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GASES
INTRODUCTION
Respiration is the involuntary catabolic process which involves exchange of
environmental oxygen and body's carbon dioxide. The oxygen is utilized for the oxidation of
glucose in the mitochondria to produce energy.
It takes place in three basic steps -
o Pulmonary ventilation : The first process, pulmonary (pulmo = lung) ventilation,
or breathing, is the inspiration (inflow) and expiration (outflow) of air between the atmosphere
and lungs.
o External (pulmonary) respiration : This is the exchange of gases between air
spaces of the lungs and blood in pulmonary capillaries. The blood gains O 2 and loses CO2.
o Internal (tissue) respiration : The exchange of gases between blood in
systemic capillaries and tissue cells is known as internal (tissue) respiration. The blood loses O 2
and gains CO2 within cells. The metabolic reactions that consume O2 and give off CO2 during
production of ATP are termed as cellular respiration.
Respiration is of two types – aerobic and anaerobic respiration.
Aerobic respiration occurs in the presence of molecular oxygen. The oxygen
completely oxidizes the food to carbon dioxide and water releasing large amounts of energy.
The organisms showing aerobic respiration, are called aerobes. It is found in most animals and
plants.
Aerobic respiration are of two main types – direct and indirect.
Direct respiration is the exchange of environmental oxygen with carbon dioxide of the
body cells without special respiratory organs and without the aid of blood. It is found in aerobic
bacteria, protists, plants, sponges, coelenterates, flatworms, roundworms and most arthropods.
Indirect respiration involves special respiratory organs such as skin, buccopharyngeal
lining, gills and lungs and needs the help of blood. Respiration in the skin, buccopharyngeal
lining, gills and lungs is respectively called cutaneous, buccopharyngeal, bronchial and
pulmonary respiration.
o Cutaneous respiration takes place in annelids, some crustaceans, eel fish,
amphibians and marine snakes. It occurs both in water and in air.
o Buccopharyngeal respiration is found in certain amphibians such as frog and
toad. It occurs in the air.
o Bronchial respiration is found in many annelids, most crustaceans and
molluscs, some insect larvae, echinoderms, all fishes and some amphibians. It occurs in water
only.
o Pulmonary respiration is found in snails, Pila, some amphibians and reptiles,
birds and mammals. It takes place in air only.
Anaerobic respiration occurs in the absence of molecular oxygen and is also called
fermentation. In this, the food is partially oxidized so only a part of energy (5%) is released and
some of the energy remains trapped in the intermediate compounds. It is found in lower
organisms like bacteria and yeast. It is also found in certain parasitic worms (Ascaris, Taenia)
which live in deficient medium.
For efficient gas exchange, the respiratory membrane, through which exchange of
gases takes place should have the following qualities.
o It should be thin, large and moist.
o It should be completely permeable for O2 and CO2.
o It should have high vascularity (rich blood supply).
o Its surface area should be very large
o Presence of respiratory pigments (e.g., haemoglobin) in many animals to
increase the O2 and CO2 carrying capacity of the blood.
Nasopharynx opens through glottis of the larynx region into the trachea.
Larynx is composed of cartilages, ligaments, muscles and a mucosal surface. It helps in
sound production and hence called the sound box.
It prevents indigested solids and liquids from entering the respiratory system.
Larynx is also called Adam's apple in human males.
During swallowing, glottis can be covered by a thin elastic cartilaginous flap called
epiglottis to prevent the entry of food into the larynx.
Besides epiglottis, other cartilages of the larynx are – thyroid cartilage (most prominent
C– shaped), cricoid cartilage (shape like a signet ring) and arytenoid cartilage (at the anterior
of which cartilage of Santorinis is attached).
Trachea windpipe is a straight tube extending up to the mid-thoracic cavity, which divides
at the level of 5th thoracic vertebra into a right and left primary bronchi.
Trachea carries air between the larynx and bronchi and is supported by incomplete rings of C-
shaped cartilage (hyoid bone) in its wall.
The rings of cartilage makes the wall non-collapsible.
Each bronchi undergoes repeated divisions to form the secondary and tertiary bronchi
and bronchioles ending up in very thin terminal bronchioles.
Each terminal bronchiole gives rise to a number of very thin, irregular walled and
vascularised bag-like structures called alveoli.
Alveoli (made of simple squamous cells) provides a huge surface area for gaseous exchange.
Alveoli is surrounded by a network of capillaries of the pulmonary artery and veins.
Air enters into the lung in this way -
MECHANISM OF BREATHING
Breathing involves two phases : inspiration (during which atmospheric air is drawn in)
and expiration (by which the alveolar air is released out).
The movement of air into and out of the lungs is carried out by creating a pressure gradient
between the lungs and the atmosphere.
Inspiration can occur if the pressure within the lungs (intrapulmonary pressure) is less than the
atmospheric pressure, i.e., there is a negative pressure in the lungs with respect to atmospheric pressure.
Similarly, expiration takes place when the intrapulmonary pressure is higher than the atmospheric pressure.
Respiration is carried out with the help of intercostal muscles and diaphragm. Intercostal muscles,
between each pair of ribs, are of two types- external and internal.
Inspiration is an active process and involves internal intercostal muscles and
diaphragm.
During inspiration, contraction of diaphragm increases the volume of thoracic chamber in the
antero-posterior axis. The contraction of external intercostal muscles lifts up the ribs and the sternum
causing an increase in the volume of the thoracic chamber in the dorso-ventral axis. The overall increase in
the thoracic volume causes a similar increase in pulmonary volume. An increase in pulmonary volume
decreases the intrapulmonary pressure to less than the atmospheric pressure which forces the air from
outside to move into the lungs, i.e., inspiration.
Expiration is a passive process and caused due to muscle relaxation.
Relaxation of the diaphragm and the intercostal muscles returns the diaphragm and sternum to
their normal positions and reduce the thoracic volume and thereby the pulmonary volume. This leads to an
increase in intrapulmonary pressure to slightly above the atmospheric pressure causing the expulsion of air
from the lungs, i.e., expiration.
During deep or forced breathing or heavy exercise, an active process is involved requiring internal
intercostal muscles and diaphragm.
Deep expiration is done by contraction of internal intercostal muscles and relaxation of other
muscles and diaphragm. Impulse for deep breath starts from cerebrum.
The deep breathing is referred to as thoracic breathing in contrast to the normal or quiet
breathing referred to as abdominal breathing.
Sudden deep breath is due to increased pCO2 and decreased pO2.
Breathing at high altitude : Air at mountains is thin and of low density. Residents of
high altitudes are acclimatized. Visitors first suffer from hypoxia (at 4000 m). This causes
mountain sickness including high blood pressure and high breathing rate (normal rate of
breathing is 12 to 18/minute). Visitor becomes normal after some days when his number of RBC,
and haemoglobin percentage increases.
Inspiration is for about 2 seconds and expiration for 3 seconds.
Dead space encloses the air not involved in gaseous exchange as it is enclosed in the
respiratory passage such as nasal chamber. It reduces the amount of fresh air that enters the
lungs.
Cough is the forcible expiration usually preceded by a prolonged inspiration.
Rate of breathing is
o 40 - 60/min in neonates,
o 14 - 18/min in adolescents,
o 12 - 14/min in human adults
o 18 - 22 /min in children.
o 0 in embryo
o 10/min (minimum) at the time of sleeping
o 80/min in frog
o 38/min in rabbit
o 120/min (maximum) in shrew
o 6/min in elephant
On an average, a healthy human breathes 12-16 times/minute.
RESPIRATORY VOLUMES
RESPIRATORY CAPACITIES
TRANSPORT OF OXYGEN
Transport of CO2 by blood is much easier than that of oxygen due to high solubility of
CO2 in water (about 20 times that of O2)
Each decilitre of blood carries about 3.7 ml of CO2.
Carbon dioxide is transported in blood in three ways–
o 7% dissolved in plasma (as carbonic acid)
o 23% bound to haemoglobin (as carbamino-haemoglobin)
o 70% as bicarbonate in the plasma following an enzyme catalyzed reaction in red blood
cell.
RBCs contain a very high concentration of the enzyme, carbonic anhydrase and minute quantities
of the same is present in the plasma too. This enzyme facilitates the following reaction in both directions.
REGULATION OF RESPIRATION
Breathing can be controlled by central nervous system.
Respiratory centres are located in medulla oblongata and pons varolii. These centres
regulate the rate and depth of breathing by controlling contraction of diaphragm and other
respiratory muscles.
Medulla oblongata contains inspiratory centre in dorsal portion and expiratory centre in
the ventral portion. The expiratory centre is connected with the vagus nerve that innervates the
lungs.
Pons varollii contains pneumotaxic and apneustic centre.
Pneumotaxic centre can moderate the functions of the respiratory rhythm centre. Neural
signal from this centre can reduce the duration of inspiration and thereby alter the respiratory
rate. Apneustic centre operates in association with the depth of the inspiration.
A chemosensitive area situated near rhythm centre is highly sensitive to CO2 and
hydrogen ions. Increase in these substances can activate this centre, which in turn can signal the
rhythm centre to make necessary adjustments in the respiratory process by which these
substances can be eliminated.
Receptors associated with aortic arch and carotid artery also can recognise changes in
CO2 and H+ concentration and send necessary signals to the rhythm centre for remedial actions.
The role of oxygen in the regulation of respiratory rhythm is quite insignificant.
NOTES
In elephant, false vocal cords are absent.
In hippopotamus, true vocal cords are absent.
In birds, sound is produced by syrinx.
Sound of rabbit is called as quacking.
In normal respiration.
Frog show - 35% cutaneous respiration
- 9% Buccopharyrngeal respiration
- 56% Pulmonary respiration.
Drinker's Respiration or Tank Respiration is an iron lung invented by Philip Drinker, an American
Engineer, in 1929.
A dark bluish colour of skin and mucous membrane due to deficiency of oxygen in the
blood is called cyanosis.
In frog, sternohyal and petrohyal muscles are related with the process of respiration.
Lodwing first explained gaseous exchange in blood.
Rima glottides is the gap between the vocal cords.
The vocal cords are made up of yellow elastic tissue covered by non keratinized stratified
squamous epithelium.