Schedule study breaks efficiently

Rationale:
Information retention decreases after 45-60 minutes of studying, so find
a sustainable study break schedule that works for you!
Instructions:
1. Choose a combination of break schedules (e.g. A+B):
A. Study 30 min, then walk/look around outside for 2 min.
B. Study 2 hrs, then have a 15 minute snack / walk / chat.
C. Study 3-4 hours, then have a 30-minute meal/powernap
2. Try it out today!
-Adjust your schedule based on how much time you have, today.
-Listen to your body: if you get tired/hungry, start break earlier!
-Set alarms to end each study/break session: don’t hit “snooze

more than 2 times!

3. Assess your level of productivity and persistence, and
adjust your schedule for tomorrow. 5
 Take productive breaks
Life is very busy now, but remember that taking breaks
(to rest your brain) helps you study faster and better!
To take productive breaks, save your errands for when
you need a break from studying.
For example:
After your last class, study for 30 minutes, then commute home.
Study for 45 minutes, then prepare dinner.
Eat slowly while reviewing notes for 1 hour, then take a shower.
Study another 30 minutes, then pack tomorrow’s lunch + snacks.
Study another 30 minutes, then brush your teeth.
Update your To Do lists, then chat with a friend to relax before bed.

Note: During these breaks, listen to music, watch TV, chat with
friends/family, or just let your mind wander. This way, you can have fun
and take many breaks every day, without wasting any time!
6
Biology 101
Energy, Nutrients,
and the Digestive
System
 65
Learning objectives
• Explain the general purposes and processes of animal digestive
systems.
• Describe different ways in which animals obtain food.
• Describe the structure and function of the human digestive
system, including enzyme function.
• Data interpretation: Read graphs and interpret common features
 66
Purpose of Digestive Systems = to obtain nutrients from food.
Why is this important?
 Nutrients = substances that organisms need to survive (e.g.
carbohydrates, fats, iron, etc.). Nutrients can provide energy
and/or building blocks for maintenance/growth/reproduction.
 Food = any material that contains nutrients. But these
nutrients are usually not ready for absorption and use by
animals, yet.
As animals, we must digest food and absorb the nutrients, to get
energy and building blocks (e.g. essential amino acids, vitamins).
Four major food-getting strategies = 1. Fluid feeder, 68
2. Suspension feeder, 3. Deposit feeder, 4. Mass (or bulk) feeder
For each strategy, find at least one example below:

A B C

D E F

H
G
Four major food-getting strategies = 1. Fluid feeder, 68a
2. Suspension feeder, 3. Deposit feeder, 4. Mass (or bulk) feeder
For each strategy, find at least one example below:

A B C

D E F

H
G
 Animal digestion: Four main steps! 67

1 Ingestion = get food into body

2 Digestion = break food down to
release absorbable nutrients.
3 Absorption of nutrients from
food
4 Excretion/Elimination of wastes
1 2 3 4 and undigested materials.

1 2 3 4
Animals are well adapted for eating particular foods: 69
(e.g. jaws and teeth)
Animals are well adapted for eating particular foods: 70
(e.g. digestive systems)
Next: Let’s focus on our digestive system! 71
Overview: What overall trends do you notice?
-Alimentary canal (i.e. gut) is one long tube,
and food moves through in one direction only!
-Many glands secrete into specific regions,
to help digest different components of food.
-Nutrients (and water) absorbed in small
(and large) intestine, after earlier digestion.
-Each part of the digestive system holds the
food for a different amount of time, and at
a different pH.
Now: Let’s take a voyage through your gut! 72
At each stop, we’ll explore:
-The function of each organ, and its structural adaptations.
-The enzymes in that organ, and where they come from
-What’s being digested and/or absorbed, and how.
When we’re done: you should be able to take each type of
food molecule (Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic
acids) and describe where and how it is digested, in humans.
Mouth: mechanical and chemical digestion 73
-Our teeth bite, grind and crush foods, to increase surface area.
-Saliva (from salivary glands) contains water and mucus to
lubricate the food, and salivary amylase and lingual lipase.
Salivary amylase: digests starch to release some maltose.
Lingual lipase: digests fats to release some fatty acids.
Enzymes work as food travels down esophagus, to the…
Stomach: mechanical and chemical digestion 74
-Stomach muscles contract to churn food into uniform chyme
-In gastric pits:
 Parietal cells secrete HCl, to lower pH as low as 1.5!
 Chief cells secrete pepsinogen,
which is activated to pepsin (at a low
pH), which starts digesting protein
into smaller polypeptides.
 Mucous cells make mucous to
protect the stomach from the acid and pepsin.
Notice: Sphincters control flow in/out of stomach
Small intestine: chemical digestion and absorption75
Functions: To finish digesting food (with help from pancreatic
and liver secretions) and to absorb the
nutrients.
Structural adaptations?
-Secretions from pancreas and liver/gall bladder feed into
beginning section of small intestine (the duodenum), to
neutralize stomach acids, and begin efficient digestion ASAP.
Small intestine: chemical digestion and absorption76
Functions: To finish digesting food (with help from pancreatic
and liver secretions) and to absorb the
nutrients.
Structural adaptations?
-Huge surface area (long, and with folds, villi, and microvilli)
Small intestine: chemical digestion and absorption77
Functions: To finish digesting food (with help from pancreatic
and liver secretions) and to absorb the
nutrients.
Structural adaptations?
-Huge surface area (long, and with folds, villi, and microvilli)
-Transport proteins for passive and active (co-)transport
Small intestine: chemical digestion and absorption78
Functions: To finish digesting food (with help from pancreatic
and liver secretions) and to absorb the
nutrients.
Structural adaptations?
-Huge surface area (long, and with folds, villi, and microvilli)
-Transport proteins for passive and active (co-)transport
-Short distance for nutrients to travel (from lumen, though
one-cell-thick epithelial and capillary membranes, into blood).
-Nutrients carried away, thus maintaining diffusion gradient.
Small intestine: chemical digestion and absorption79
Functions: To finish digesting food (with help from pancreatic
and liver secretions) and to absorb the
nutrients.
Structural adaptations?
-Huge surface area (long, and with folds, villi, and microvilli)
-Transport proteins for passive and active (co-)transport
-Short distance for nutrients to travel (from lumen, though
one-cell-thick epithelial and capillary membranes, into blood).
-Nutrients carried away, thus maintaining diffusion gradient.
Fick’s Law of Diffusion:
Notice that our small intestines
maximize rate of diffusion with
each structural adaptation
(Plus active transport!)
Read textbook to understand this figure (41.10) fully. 80
Note: Bile salts from liver; enzymes listed in lumen from pancreas
A clearer figure for lipid digestion and absorption. 81

Any Questions about the

small intestine?
Where do the absorbed nutrients go next? (a brief look) 82
-Lipids (held in chylomicrons) enter lymphatic system, which
drains into veins near the heart (and circulates from there)
Where do the absorbed nutrients go next? (a brief look) 83
-Lipids (held in chylomicrons) enter lymphatic system, which
drains into veins near the heart (and circulates from there)
-All other nutrients go to the liver (through hepatic portal vein),
to adjust their concentrations before circulating throughout body
Where do the absorbed nutrients go next? (a brief look) 84
-Lipids (held in chylomicrons) enter lymphatic system, which
drains into veins near the heart (and circulates from there)
-All other nutrients go to the liver (through hepatic portal vein),
to adjust their concentrations before circulating throughout body.
e.g. hormonal regulation of blood sugar concentrations.
Large intestine: water absorption, vitamins, & ?? 85
Functions:
-Absorb water from the wastes before excretion/elimination
-Maintain a community of beneficial bacterial symbionts,
which can produce vitamins like Vitamin K (for blood clotting).
 Other benefits still being discovered! For example…
Methods:
• Human twins that differed in
body weight were used as fecal
transplant donors
• Germ-free mice were the
recipients.
What do the results suggest?
-The fecal transplants from
obese twins increase mouse fat
mass (by 10%!!)
Application: Fecal transplants
for weight
Rectum: hold feces and absorb water 86
Functions:
-Holds feces until defecation/elimination.
-Water continues to be reabsorbed, until elimination.
Any questions about the digestive system, overall?
Next: One more STQ, to test/enhance your knowledge
 STQ: An inhibitory chemical was being tested to see its effects88
on metabolism. The inhibitor was given to patients with their
meals. The amount of glucose present in their blood was
measured, giving the following data.
What enzymes/proteins might this inhibitor bind to?
(come up with as many answers as you can!)

1. Amylase/lactase/maltase
(or another starch- or
oligosaccharide-digesting
Legend: enzyme)
Blood glucose levels

o Patient not
(concentration)

taking the 2. A glucose transport protein

inhibitor 3. A protein involved in hormonal
• Patient is
regulation of blood sugar (affecting
taking the
glucagon or insulin signaling)
inhibitor
4. A protein that blocks glycolysis or
glycogen synthesis in some way.
Time
 STQ: An inhibitory chemical was being tested to see its effects89
on metabolism. The inhibitor was given to patients with their
meals. The amount of glucose present in their blood was
measured, giving the following data.
What enzymes/proteins might this inhibitor bind to?
(come up with as many answers as you can!)
What are possible applications for this inhibitor?
Turns out it was an amylase
inhibitor:
Legend:  Possible treatment for
Blood glucose levels

o Patient not obesity and/or diabetes?

(concentration)

taking the
inhibitor
 Other creative ideas?
• Patient is
Any final questions about
taking the
inhibitor Homeostasis (themoregulation and
osmoregulation), or the Digestive
system?
Time
 65
Learning objectives
• Explain the general purposes and processes of animal digestive
systems.
• Describe different ways in which animals obtain food.
• Describe the structure and function of the human digestive
system, including enzyme function.
• Data interpretation: Read graphs and interpret common features