BAIRULLA, NURKHAIMA L. MARCH.20.

2020

SAHALI, SHEIRHANA

BSPh -1A

CHAPTER 15: RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

1. Define respiration

 In physiology, respiration is the movement of oxygen from the

outside environment to the cells within tissues, and the transport
of carbon dioxide in the opposite direction.

2. What are the functions of respiratory system?

 The function of the respiratory system is to deliver air to the lungs.

Oxygen in the air diffuses out of the lungs and into the blood, while
carbon dioxide diffuses in the opposite direction, out of the blood
and into the lungs.

3. Describe the structures of the nasal cavity and their functions

 The nose is the external protuberance of an internal space, the

nasal cavity. It is subdivided into a left and right canal by a thin
medial cartilaginous and bony wall, the nasal septum. Each canal
opens to the face by a nostril and into the pharynx by the choana.
The floor of the nasal cavity is formed by the palate, which also
forms the roof of the oral cavity. The complex shape of the nasal
cavity is due to projections of bony ridges, the superior, middle,
and inferior turbinate bones (or conchae), from the lateral wall.
The passageways thus formed below each ridge are called the
superior, middle, and inferior nasal meatuses.

4. Name the three parts of the pharynx. With what structures does each part
communicate?

 Nasopharynx – The nasopharynx communicates with the

oropharynx through the pharyngeal isthmus, which is bounded by
the soft palate, the palatopharyngeal arches, and the posterior
wall of the pharynx. The isthmus is closed by muscular action
during swallowing.
  Oropharynx – The oropharynx extends from the plane of the hard
palate superiorly to the plane of the hyoid bone inferiorly. It
communicates with the nasopharynx above, the hypopharynx
inferiorly, and the oral cavity anteriorly.
 Laryngopharynx - The laryngopharynx is the most inferior part of
the pharynx. It communicates with the oropharynx above, the
oesophagus below and the larynx (through the laryngeal inlet)
anteriorly. The division of the oropharynx from the laryngopharynx
is the tip of the epiglottis.

5. Name and give the functions of the three unpaired cartilages of the larynx.

 Epiglottis- The epiglottis is a leaf-shaped flap of cartilage located

behind the tongue, at the top of the larynx, or voice box. The main
function of the epiglottis is to seal off the windpipe during eating, so
that food is not accidentally inhaled.
 Thyroid cartilage – The thyroid cartilage forms the bulk of the front
wall of the larynx. It protects the vocal folds ("vocal cords"), which are
located directly behind it. When the angle of the thyroid cartilage
changes relative to the cricoid cartilage, this changes the pitch of
voice.
 Cricoid cartilages - The function of the cricoid cartilage is to provide
attachments for the cricothyroid muscle, posterior cricoarytenoid
muscle and lateral cricoarytenoid muscle muscles, cartilages, and
ligaments involved in opening and closing the airway and in speech
production.

6. What are the functions of the vestibular and vocal folds? How are sounds
of different loudness and pitch produced?

 The vocal folds are folds of tissue located in the larynx (voice box) that
have three important functions: To protect the airway from
choking on material in the throat. To regulate the flow of air
into our lungs. The production of sounds used for speech.
 The vestibular folds of the larynx play a significant role in the
maintenance of the laryngeal functions of breathing and
preventing food and drink from entering the airway during
swallowing. They aid phonation (speech) by suppressing dysphonia.
 The pitch of a sound is our ear's response to the frequency of sound.
Whereas loudness depends on the energy of the wave. ... The pitch of
 a sound depends on the frequency while loudness of a sound depends
on the amplitude of sound waves.

7. Starting at the larynx, name in order all the tubes air passes through to
reach an alveolus.

 Air enters through the nose (and sometimes the mouth), moves
through the nasal cavity, the pharynx, the larynx, enters the trachea,
moves through the bronchi and bronchioles till the alveoli.

8. What is the function of the C- shaped cartilages in trachea? What happens

to the amount of cartilage in the tube system of the respiratory system as
the tubes becomes smaller? Explain why breathing becomes more difficult
during an asthma attack.

 C-shaped cartilaginous rings reinforces the anterior and lateral sides of

the trachea to protect and maintain the airway open.
 The C-shaped cartilaginous ring enables to keep the trachea open
without getting collapse. As the bracing of the lung increases, the size
of the cartilaginous rings decreases.
 The amount of air we breathe in is about the same as the amount of air
we breathe out. But during an asthma attack, air gets trapped inside
the lungs making it harder and harder to breathe.

9. What is the function of the ciliated epithelium in the tracheobronchial

tree?

 The trachea and bronchi are lined by ciliated pseudostratified columnar

epithelium, interspersed by goblet cells, which produce mucus. The
combination of sweeping movements by the cilia and mucus from the
goblet cells forms the functional mucociliary escalator.

10. Distinguish among the lungs, a lobe of the lung, and a bronchopulmonary
segment.

 The lungs are pyramid-shaped, paired organs that are connected to

the trachea by the right and left bronchi; on the inferior surface, the
lungs are bordered by the diaphragm.
 Each lung is composed of smaller units called lobes. Fissures separate
these lobes from each other. The right lung consists of three lobes: the
superior, middle, and inferior lobes. The left lung consists of two lobes:
the superior and inferior lobes. A bronchopulmonary segment is a
division of a lobe, and each lobe houses multiple bronchopulmonary
 segments. Each segment receives air from its own tertiary bronchus
and is supplied with blood by its own artery.

11. List the components of the respiratory membrane

 alveolar wall
 capillary wall
 and their basement membranes

12. Describe the pleurae of the lungs. What is their function?

 Pleura: One of the two membranes around the lungs. These two
membranes are called the visceral and parietal pleurae. The visceral
pleura envelops the lung, and the parietal pleura lines the inner chest
wall. The pleural fluid acts as a lubricant between the two membranes.

13. Describe the lymphatic supply of the lungs. What is its function?

 The lymphatics of the lungs and visceral pleura drain into the
bronchopulmonary lymph nodes at the bifurcations of the larger
bronchi. From here, lymphatics pass to the tracheobronchial nodes,
which drain into the Broncho mediastinal trunk on each side.

14. Explain how the muscles of inspiration and expiration change thoracic
volume.

 During inhalation, the diaphragm is contracted which increases the

volume of the lung cavity. During exhalation, the diaphragm is relaxed
which decreases the volume of the lung cavity.

15. Describe the pressure changes that cause air to move into and out of the
lungs. What causes these pressure changes?

 During inspiration, the diaphragm and external intercostal muscles

contract, causing the rib cage to expand and move outward, and
expanding the thoracic cavity and lung volume. This creates a lower
pressure within the lung than that of the atmosphere, causing air to be
drawn into the lungs.
 The air pressure within the lungs increases to above the pressure of
the atmosphere, causing air to be forced out of the lungs.

16. Give two reasons the lungs tend to recoil. What two factors keep the
lungs from collapsing?
  This phenomenon occurs because of the elastin in the elastic fibers in
the connective tissue of the lungs,
 And because of the surface tension of the film of fluid that lines the
alveoli.
 Surfactant and the intra pleural pressure. Surfactant is a surface-active
lipoprotein complex formed by type II alveolar cells.

17. Explain how changes in thoracic volume result in changes in pleural

pressure, alveolar volume, alveolar pressure, and airflow during inspiration
and expiration.

 The actual pleural pressure changes according to the phase of

respiration and type of surgery using a digital manometer. In
lobectomy patients, the pleural pressure was highly negative
compared to the minimal/no-resection group, especially during deep
inspiration.

18. Define tidal volume, inspiratory reserve volume, expiratory reserve

volume, and residual volume. Define vital capacity, total lung capacity, and
forced expiratory vital capacity.

 Tidal volume is defined as the volume of air moved into and out of the
lungs during each ventilation cycle.
 The inspiratory reserve volume (IRV) is the additional amount of air
that can be inhaled after a normal inspiration (tidal volume).
 The additional amount of air that can be expired from the lungs by
determined effort after normal expiration — compare inspiratory
reserve volume.
 Residual volume is the amount of air that remains in a person's lungs
after fully exhaling
 Vital capacity is the maximum amount of air a person can expel from
the lungs after a maximum inhalation.
 The volume of air contained in the lungs at the end of a maximal
inspiration.
 Forced expiratory volume (FEV) measures how much air a person can
exhale during a forced breath. The amount of air exhaled may be
measured during the first (FEV1), second (FEV2), and/or third seconds
(FEV3) of the forced breath. Forced vital capacity (FVC) is the total
amount of air exhaled during the FEV test.
19. Describe the factors that affect diffusion of gases across the respiratory
membrane. Give some examples of diseases that decrease diffusion by
altering these factors.

 Membrane thickness – the thinner the membrane, the faster the rate of
diffusion.
 Membrane surface area – the larger the surface area, the faster the
rate of diffusion
 Pressure difference across the membrane

20. What is the partial pressure of a gas? Describe the diffusion of O2 and
CO2 between the alveoli and pulmonary capillaries and between the tissue
capillaries and between the tissue capillaries and the tissues in terms of
partial pressures.

 Oxygen diffuses across the respiratory membrane from the alveoli into
the blood. In contrast, the partial pressure of carbon dioxide is high in
the pulmonary capillaries and low in the alveoli. Therefore, carbon
dioxide diffuses across the respiratory membrane from the blood into
the alveoli.

21. List the ways in which blood transports O2. What factors promote the
release of O2 in tissues?

 A small amount of O 2 (1.5 percent) is carried in the plasma as a

dissolved gas.
 Most oxygen (98.5 percent) carried in the blood is bound to the protein
hemoglobin in red blood cells. A fully saturated oxyhemoglobin (HbO 2)
has four O 2 molecules attached.
 The taut form predominates in the tissues (a high carbon dioxide, low
pH environment) promoting oxygen release, whereas the relaxed form
binds oxygen more avidly in areas of high pH, low carbon dioxide
tension, and high partial pressures of oxygen (such as in the alveoli).

22. List the ways in which blood transports CO2.

 Carbon dioxide is transported in the blood in three ways:

 dissolved in solution
 buffered with water as carbonic acid
 Bound to proteins, particularly hemoglobin.

23. How does the level of blood CO2 affect blood pH? How can changes in
ventilation affect blood pH?
  Since carbon dioxide reacts with water to form carbonic acid, an
increase in CO2 results in a decrease in blood pH, resulting in
hemoglobin proteins releasing their load of oxygen. Conversely, a
decrease in carbon dioxide provokes an increase in pH, which results in
hemoglobin picking up more oxygen.
 Arterial pH will change from the normal value of 7.4 to 7.10. Changes
in alveolar ventilation quickly and dramatically affect PaCO2 and pH. A
10% increase in alveolar ventilation will decrease PaCO2 by 4 mm Hg
and increase arterial pH from 7.40 to 7.45 all within seconds.

24. Name the respiratory areas of the brainstem, and explain how rhythmic
breathing is generated.

 The respiratory center is located in the medulla oblongata and

pons, in the brainstem. The respiratory center is made up of three
major respiratory groups of neurons, two in the medulla and one in the
pons. In the medulla they are the dorsal respiratory group, and the
ventral respiratory group
 Breathing is an automatic and rhythmic act produced by networks of
neurons in the hindbrain (the pons and medulla). The neural networks
direct muscles that form the walls of the thorax and abdomen and
produce pressure gradients that move air into and out of the lungs.

25. Describe how higher brain centers and the Hering Breuer reflex can
modify breathing.

 The pons and medulla of the brainstem generate a basic respiratory

rhythm. Neural receptors in the lungs can modify the basic respiratory
rhythm. Stretching of receptors in the bronchi and bronchioles initiates
the Hering-Breuer reflex, which ends inspiration and acts to prevent
overfilling of the lungs.

26. Explain the role of blood pH, CO2, and O2 in modifying breathing.

27. How is breathing regulated during exercise?

 During exercise there is an increase in physical activity and muscle

cells respire more than they do when the body is at rest. The heart rate
increases during exercise. The rate and depth of breathing increases -
this makes sure that more oxygen is absorbed into the blood, and
more carbon dioxide is removed from it.

28. What effect does exercise training have on respiratory system?

  The heart rate increases during exercise. The rate and depth of
breathing increases

29. Why do vital capacity, alveolar ventilation, and diffusion of gases across
the respiratory membrane decrease with age? Why are the elderly more
likely to develop respiratory infections and bronchitis?
CHAPTER 16

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

1. What are the function of digestive system?

 It a digestion of food, absorption of nutrients and denomination of solid

food waste. And digestion is the process of breaking down the food into
components the body can absorb.

2. What are the major layers or tunics of the digestive tract?

 The digestive system consists of alimentary canal and its glands

(gastrointestinal) the alimentary canal is a hollow tube made of smooth
muscle.
 The structure of wall of alimentary canal consists of: The mucosal
layer, submucosa, Muscularis propria and Serosa layer.

3. What are the peritoneum, mesenteries, and retroperitoneal organs?

 Stomach and intestines are suspended to the posterior abdominal wall

by loose connective tissue sheet called mesenteries.
 Mesenteries attached the intestines to the abdominal wall and also
helps storing the fat and the intestines.
 Is the anatomical space sometimes a potential space in the abdominal
cavity behind retro the Peritoneum it has no specific delineating
anatomical structure. And last is a serous membrane which lines the
wall of the abdominal and lies an abdominal and pelvic organs and
function to support and protect the intestines.

4. List the functions of lips, cheeks and tongue.

 lips and cheeks, lips let air into your mouth for breathing and together
with cheeks, helps your speak, they also keep food and saliva in your
mouth while chewing, ultimately these strong muscles guides and
keep your teeth in their proper position. And last the Tongue, tongue
has many nerves that helps detect and transmit taste signal to the
brain.
5. Distinguish between the deciduous teeth and permanent teeth. Name the
different kinds of teeth.

 Deciduous teeth is thinner enamel and dentin layers. Broad and flat
contacts, and color is usually lighter. And Permanent teeth is thick
enamel and dentin layer, point contracts, color is much darker.
 Different kinds of teeth are Enamel, Dentin, Cementum and Pulp.

6. Describe the three parts of a tooth. What are dentin, enamel, and pulp?

 The CROWN is the visible part of the tooth.

 The NECK is the area of the tooth between the crown and root. And
The ROOT is the part of the tooth that extent through the gum and into
the jawbone.
 DENTIN is the substance that lies beneath the enamel and the
cementum in the tooth.
 ENAMEL is the substance that covers the anatomic crown of the tooth,
is the hardest substance in the body and is somewhat translucent.
 PULP is the final component and it is where all the nerves and blood
vessels that supply the tooth are housed.

7. What is the function of the palate? What are the hard and soft palates?

 Palate it is responsible for closing off the nasal passages during the act
of swallowing and also for closing off the airway, during sneezing it
protects the nasal passage by diverting a portion of the excreted
substance to the mouth.
 Hard and Soft palates is the Front part of the roof of the mouth and the
soft palate is the back part.

8. Name and give the location of the three pairs of salivary glands.

 Base on the size and location they are classified as :

 Major salivary glands
 minor salivary glands
 Major salivary glands have three pairs:
 Parotid gland
 Submandibular gland
 Sublingual gland
 Located outside the oral cavity.

9. What are the functions of saliva?

  Prevent the deteriorative process in the oral cavity.
 Helps in washing away pathogenic bacteria
 Protein antibodies in saliva are capable of destroying oral bacteria
which cause dental caries.

10. Where is the esophagus located?

 Esophagus is located at left of midline at level of first dorsal vertebra

and esophagus is a muscular tube connecting the throat (pharynx)
with the stomach.

11. Describe the three phases of swallowing.

 The Three phases is The Oral phase during the oral phase food is
chewed and mixed with saliva to form a soft consistency called a bolus.
 Pharyngeal Phase during this phase the vocal folds close to keep food
and liquids from entering the airway.
 Esophageal phase, the final stage the bolus move into the esophagus
the muscular tube that contract to push the bolus into the stomach.

12. Describe the parts of the stomach. How are the muscles in the stomach
different from those in the esophagus?

 Stomach is divided into four region.

 The Candia which surrounds the opening of the esophagus into the
stomach.
 The Fundus of stomach, which is the area above the level of the
cardiac orifice.
 The Body of Stomach which is the largest region of the stomach.
 The Pyloric part which is divided into the pylons antrum and pyloric
canal and is the distal end of the stomach.

13. What are gastric pits and gastric glands? Name the secretions they
produce.

 Gastric pits are indentations in the stomach which denote entrances

to 3-5 tubular shaped gastric glands, they are deeper in the pylons
than they are in the other parts of the stomach.
 And it secrete Hydrochloride acid, which activates the protein,
digesting enzymes pepsin.

14. List the stomach secretions and give their functions.

  Mucus the most abundant epithelial cells which cover the entire
luminal surface and extent down into the glands as " mucous neck
cells"
 ACID this acid is important for activation of pepsinogen and
inactivation of ingested microorganisms such as bacteria.
 HORMONES the principal hormones secreted from the gastric
epithelium is gastrin and peptide that is important in control of acid
secretions and gastric motility.
 POTCEUSES is secreted into gastric juice from both mucous cells and
chief cells.

15. Describe the three phases of regulation of stomach secretion.

 Cephalic phase, is psychic stimuli, vagally mediated and 30-50% of

total gastric juice secretion.
 Gastric phase, presence of food in the stomach, local reflex and
response to gastrin, and 50-60% of total gastric juice secretion.
 Intestinal phase presence of food in the duodenum, reflex and humoral
feedback, and very less secretion.

16. What are the two kinds of stomach movements? What do they
accomplish?

 The presence of food in the stomach stretches the smooth muscle and
trigger the release of gastric juice.
 First movement is the MIXING MOVEMENT in the stomach results it he
formation of a fluid paste of food and the gastric juice this is known as
"Chyme".
 And The PARISTALTIC MOVEMENT in the stomach push the chyme
towards the pyloric and of the stomach.

17. Name and describe the three parts of small intestine.

 The small intestine has three distinct regions – the duodenum,

jejunum, and ileum. The duodenum, the shortest, is where preparation
for absorption through small finger-like protrusions called villi begins.

18. What are circular folds, villi, and microvilli in the small intestine?
  The circular folds slow the passage of the partly digested food along
the intestines, and afford an increased surface for absorption. They are
covered with small finger-like projections called villi (singular, villus).
Each villus, in turn, is covered with microvilli.

19.) List the secretion of small intestine, and give their function.

 There are three main substances that the small intestine receives: bile,
pancreatic enzymes and alkaline juice (HCO3–). Bile serves an
important role in lipid digestion, and is secreted from the gallbladder
into the common bile duct, in response to CCK. Pancreatic enzymes
and alkaline juice are secreted from the pancreas into the pancreatic
duct, in response to CCK and secretin.

20. Describe the kinds of movements in the small intestine, and explain what
they accomplish.

 It is defined as a localized contraction of circular smooth muscles that

constrict the intestine into segments. Pendular movements are a
different movement. They are defined as alternating contraction and
relaxation of the longitudinal muscles, causing a portion of the small
intestine to shorten and lengthen

21. Describe the anatomy and location of liver and pancreas, including their
duct systems.

 The liver is located in the upper right-hand portion of the abdominal

cavity, beneath the diaphragm, and on top of the stomach, right
kidney, and intestines. Shaped like a cone, the liver is a dark reddish-
brown organ that weighs about 3 pounds. When the liver cells secrete
bile, it is collected by a system of ducts that flow from the liver through
the right and left hepatic ducts. These ducts ultimately drain into the
common hepatic duct. The common hepatic duct then joins with the
cystic duct from the gallbladder to form the common bile duct.
 The pancreas is located behind the stomach in the upper left abdomen.
It is surrounded by other organs including the small intestine, liver, and
spleen. It is spongy, about six to ten inches long, and is shaped like a
flat pear or a fish extended horizontally across the abdomen. The
exocrine pancreas is classified as a lobulated, serous gland which
produces digestive enzyme precursors. The pancreatic duct runs the
length of the pancreas and unites with the common bile duct, forming
the hepatopancreatic ampulla of Vater.
22. What are the functions of the liver?

 The liver does many important things including: Makes bile, which
helps carry away waste and break down fats in the small intestine
during digestion. Makes certain proteins for blood plasma. Makes
cholesterol and special proteins to help carry fats through the body.

23. Name the exocrine secretion of the pancreas. What are their functions?

 The exocrine pancreas includes the acinus and its duct system.
 These acinar cells are specialized in enzyme synthesis, storage and
secretion.
 The duct system modifies the aqueous secretions.

24. Describe the parts of the large intestine.

 The large intestine consists of the cecum and colon.

 Cecum, also spelled caecum, pouch or large tube like structure in the
lower abdominal cavity that receives undigested food material from
the small intestine and is considered the first region of the large
intestine.
 The colon is part of the large intestine, the final part of the digestive
system. Its function is to reabsorb fluids and process waste products
from the body and prepare for its elimination. The colon consists of
four parts: descending colon, ascending colon, transverse colon, and
sigmoid colon.
 The descending colon is the part of the large intestine from the
splenic flexure to the beginning of the sigmoid colon. The function of
the descending colon in the digestive system is to store the remains of
digested food that will be emptied into the rectum.
 The ascending colon (or right colon) is the beginning part of the
colon. It is usually located on the right side of the body, extending from
the cecum upward. Although the colon is a continuous structure, the
piece that is considered the ascending colon ends where the colon
bends, just below the liver and gallbladder.
 The transverse colon is the lengthy, upper part of the large intestine.
Ingested food exits the small intestine and enters the cecum.
 Sigmoid colon, a terminal section of the large intestine that connects
the descending colon to the rectum; its function is to store fecal wastes
until they are ready to leave the body

25. How is chyme converted to feces?

  In the large intestine, bacteria break down any proteins and starches in
chyme that were not digested fully in the small intestine. When all of
the nutrients have been absorbed from chyme, the remaining waste
material changes into semisolids that are called feces.

26. Describe the defecation reflex.

 The defecation reflex occurs when the internal anal sphincter relaxes
and the external anal sphincter contracts. The rectoanal inhibitory
reflex (RAIR) is an involuntary internal anal sphincter relaxation in
response to rectal distention. After the defecation reflex is triggered,
you can either delay or defecate.

27. Describe carbohydrate digestion, absorption, and transport.

 During digestion, starches and sugars are broken down both

mechanically (e.g. through chewing) and chemically (e.g. by enzymes)
into the single units glucose, fructose, and/or galactose, which are
absorbed into the blood stream and transported for use as energy
throughout the body.

28. Describe the role of bile salts in lipid digestion and absorption.

 Bile salts are one of the primary components of bile. Bile is a greenish-
yellow fluid made by the liver and stored in our gallbladder. Bile salts
help with the digestion of fats in our bodies. They also help us to
absorb fat-soluble vitamins like A, D, E, and K.

29. Describe protein digestion and amino acid absorption. What enzymes are
responsible for the digestion?

 Pepsin is an enzyme in the stomach that breaks down the peptide

bonds in protein. Enzymes continue to break down polypeptides and
peptides into amino acids. Because amino acids are very small, they
are able to be absorbed through the small intestine lining and into your
bloodstream.
 Amylase, produced in the mouth. It helps break down large starch
molecules into smaller sugar molecules.
 Pepsin, produced in the stomach.
 Trypsin, produced in the pancreas.
 Pancreatic lipase, produced in the pancreas.
  Deoxyribonuclease and ribonuclease, produced in the pancreas.

30. Describe the movement of water into and out of the digestive tract.

 Movement of water is often driven by osmosis: water moves from

regions of low solute concentration to regions of higher solute
concentration. For example, the digestive tract of many animals is
lined with a single layer of epithelial cells, tightly connected cells that
play a role in absorption and digestion.

31. Describe the effects of aging on the digestive system.

 Your digestive system moves food through your body by a series of

muscle contractions. As we age, this process sometimes slows down,
and this can cause food to move more slowly through the colon. When
things slow down, more water gets absorbed from food waste, which
can cause constipation