAEROBIC RESPIRAITO IN HUMANS

When muscles cells are starved of oxygen during intense exercise that requires vigorous
muscular contractions, the cells start to respire anaerobically to produce the extra energy , and
lactic acid is produced in the process. The reaction is as follows:

Glucose lactic acid + energy (small amount of energy released)

However, aerobic respiration can only sustain the contraction for a short period of time.
This is because the lactic acid that is produced will slowly build up in the muscles. Here,
the muscles are said to incur an oxygen dept. Lactic acid may reach a concentration high
enough to cause fatigue. Muscular pai is due to the toxic lactic acid, hence the body needs
to rest and recover.
During the resting period, lactic acid is sent to the liver where it is oxidized to produce
energy. This energy may be used to convert the remaining acid back to glucose which is
then transported back to the muscles. When the oxygen debt has been paid and all the
lactic acid oxidized, the body is then ready for another vigorous activity.

Oxygen Debt
•Physiological state produced by vigorous exercise, in which the lungs cannot supply all
the oxygen that the muscles need.
•In other words, the lungs and bloodstream, pumped by the heart, cannot supply sufficient
oxygen for aerobic respiration in the muscles.
•In such a situation the muscles can continue to break down glucose to liberate energy for
a short time using anaerobic respiration.
•This partial breakdown produces lactic acid, which results in a sensation of fatigue when
it reaches certain levels in the muscles and the blood.
•This explains why it is possible to run faster in a sprint than over longer distances.
During the sprint, the muscles can respire anaerobically. Once the vigorous muscle
movements cease, the body breaks down the accumulated lactic acid on top of the
‘normal’ breakdown of glucose in aerobic respiration, using up
So why does it take more oxygen to recover then?
•You needed to replace the oxygen the body needed.
•Breathing rate and heart rate are elevated (to remove CO2) and this needs
more oxygen.
•Body temperature and metabolic rate is increased and this needs more
oxygen.
•Adrenaline and Noradrenaline are increased which increases oxygen
consumption.
•So after exercise there are other factors causing an increase in oxygen needs
as well as repaying the lack of oxygen during exercise.
What has Lactic Acid got to do with it?
•Lactic acid is a by product of exercising without using oxygen (anaerobially). It is essential this is removed
but it is not necessarily a waste product. It is recycled into other useful chemicals:
•During prolonged intensive exercise (e.g. 800m race) the heart may get half its energy from lactic acid. It is
converted back to pyruvic acid and used as energy by the heart and other muscles.
•It is thought that 70% of lactic acid produced is oxidised, 20% is converted to glucose (energy) in the liver.
10% is converted to protein.

How long does it take to remove lactic acid?

•About 1 hour if cooling down with gentle exercise.
•It can take 2 hours or more if you don't warm down with gentle exercise.

WHAT ARE METABOLIC PROCESSES?

Metabolic processes are all the chemical processes and activities that occur within the body. In tissue
respiration, you have learnt that complex organic substances are broken down into simpler substances,
accompanied by the release of energy. This is an example of a metabolic process. More specifically this
process is a catabolic activity. Another example is the deamination of amino acids to form urea in the liver.
In the body, another form of metabolic process is the formation of complex substances from simpler
substances. This is known as anabolic activity. One example is the conversion of glucose to glycogen in the
liver and muscle cells. Both catabolic and anabolic activities occur continuously in living organisms.
As such, the sum of all catabolic and anabolic processes is termed metabolism.

CATABOLISM + ANABOLISM = METABOLISM

RATE OF BREATHING
Breathing is an involuntary response and it is controlled by a section of the brain called the
medulla oblongata. It sends impulses (electrical messages) to the intercostals muscles of the
ribs and diaphragm causing them to contract producing inspiration . When this impulse stops,
the intercostals muscles and diaphragm relax producing expiration
The amount of CO2 in the blood determines the rate of breathing . When CO2 levels are high,
breathing rate is fast. When CO2 levels are low, breathing rate is slow. Breathing rates vary with
age and physical activity
 Diseases of the Respiratory System
• Respiratory rate at rest: 10 to 14 inhalations/minute.
• In one day, an average human:
– Breathes 20,000 times
– Inhales 35 pounds of air

• Most of us breathe in air that is heavily contaminated with solid

particles, ozone, sulfur oxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides,
and many other damaging chemicals.

• Breathing contaminated air can cause a number of diseases

including asthma, bronchitis, emphysema, and lung cancer.
 1. Asthma:
• Condition in which breathing is impaired by
constriction of bronchi and bronchioles, cough,
and thick mucus secretions.

• The severity and incidence of asthma has risen

dramatically in recent years, especially in
children. May be fatal if not treated.

Causes:
Attacks may be precipitated by inhalation of
allergens (e.g.: pollen, cats, and cockroach
proteins), pollutants, infection, or emotional
stress.

Treatment:
Alleviates symptoms (e.g.: immuno-suppressors,
bronchodilators), but is not a cure.
2. Bronchitis:
• Inflammation of the mucous membranes of the bronchi.
• May present with cough, fever, chest or back pain, and
fatigue.

Causes:
Associated with smoking, pollution, and bacterial or viral
infections.

3. Pneumonia:
• Acute inflammation of the lungs.

• Symptoms include high fever, chills, headache, cough, and

chest pain.

Causes: Bacterial, fungal, or viral infections.

Treatment: Antibiotics or other antimicrobials.

4. Emphysema:
• Permanent and irreversible
destruction of alveolar walls,
resulting in loss of lung elasticity and
gas exchange surface.

Symptoms include shortness of breath,

difficulty exhaling, cough, weakness,
anxiety, confusion, heart failure, lung
edema (swelling), and respiratory
failure.

Causes: Smoking, pollution, old age, and

infections.

Treatment: Oxygen to help breathing.

No cure.
• 5. Lung Cancer: Cancerous growth
that invades and destroys lung
tissue. Very high fatality rate.

Symptoms include bloody sputum,

persistent cough, difficulty
breathing, chest pain, and repeated
attacks of bronchitis or pneumonia.

Causes: Smoking (50% of all cases)

and pollution (radon, asbestos).
Smokers are 10 times more likely to
develop lung cancer than
nonsmokers.

Treatment: Surgery is most effective,

but only 50% of all lung cancers are
operable by time of detection.
Other treatments include radiation
and chemotherapy.
• Cigarette smoke is one of the worse air pollutants.

– Over 1 million people start smoking every year.

– Kills about 350,000 people every year in U.S.

– Contains 4000 different chemicals.

– Each cigarette smoked subtracts about 5 minutes from life expectancy.

– Cigarette smoke paralyzes cilia in airways, preventing them from

removing debris and from protecting delicate alveoli.

– Frequent coughing is the only way airways can clean themselves.

– Cigarette smoke also causes fetal damage, which can result in

miscarriage, premature birth, low birth weight, and poor
development.
Interpret this graph!!
Human Fetus Exchanges Gases with Mother’s Blood
through the Placenta
 Spirogram
• Tidal volume:
Amount of air expired with each breath.
• Vital capacity:
The maximum amount of air that can be forcefully exhaled after maximum
inhalation.
 Terms Used to Describe Lung Volumes and Capacities

Term Definition
Lung Volumes The four nonoverlapping components of the total lung
capacity
Tidal volume The volume of gas inspired or expired in an unforced
respiratory cycle
Inspiratory reserve volume The maximum volume of gas that can be inspired during
forced breathing in addition to tidal volume
Expiratory reserve volume The maximum volume of gas that can be expired during
forced breathing in addition to tidal volume
Residual volume The volume of gas remaining in the lungs after a maximum
expiration
Lung Capacities Measurements that are the sum of two or more lung volumes
Total lung capacity The total amount of gas in the lungs after a maximum
inspiration
Vital capacity The maximum amount of gas that can be expired after a
maximum inspiration
Inspiratory capacity The maximum amount of gas that can be inspired after a
normal tidal expiration
Functional residual capacity The amount of gas remaining in the lungs after a normal tidal
expiration
Spirometer – measures volume of air
breathed in or out
 Oxygen Debt
• Physiological state produced by vigorous exercise, in which the lungs
cannot supply all the oxygen that the muscles need.

• In other words, the lungs and bloodstream, pumped by the heart, cannot
supply sufficient oxygen for aerobic respiration in the muscles.

• In such a situation the muscles can continue to break down glucose to

liberate energy for a short time using anaerobic respiration.

• This partial breakdown produces lactic acid, which results in a sensation

of fatigue when it reaches certain levels in the muscles and the blood.

• This explains why it is possible to run faster in a sprint than over longer
distances. During the sprint, the muscles can respire anaerobically. Once
the vigorous muscle movements cease, the body breaks down the
accumulated lactic acid on top of the ‘normal’ breakdown of glucose in
aerobic respiration, using up
 So why does it take more oxygen to recover then?
• You needed to replace the oxygen the body needed.
• Breathing rate and heart rate are elevated (to
remove CO2) and this needs more oxygen.
• Body temperature and metabolic rate is increased
and this needs more oxygen.
• Adrenaline and Noradrenaline are increased which
increases oxygen consumption.
• So after exercise there are other factors causing an
increase in oxygen needs as well as repaying the lack
of oxygen during exercise.
 What has Lactic Acid got to do with it?

• Lactic acid is a by product of exercising without using oxygen

(anaerobially). It is essential this is removed but it is not
necessarily a waste product. It is recycled into other useful
chemicals:
• During prolonged intensive exercise (e.g. 800m race) the heart
may get half its energy from lactic acid. It is converted back to
pyruvic acid and used as energy by the heart and other
muscles.
• It is thought that 70% of lactic acid produced is oxidised, 20% is
converted to glucose (energy) in the liver. 10% is converted to
protein.

• How long does it take to remove lactic acid?

• About 1 hour if cooling down with gentle exercise.
• It can take 2 hours or more if you don't warm down with gentle
exercise.
 TEST 1 NEXT WEEK

UNIT1: AUTOTROPHIC NUTRITION

UNIT2: HETEROTROPHIC NUTRITION