Gaseous

Exchange
Distinguish between:
• Breathing: The mechanical process whereby air moves in & out of the lungs

• Gaseous Exchange: The exchange of oxygen & carbon dioxide across a

gaseous exchange surface

• Cellular Respiration: The gradual release of energy from organic compounds

(glucose) in the presence of oxygen
The need for gaseous exchange:
 The main function of the respiratory system is to absorb oxygen from
the atmosphere and make it available to the cells for respiration
 Carbon dioxide is released by the cells during respiration and must
continually be removed through gaseous exchange
 The increased carbon dioxide concentration in the body can
dangerously lower the pH of body fluids
Requirements for effective gaseous exchange

Large surface Thin

The gaseous exchange
The gaseous exchange surface must be thin – for
surface must be large – to quick and easy diffusion
maximise gaseous
exchange
DIFFUSION: the movement of
molecules from a high concentration to
a low concentration until equilibrium is
reached
Requirements for effective gaseous exchange

Moist Transport system

The gaseous exchange

The gaseous exchange
surface should be moist –
surface must have a
gases must be in solution
transport system – for
in order to diffuse through
efficient transport of gases
a membrane
Requirements for effective gaseous exchange

Well protected

The gaseous exchange NB: Different organisms in

surface must be well
protected – since it is
very thin and therefore
fragile
different habitats meet
the requirements
mentioned for an efficient
gaseous exchange system
in different ways. Look at
the following table
ORAGNISM HABITAT ADAPTATIONS FOR GASEOUS EXCHANGE

Dicotyledonous plant Terrestrial -Diffusion through stomata.

-Large surface for gaseous exchange (spongy mesophyll cells)
-Thin cell walls which are moist

Earthworm Terrestrial -Large surface area= the total area of the earthworms skin
-Diffusion
-Elongated body increases the surface area
-Earthworms skin is thin
-Moist dure to secretions
Insect (locust) Terrestrial -Air enters body through small openings (spiracles)
-Large surface area of tubes (trachea)
-Walls of trachea are thin and moist

Bonefish Aquatic -Gills

-Gills have filaments (thin) which increase surface area
-moist due to water

Mammal Terrestrial -Lungs, alveoli (increases surface area)

-walls of alveoli are thin and moist
HUMAN GASEOUS EXCHANGE
 Structure of the respiratory system
 The air passages transport air to and from the lungs and includes the nasal
passages, pharynx (throat), trachea (windpipe), bronchi and bronchiole.

 Nasal passage:
• small hairs in the nasal cavities filter larger particles from inhaled air.
• Nasal cavities are lined with mucous membranes.
• Goblet cells in columnar epithelium cells secrete mucous that traps dust and germs
• Cilia on these cells perform sweeping movements in the direction away from the
lungs
 Pharynx (throat):
• Nasal cavities open into the pharynx
• Pharynx leads to two openings, the glottis which leads to the trachea and the gullet
which leads to the ooesophagus
• Pharynx is lined with mucous membranes.

 Trachea (windpipe):
• A long, tubular structure located at the front of the oesophagus
• The larynx (voicebox) houses our vocal cords is located at the top of the trachea
• At the top of the larynx is the epiglottis which closes the glottis during swallowing
(prevents food from entering the trachea and choking a person)
• The walls of the trachea are kept open by C-Shaped cartilage rings
• The trachea is lined with a mucous membrane with ciliated columnar epithelial cells
that secrete mucous

 Bronchi & Bronchiole:

• Trachea divides into the right and left bronchus that enter the right and left lung
respectively
• The bronchi are also lined with a mucous membrane
• Inside the lungs, the bronchi further divide into smaller branches, lose their cartilage
and form bronchioles
• Each bronchiole ends in an infundibulum which consists of groups of alveoli
 Lungs(external structure):
• Located in chest, surrounded and protected by 12 pairs of ribs
• Intercostal muscles found between ribs
• Right lung consists of 3 lobes, the left lung has two
• Lungs are spongy and elastic
• Each lung is surrounded by a double membrane = pleura
• There is intrapleural fluid between the two pleural membranes that prevents friction
when the lungs expand or shrink
• Lungs are conical and rest at the bottom on a dome shaped muscle called the
diaphragm
 Lungs(internal structure):
• Inside the lungs, the bronchi branch out and become smaller forming bronchiole
• As the bronchiole branch out into smaller bronchiole, they lose their cartilage and
end in a infundibula (lung sacs) which consists of groups of alveoli
• Alveoli are surrounded by a group of capillaries
• The pulmonary arteries enters the lungs, pulmonary veins leave the lungs
Respiratory muscles

 Intercostal muscles: are located between consecutive ribs and consist of two sets:
• External intercostal muscles
• Internal intercostal muscles
Ventilation of the lungs

 Ventilation of the lungs takes place in two phases:

• Inhalation: air moves from the environment into the lungs
• Exhalation: Air moves from the lungs to the environment
 Ventilation of the lungs
Inhalation
• Diaphragm contracts, becomes flatter
• External intercostal muscles contract
• Ribs move upward and outward
• Thoracic cavity enlarges
• Lungs expand
• Total volume of thoracic cavity
increases
• Pressure in the thoracic cavity
decreases
• Air flows into lungs
Exhalation
• Diaphragm relaxes, dome shape
• External intercostal muscles relaxes
• Ribs move downward and inward
• Thoracic cavity reduces in size
• Lungs expand
• Total volume of thoracic cavity is
reduced
• Pressure in the thoracic cavity
increases
• Air flows out of lungs
Gaseous exchange in the
alveoli
 Exchange of O2:
• Inhaled air in the alveoli has higher O2 concentration than the blood in the surrounding
blood capillaries
• A diffusion gradient is therefore created between the air in the alveoli and the blood in the
capillaries
• The O2 dissolves in a thin layer of moisture that lines the alveoli and diffuses through the
alveoli and into the blood.
Gaseous exchange in the
alveoli
 Exchange of CO2:
• The blood that reaches the alveoli from the tissues has a higher CO2 concentration than
the air in the alveoli
• A diffusion gradient is created between the blood in the capillaries and the air in the alveoli
• Co2 diffuses from the blood in the capillaries through the capillaries and into the air in the
alveoli
Gaseous exchange in the
tissues
 Exchange of O2:
• Oxygenated blood reaches the tissues
• Blood in the capillaries has a higher O2 concentration than the tissues
• A diffusion gradient is created between the blood an the tissues
• O2 diffuses through the capillaries into the tissue fluid
Gaseous exchange in the
tissues
 Exchange of CO2:
• The cells have a higher CO2 concentration than the blood in the capillaries
• A diffusion gradient is created between the tissues and the blood
• CO2 diffuses from the cells into the tissue fluid and then diffuses into the blood
Transport of gases in the
blood
 Transport of O2:
• Most of O2 that diffuses from the air in the alveoli to the blood combine with haemoglobin
(red iron containing protein) in the red blood cells to form oxyhaemoglobin.
• A very small portion of O2 dissolves in the blood plasma
• O2 is transported via the heart to all tissues in the above two ways
Transport of gases in the
blood
 Transport of CO2:
• Most CO2 that diffuses from the cells into the blood in the capillaries combine with water to
form carbonic cid, after which it dissociates and is transported as bicarbonate ions
• A portion combines with haemoglobin to form carbaminohaemoglobin
• The smallesr portion of CO2 dissolves in the blood plasma
• CO2is transported in the above 3 ways via the heart to the lungs
 Homeostatic control of breathing
 Chemoreceptors in the aorta and at the jugular arteries are sensitive to CO2 changes in the
blood
 As soon as CO2 concentration in the blood increases (during exercise) the chemoreceptors
send nerve impulses to the respiratory and cardiovascular centres in the brain
 The respiratory centre sends nerve impulses t the diaphragm and intercostal muscles to
accelerate contraction and relaxation
 The rate of breathing increases and more CO2 air is exhaled
 The cardiovascular centre sends nerve impulses to the heart muscle and arterioles
 The heart rate increases, arterioles constrict and blood flows faster
 CO2 is transported to the lungs faster, where it can be exhaled
 Co2 concentration in the blood thus returns to normal
The effect of altitude on gaseous exchange
 With an increase in altitude, atmospheric pressure drops and so does the amount of
oxygen in the atmosphere
 People living at a high altitude usually have more RBC to transport a maximum amount
of O2 efficiently
 If a person living at sea level goes to an area high above sea level for awhile, their body
will adapt after a few days or even weeks and produce more RBC
 It is especially important for athletes living at sea level who plan to participate in a
competition at a higher altitude, to arrive at the higher altitude in advance. This gives
their body time to adjust
 If the athlete does not have time to adjust, they will become tired quickly
 Their body has too few RBCs to carry enough O2 to the muscle tissues for respiration
and consequent energy release
Diseases & abnormalities
 TB (Tuberculosis):
• Highly contagious, chronic bacterial infection of human tissues and organs, especially in
the lungs
• Causes: bacterium – Myobacterium tuberculosis
• Symptoms: persistent cough, tiredness, fatigue, weight loss, night sweats, chest pain,
blood in mucous coughed up
• Transmission: bacteria are released into the air when an infected person coughs,
sneezes, spits. The bacteria in the infected droplets spread through the air and can be
inhaled by a healthy person
• Treatment: can be cured with early diagnosis, aggressive course of antibiotics, treatment
lasts about 6 months