bio 统一小考-chapter 8

Types of respiratory system

gas exchange
the process of oxygen uptake from the environment and carbon dioxide release to
the environment by living organisms
take place on the respiratory surface of the respiratory structure
Respiratory structure is adjusted to maximise the rate of gas exchange between
living organisms and their environments.
Insects
Spiracles
small pores through which air enters and leaves through the tracheal system
10 pairs of spiracles on the thorax and abdomen of an insect
Each spiracle has valves which control the openinng and closing the spiracle
Trachea
A network of air tubes which open to the outside through spiracles
Supported by rings of chitin to prevent it from collapsing.
Tracheoles
fine tubes with thin and moist walls which end at muscle cell
Respiratory surfaces for exchange of gas
surrounded by fluid to facilitate the diffusion of gases.
exchange of gases occurs between tracheoles and muscle cells.
The large number of tracheoles provides a very large surface area for gas
exchange.
When muscle cell relax, body fluids diffuse into the tracheoles and air in the
tracheoles dissolves oxygen moves into the cells in the body.
This will speed up the simple diffusion process of oxygen to cells.
Carbon dioxide released during respiration is diffused out from the cells, followinng
the gradient of carbon dioxide from the cells into tracheoles, then the trachea and
finally into the environment through the spiracles
cells→trachea→spiracle
Respiratory structure: Tracheal systems
consists of spiracles, tracheae and tracheoles
pathway of air through the tracheal system is
spiracle →trachea→tracheole→body cells
 grasshopper have air sacs to pump air into and out of the tracheal system when the
insect is active
Respiratory mechanism of the tracheal system
Gas exchannge in their tracheal system happens through simple diffusion for
smaller insects
Exhalation呼气 involves contraction of abdominal muscles to compress压缩 the
abdomen腹部 for larger insects
Volume of the abdominal cavity down ; Air pressure up
During inhalation, the abdominal muscles relax and the volume returns to normal.
Air pressure down then higher atmospheric pressure pushes the air into the tracheal
system through the open spiracles.
Air sacs filled with air are deflated 放气 to push air through the trachea，when
insects are physically active.
A circulatory system循环系统 is not needed to transport respiratory gases to cells in
the body of insects.
Fish
Multicellular aquatic animals that breath through the gills.
Gills
Most fish have four gills
Protected by the operculum鳃盖 on each side of the pharynx咽
Respiratory structure of fish
Gill arch
A bony skeletonn which support the gills
Two lines of filaments on each arch arranged in a 'V' shape
Gill rakers that are located on the gill arches function to filter sand from the water so
prevent injury to the gill lamellae
Gill filaments
Mutiple thin and flat projections called gill lamellae on both sides, the upper surface
and below it. The presence of many filaments and lamellae provides a large surface
area for gas exchange.
The thin epithelial layer that coats the filament and lamellae shortens the distance
and increase the rate of oxygen diffusion into and carbon dioxide out of the
blood capillaries. （facilitated 促进diffusion of gases ）
Supplied by a network of blood capillaries to ease （easy） transportation of
respiratory gases to the gas exchange surface.
Inhalation
Mouth opens, then the floor of buccal cavity口腔 is lowered and operculum bulges
凸起 outwards to the sides to increase volume and reduce air pressure within the
 buccal cavity 口腔内
外界的高水压使鳃盖开口关闭
water is pushed into the buccal cavity due to high pressure.
Exhalation
Mouth closes, then the buccal cavity floor ascends上升 and operculum moves
inwards to reduce the volume and increase water pressure within the buccal cavity.
The high water pressure inside the buccal cavity pushes water through the filament
and outside via the opening of the operculum.
Gaseous Exchange at the Respiratory Surface of Gill Lamellae
Countercurrent flow of water and blood over the gill filaments in order to
maximise the rate of oxygen diffusion from water into the blood capillaries.
Ensures that diffusion takes place on the entire (all) surface area of the lamellae and
maximises the oxygen intake.
When water that is rich in dissolved oxygen will sucked in吸收 and flows through
the lamellae, oxygen is diffused扩散 following its partial pressure gradient innto the
blood capilaries to be transported to the cell bodies.
Carbon dioxide from the blood capillaries is diffused out following its partial
pressure gradient into the atmosphere.
The water that has flowed through the respiratory surface of the lamellae is forced
out when the operculum opens.
Frogs
Amphibians两栖动物
Respiratory structures of frogs : Skin, Lungs and lining 黏膜of the mouth
On land : Skin & Lunngs
In water: Skin
Only a small amount of ges exchange happens through the lining of the mouth
Oxygen is diffused through the membrane and moisth throat喉咙 into the blood
capillary network beneath it.
Carbon dioxide is diffused into the blood capillaries in the mouth and released through
the nostrils.
Adaptation适应of frog skin and mechanism of gas exchange
Skin mucous gland 皮肤黏液腺：release mucus to ensure that frog's skin is
always moist to dissolve respiratory gases.
Thin and permeable透水 skin: helps in increasing the rate or diffusion of
respiratory gases.
Dissolved oxygen in surrounding water is diffused through the moist skin into the
blood capillaries followinng the concentration gradient of oxygen.
 Carbon dioxide is diffused from the blood capillaries through the skin and
released into the environment following the concentration gradient of carbon
dioxide.
Adaptation of the lungs of a frog for gas exchange
Lungs = pair of air sac organs that connected to its mouth through an opening
called glottis that can be opened and closed
The walls of lungs are thin and moist are the respiratory surface of gas exchange.
The walls of the lungs also have a network of blood capillaries underneath them
Oxygen dissolves into the moist lungs before being diffused following the partial
pressure gradient of oxygen through the lung walls into the blood capillaries.氧气溶
解到潮湿的肺部，然后根据氧分压梯度通过肺壁扩散到毛细血管中。
In exchange, carbon dioxide is diffused following partial pressure gradient from
the blood capillaries and into the lungs to be excreted via exhalation.
The blood capillary network transports respiratory gases to and from the cell bodies
through the blood circulatory system.
Gaseous Exchange within the mouth
The upward and downward movement of the floor of the buccopharyngeal also
enables gas exchange to take place through the thin and moist membrane layer
present in the mouth.
There are a network of blood capillaries underneath the membrane layer
responsible for transporting respiratory gases to the cell bodies.
Respiratory Mechanism of the Lungs of a Frog
Inhalation
Mouth and glottis close, the floor of the buccopharyngeal cavity mouves
downwards to increase the volume of the mouth cavity and to reduce the air
pressure.
The surrounding air that is higher atmospheric pressure will flow in through the
nostril into the mouth.
Pumping air into the lungs
To channel 输送 air into the lungs, the nostril close, the glottis open and the
floor of buccopharyngeal cavity moves upwards to reduce the volume of the
mouth cavity as well as increase the air pressure which then pushes the air
from the mouth cavity into the lungs.
Gas exchange take places in the lungs.
Exhalation
Glottis opens while the lung and abdominal muscles contract to reduce the
volume of the lungs and increase their pressure.
The air in the lungs is forced out through the glottis into the mouth adn then out
through the nostrils.
 The contraction of the muscle of lungs is helped by the elasticity of the lungs.
Human
Breathing mechanism
Inhalation
The external intercostal muscles contract while the internal intercostal muscles
relax
Then the ribcage moves upwards and outwards
The diaphragm muscles contract and the diaphragm moves downwards to
become flat and horizontal.
The volume of the thorax cavity increases and the pressure of the thorax cavity
decreases.
The higher atmospheric pressure from outside forces air into the lungs.
Exhalation
The external intercostal muscles relax while the internal intercostal muscles
contract.
This action causes the ribcage to move downwards and inwards.
At the same time, the diaphragm muscles relax and the diaphragm curves
upwards to form a dome.
The volume of the thorax cavity reduces and the pressure of the thorax cavity
increases.
Air is pushed out of the lungs.
Gaseous Exchange in Humans
Gas diffusion depends on the partial difference between two areas
Gas diffuses from an area where its partial pressure is higher to where its partial
pressure is lower. 高去低
Blood from capillaries surrounding the alveoli carries low partial pressure of oxygen
and high partial pressure of carbon dioxide.
Oxygen diffuses from alveoli to blood capillaries following the partial pressure
gradient.
Carbon dioxide from blood capillaries to alveoli following the partial pressure
gradient.
Transport of respiratory gases from the lungs to the tissues
Oxygen is diffused from the alveoli (high) into the blood capillaries (low) and binds
with haemoglobin in the red blood cells (erythrocytes) to form oxyhaemoglobin.
Each haemoglobin has four subunits of heme, and each has one iron ion (II) to bind
with four oxygen molecules
Hb (haemoglobin) + 4O 2→<-Hb (O2)4
 Cell bodies have low partial pressure of oxygen because oxygen is used up during
metabolism
When oxyhaemoglobin reaches the cell bodies, it breaks down into haemoglobin
and oxygen, therefore increasing the partial pressure of oxygen within the blood
capillaries
Oxygen will then be diffused from the blood capillaries into the cell bodies following
the partial pressure gradient.
Active cell bodies carry out metabolism using oxygen and releasing carbon dioxide
Cell bodies have low partial pressure of oxygen and high partial pressure of
carbon dioxide compared to blood capillaries
Oxygen will be diffused following the partial pressure gradient from the blood
capillaries into the cell bodies
Carbon dioxide diffuses following the partial pressure gradient from the cell
bodies and into the blood capillaries and then is transported back to the lungs
to be eliminated through exhalation
Transported of Carbon dioxide in the blood circulatory system
Three ways:
Bicarbonate ions(70%）
Carbaminohaemoglobin (23%)
Dissolved and carried as carbonic acid H2CO3(7%)
Transported of carbon dioxide from body cells to tissue capillaries
Carbon dioxide released by the body cells binds with water in the erythrocyte to
form carbonic acid
The carbonic anhydrase enzyme碳酸酐酶 in erythrocytes catalyses催化 this
reaction
Carbonic acid will break down into bicarbonate ions and hydrogen ion
Then bicarbonate ion diffuses into the blood plasma and is carried to the lungs
Transport of carbon dioxide from lung capillaries to the alveolus
When the bicarbonate ion in blood plasma reaches the lung capillaries, it diffuses
back into the erythrocyte
The bicarbonate ion combines again with a hydrogen ion to form carbonic acid
Carbonic acid then breaks down into carbon dioxide and water
Carbon dioxide diffuses through the lung capillaries into the alveolus and is expelled
during exhalation.
Health issues related to the human respiratory system
WHO defines chronic obstructive pulmonary disease COPD 慢性阻塞性肺疾病 as a lung
disease characterized by blockage of the airways that disrupts normal respiration.
COPD includes Asthma, Chronic bronchitis, Emphysema气肿
Asthma
Cause chronic inflammation慢性炎症 of the airways (支气管&细支气管）
Lifelong disease
Prolonged cough, shortness of breath and wheezing 气喘
triggered by irritant and allergens 由刺激物和过敏原引发
Effect
The walls of the airway become swollen and inflamed. Mucus excretion will
increase and the airway muscles will contract, narrowing the lumen of the
airway
The effort to breathe through the narrow and congested airway becomes
difficult and produces a wheezing sound
The congestion and blockage of the bronchioles causes reduced oxygen to
the alveoli causing other respiratory problems such as hypoxemia (low level
of oxygen) and can damage other organs in the body
An airway that is constantly congested and inflamed will eventually injure
the lungs
Emphysema
Involves the damage to alveoli causing difficulty in breathing
Emphysema happens when the alveoli walls are damaged, collapse and
combine with adjacent alveoli to form larger air sacs
symptom: dyspnea 呼吸困难
Exposure of lungs to irritants cause damage to the elastic alveoli walls and
elastic fibres in the bronchiole tubes
Effects:
Damage to the alveoli walls prevents gas exchange between the respiratory
surface and air within the alveoli
The walls between the adjacent alveoli that collapse reduces the number of
individual alveoli and form larger alveoli that will reduce the total surface
area of respiration
Alveoli walls that lose their elasticity cause difficulties in exhalation
Damage to the elastic fibres within the walls of the bronchiole tubes will
destroy the airways and trap air into the large alveoli at the end
Chronic bronchitis
Inflammation of the bronchiole tubes
symptoms
prolonged cough with excessive production of mucus within the bronchiole
tubes for a long period of time
Tight chest
 Difficulty in breathing
Wheezing
coughing with sputum痰
runny and blocked nose
sore throat喉咙痛
lethargy嗜睡
Cause by repeated inflammation of the bronchiole tubes by irritants 刺激物and
allergens
Effects
Inflammation and mucus production narrows the lumen of the bronchus,
therefore blocking the airway to the lungs and from the lungs, causes the
patient difficulty in breathing and hypoxemia 低氧血症
Inflammation injures the cilia on the bronchiole lining and exposes the
patient to bacterial and viral infection

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