Chapter 1: Nutrition Overview
Definition of Terms
• Nutrition - is a combination of processes by
which a living organism receives and utilizes
materials or substances needed for the
maintenance of its functions and for growth and
renewal of its components
• Nutrient - is a chemical component needed by
the body for one or more of these three general
functions: to provide energy, to build and repair
tissues and to regulate life processes.
• Enzymes - are organic catalysts that are protein
in nature and are produced by living cells. A
catalyst chemical reaction without itself
undergoing change. Biocatalysts like enzymes are
responsible for most chemical reactions in the
body.
• Hormones - are organic substances produced by
special cells of the body which are discharged
into the blood to be circulated and brought to
specific organs or tissues that are remote from
the source or point of manufacture. They regulate
vital processes which are highly specific.
Organ System and their Roles in Nutrition
Bodily System (Major Organs) Roles in Nutrition
1. Cardiovascular (heart, blood vessels,
blood)
2. Digestive (mouth, esophagus, stomach,
intestines, liver, pancreas)
3. Endocrine (endocrine glands, E.g.
Thyroid, pituitary, adrenal glands)
4. Immune (white blood cells, lymph,
spleen, thymus gland)
5. Integumentary (skin, hair, nails, sweat
glands)
6. Lymphatic (lymph vessels, nodes)
7. Muscular (skeletal, cardiac, and
smooth muscles)
8. Nervous (Brain, spinal cord, nerves,
sensory organs and receptors)
9. Respiratory
10. Reproductive
11. Skeletal(bones, joints, cartilages)
12. Urinary (kidneys, urinary tract)
• Food - is any substance, organic or inorganic,
when ingested or eaten, nourishes the body by
building and repairing tissues, supplying heat and
energy and regulating bodily processes.
• Nutritional status (Nutriture) - is the condition of
the body resulting from the utilization of essential
nutrients.
• Optimum and Good Nutrition - means that the
body has an adequate supply of essential
nutrients that are efficiently utilized such that
growth and good health are maintained at the
highest possible level.
• Malnutrition - is a condition of the body resulting
from a lack of one or more essential nutrients
(nutritional deficiency) or it may be due to an
excessive nutrient supply to the point of creating
toxic or harmful effects (E.g., overnutrition and
hypervitaminosis)
• Lavoisier - the father of Nutrition
• Francisco O. Santos - the father of Nutrition in the
Philippines
• July - Nutrition Month
● Transports nutrients, gases, waste products; regulates body
temperature, involved with the immune responses.
● Digests and absorbs nutrients, eliminates waste products.
● Helps regulate metabolism, reproduction water balance, etc (by
hormones secreted)
● Provides defense against foreign substances.
● Protects the body, regulates temperature, aids in acid-base and water
balance, production of Vitamin D.
● Helps with fluid balance and fat absorption, removes foreign
substances from the blood
● Maintains posture; directs body movement, produces body heat
● Controls intellectual functions, detects sensations and controls
movements.
● Regulates gas exchange and acid-base balance.
● Regulates sexual functions and reproduction
● Main frame body support, aids with body movements, stores
minerals, produces blood cells.
● Removes waste products; regulates fluid, acid-base balance, aids with
homeostasis
 Chapter II - Tools in Nutrition
1. Food Guides : The Food Pyramid Food Exchange Table
Food Guides translate quantitative nutritional
HHM EXCH C P F Kcal
requirements into simple, practical and non-
technical language using available and common Veg A As served As
B 1/2 cup desired 1 - 16
foods of the country.
3

Fruits varies 10 - - 40

Milk 4T 12 8 0 80
1 cup 10 170

Rice ½ cup 23 2 - 100

Meat varies - 8 4 68

Fat 1tsp. - - 5 45

Sugar 1tsp. 5 - - 20

∓5 ∓5 ∓5 ∓25

5. Nutrient Density
Food pyramid teaches the principles of eating a
It is a relative measure of nutrients in a good in
variety of food everyday in proper amounts of
proportion to its caloric content.
servings.
6. Food and Nutrition Labeling
2. RENI (Recommended Energy and Nutrient Intake)
A system of describing processed foods or food
and RDA (Recommended Dietary Allowance)
properties of a food, thus facilitating the selection of
RENI is a nutrient-based dietary standard
a healthy diet.
recognized in the nutrition and health community
7. Nutritional Guidelines
as the source of information on recommended
These are primary recommendations to promote
intakes of energy and nutrients for the
good health habits through proper nutrition. They
maintenance of good health.
seek to foster an adequate and balanced diet as
RDA (Recommended Dietary Allowance) consists of
well as desirable food and nutrition practices and
the minimum requirements plus a safety factor
healthy habits suitable for the general population.
called “margin of safety” to allow for individual
The nutritional guidelines are intended to:
variations of body storage, state of health, nutrient
1. Provide the general public with
utilization and other day-to-day variations within a
recommendations about proper diet and
person.
wholesome practices to promote good
3. FCT (Food Composition Table)
health for themselves and their family.
Each food item has descriptions and the equivalent
2. Provide those concerned with nutrition
local names followed by its composition per
information and education with a handy
100gms edible portion
reference for their counseling and
4. FEL (Food Exchange Lists)
educational services.
The FEL is a grouping of common foods that have
practically the same amount of protein,
carbohydrate and fat. Within a group, one food
item can be exchanged with another provided the
specified serving portion is followed
 ● Proteins furnish the amino acids required to
build and repair body tissues. DIGESTION
● Nucleoproteins contain the blueprint for the ● In the mouth
synthesis of all body proteins. ○ chewing and crushing moisten protein-
As regulators of body processes rich foods and mixing them with saliva
● As enzymes and hormones, they aid in before swallowing.
digestion and regulate a variety of actions in ● In the stomach
the body. ○ HCI uncoils (denatures) the tangled
● As antibodies, they maintain the body’s strands of protein and activates
resistance to disease and infection. proteolytic enzymes which attack the
● As lipoproteins, they transport triglycerides, peptide bonds.
cholesterol, phospholipids, and fat-soluble ○ HCI converts pepsinogen (inactive
vitamins. enzyme) to pepsin (active enzyme).
● Albumin is of vital importance in the regulation ○ Pepsin inhibits the synthesis of
of osmotic pressure and in the maintenance of pepsinogen.
fluid balance. ○ Pepsin cleaves the large polypeptides
● Because of their amphoteric property, they of protein into smaller polypeptides
maintain acid-base balance of blood and and some amino acids.
tissues.
● Actin and myosin regulate muscle contraction. 𝑝𝑒𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑛
Protein smaller polypeptides
● Specific protein carriers transport nutrients to 𝐻𝐶
the tissues.
● In the Small intestine
○ pancreatic and intestinal proteases
As source of energy and glucose
hydrolyze polypeptides into short
● Proteins provide 4kcal/gram. However, protein
peptide chains.
foods are expensive and are not a
○ Enteropeptidase (also enterokinase)
recommended source of energy.
converts trypsinogen (inactive
enzyme) to trypsin (active enzyme).
FACTORS THAT AFFECT PROTEIN REQUIREMENT
○ Trypsin converts chymotrypsinogen
1. Body size
(inactive enzyme) to chymotrypsin
2. Effect of growth
active enzyme.
3. Effect of pregnancy and lactation
○ Peptidase enzymes on the membrane
4. Effect of aging
surfaces of intestinal cells split most of
5. State of health
the tripeptides and dipeptides into
6. Effect of physical activity
single amino acids.
7. Quality of proteins
8. Adequacy of calories
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF PROTEIN METABOLISM
1. The amino acids are in a dynamic state. There
FACTORS AFFECTING PROTEIN UTILIZATION
is constantly an exchange, mixing,
1. Amino-acid balance (egg)
intermingling among them.
2. Immobility
2. The all or none law applies in formation of cells
3. Emotional stress
and tissues, the amino acids needed to
4. Calorie
synthesize a particular protein should be all
5. Intake
present at the same time as the right amount
6. Inborn error of metabolism
and in the site where the protein is formed.
7. Food processing
 3. There is a limited number of amino acids that
are labile, ex they are reserved for immediate
use to maintain nitrogen balance.
4. Synthesis of a particular protein is controlled by
a genetic material, the DNA (deoxyribonucleic
acid). The RNA (ribonucleic acid) has the code
or formula for a particular protein to be
formed.
5. Protein metabolism is closely related with fat
and carbohydrate metabolism.
NITROGEN BALANCE (NB)
- Is the quantitative difference between nitrogen
input (nitrogen intake) and nitrogen
output(excretion in the urine, feces, adn sweat)
- Positive NB exists when intake is greater than
output.
- Negative NB exists when intake is less than
output.
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
Protein synthesis is controlled by two types of
nucleic acids, located primarily in the cytoplasm of the
cell.
● DNA
o Genetic material in the nucleus which initiates
and directs protein synthesis. It contains and
stores the genetic blueprint (genetic information)
necessary to control the sequence of amino acids
during protein synthesis.
o Forms part of the chromosome structure the
amount of DNA per set of chromosomes is
constante for a given species.
o Consists of subunits called nucleotides; a
combination of 3 nucleotides forms a coding unit
or codon. The sequins of nucleotides in DNA is the
code of pattern for the synthesis of the new
protein.
o Functions as a template to make strands of m-
RNA to initiate protein synthesis.
● RNA - carries out the actual synthesis of protein.
Two types of RNA are involved in protein synthesis:
messenger RNA(m-RNA) and transfer RNA(t-RNA).
RECOMMENDED PROTEIN INTAKE
• Dietary protein usually constitutes 10-15% of the
energy value of well balanced diets and seldom
exceeds 20%. Whereas the fat in the body can be
derived from dietary carbohydrates and the
carbohydrates from protein, the proteins of the
body are solely dependent on the proteins in the
food for their formation and maintenance.
• Food protein is the only source of the essential
amino acids and it is the only practical source of
nitrogen with which to build the non-essential
amino acids and other nitrogen-containing
compounds the body needs.
FOOD SOURCES
• All foods of animal origin(meat, fish, poultry, eggs,
seafoods, milk, and dairy products) are excellent
sources of protein, and except for the gelatin in
collagenous tissues, contain all the essential amino
acids.
• Of the plant foods, legumes, nuts, seeds, cereal
grains, and processed vegetable proteins are good
sources of protein, but the proteins they contain
lack or contain insufficient amounts of certain
essential amino acids.
• Proteinoid - synthetic source of protein.
PROTEIN NUTRITURE
• Protein-Energy Malnutrition (PEM) - refers to a
class of clinical disorders resulting from varying
combinations and degrees of protein and energy
deficiency usually accompanied by additional
physiologic and environmental stresses.
• Often aggravated by infection and accompanied
by other nutritional deficiencies such as severe
vitamin A deficiency.
The forms of PEM are:
a. Marasmus - named from the Greek word
meaning “dying away”. Marasmic children look
like “little old people” with just skin and bones.
b. Kwashiorkor - acute PEM basically due to
inadequate protein intake. Appears in infants
and young children in the late breastfeeding
and post-weaning phases when the diet is high
in carbohydrate and low in quality and quantity
of protein. Characterized by hypoalbuminemia
 Meal Distribution

EXCH B AMS L PMS S BTS

A
Veg B 5 3 2

Fruits 3 1 1 1

Milk 1 1

Sugar 5 5

Rice 8 2 1 2 1 2

Meat 5 2 2 1

Fat 6 2 2 2

Chapter 4 - Body building Foods - Protein

Protein - it originated from a Greek Word “proteios”
meaning “to hold first place” or “is of prime
importance”.
Mulder - a Dutch chemist, proposed the name in 1840
and until now, the word is used due to its unique
function of building and repairing cells and other
specialized roles in metabolism that cannot be
accomplished or performed by other nutrients.
Amino Acids - are the building blocks of protein.
Elements of Protein
C - Carbon
H - Hydrogen
O - Oxygen
N - Nitrogen - elements of protein that distinguishes it
from other nutrients.
CLASSIFICATION OF AMINO ACIDS
According to Dietary Requirement or Essentiality
● Essential (indispensable) amino acids(EAAs) -
are those that the human body cannot make at
all or cannot be synthesized at a rate sufficient
to meet growth and maintenance
requirements. They must therefore be provided
pre formed in the diet, either as free amino
acids or as constituents of dietary proteins.
● Semi-essential(conditionally indispensable)
amino acids - are those that are normally not
essential but become essential under certain
clinical conditions. They must be supplied by
the diet when the need for these amino acids
exceeds the body’s ability to produce them.
Amino acids that power the requirements for
an EAA but cannot repeat it entirely.
● Nonessential (dispensable) amino acids
(NEAAs) - are those that can be synthesized in
the body from EAAs or from an available
source of nitrogen to form the amino group and
a carbon skeleton composed of fragments from
carbohydrate or fat to form the rest of the
structure. Dietary proteins usually provide
these amino acids but it is not essential that
they do so.
10 Essential Amino Acids for Children gliadin, keratin, collagen, elastin, zein, myosin,
and many others.
8 Essential Amino Acids for Adult ● Compound or conjugated proteins - simple
proteins combined with a non-protein or

Classification of amino acids based on Essentiality prosthetic group, thus facilitating functions that
neither constituent could properly perform by
Essential Amino Acids Nonessential Amino Acids itself. Ex. mucoproteins, glycoproteins,
nucleoproteins, lipoproteins, phosphoproteins,
Histidine Alanine
chromoproteins, flavoproteins, and
Isoleucine Asparagine
metalloproteins.
Leucine Aspartic acid
Lysine Cystine ● Derived proteins - substances resulting from
Methionine Glutamic acid the decomposition of simple and compound
Phenylalanine Glutamine proteins by the action of heat and other
Threonine Glycine physical forces or by hydrolytic agents. Ex.
Tryptophan Proline
peptones, proteoses, and peptides which are
Valine Serine
formed in the various stages of protein
Arginine Tyrosine
digestion.
According to Amino Acid content
According to Metabolic Pathway
● Complete protein - Contains all the EAAs in
- Glucogenic amino acids are those that form
proportions capable of maintaining life and
pyruvate or intermediates of the Krebs cycle
supporting a normal rate of growth when they
which can be converted to glucose or glycogen.
are the sole source of protein in the diet.
- Ketogenic amino acids are those that can give
Considered as a high biological value protein.
rise to acety1CoA or acetoacetate resulting in
All animal proteins except gelatin are complete
the formation of fat or ketone bodies.
proteins but not necessarily identical in
biological value.
Glucogenic Glucogenic and Ketogenic Amino ● Partially complete protein - contains all the
Amino Acids Ketogenic Amino Acids EAAs but a relatively small amount of one or
Acids some of the amino acids necessary for growth.

Alanine Isoleucine Leucine Can maintain life but cannot support a normal
Arginine Phenylalanine Lysine rate of growth when used as the sole source of
Asparagine Threonine protein in the diet. Ex. gliadin and hordein.
Aspartic acid Tryptophan ● Totally incomplete protein - lacks one or more
Cysteine tyrosine of the EAAs and is therefore incapable of
Glutamine
replacing or rebuilding new tissues, hence
Glutamic acid
cannot support life or growth when used as the
Glycine
Histidine sole source of protein in the diet. Considered as
Methionine a low biological value protein. Ex. zein and
Proline gelatin
Serine
valine ROLES OF PROTEINS
As building materials for growth and repair
CLASSIFICATIONS OF PROTEINS ● Proteins are structural components of all body
According to Chemical Structure tissues, enzymes, hormones, and various body
● Simple Proteins - yield only amino acids upon fluids and secretions.
complete hydrolysis. Ex. albumins, globulins,
 ● Proteins furnish the amino acids required to
build and repair body tissues. DIGESTION
● Nucleoproteins contain the blueprint for the ● In the mouth
synthesis of all body proteins. ○ chewing and crushing moisten protein-
As regulators of body processes rich foods and mixing them with saliva
● As enzymes and hormones, they aid in before swallowing.
digestion and regulate a variety of actions in ● In the stomach
the body. ○ HCI uncoils (denatures) the tangled
● As antibodies, they maintain the body’s strands of protein and activates
resistance to disease and infection. proteolytic enzymes which attack the
● As lipoproteins, they transport triglycerides, peptide bonds.
cholesterol, phospholipids, and fat-soluble ○ HCI converts pepsinogen (inactive
vitamins. enzyme) to pepsin (active enzyme).
● Albumin is of vital importance in the regulation ○ Pepsin inhibits the synthesis of
of osmotic pressure and in the maintenance of pepsinogen.
fluid balance. ○ Pepsin cleaves the large polypeptides
● Because of their amphoteric property, they of protein into smaller polypeptides
maintain acid-base balance of blood and and some amino acids.
tissues.
● Actin and myosin regulate muscle contraction. 𝑝𝑒𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑛
Protein smaller polypeptides
● Specific protein carriers transport nutrients to 𝐻𝐶
the tissues.
● In the Small intestine
○ pancreatic and intestinal proteases
As source of energy and glucose
hydrolyze polypeptides into short
● Proteins provide 4kcal/gram. However, protein
peptide chains.
foods are expensive and are not a
○ Enteropeptidase (also enterokinase)
recommended source of energy.
converts trypsinogen (inactive
enzyme) to trypsin (active enzyme).
FACTORS THAT AFFECT PROTEIN REQUIREMENT
○ Trypsin converts chymotrypsinogen
1. Body size
(inactive enzyme) to chymotrypsin
2. Effect of growth
active enzyme.
3. Effect of pregnancy and lactation
○ Peptidase enzymes on the membrane
4. Effect of aging
surfaces of intestinal cells split most of
5. State of health
the tripeptides and dipeptides into
6. Effect of physical activity
single amino acids.
7. Quality of proteins
8. Adequacy of calories
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF PROTEIN METABOLISM
1. The amino acids are in a dynamic state. There
FACTORS AFFECTING PROTEIN UTILIZATION
is constantly an exchange, mixing,
1. Amino-acid balance (egg)
intermingling among them.
2. Immobility
2. The all or none law applies in formation of cells
3. Emotional stress
and tissues, the amino acids needed to
4. Calorie
synthesize a particular protein should be all
5. Intake
present at the same time as the right amount
6. Inborn error of metabolism
and in the site where the protein is formed.
7. Food processing
 3. There is a limited number of amino acids that
are labile, ex they are reserved for immediate
use to maintain nitrogen balance.
4. Synthesis of a particular protein is controlled by
a genetic material, the DNA (deoxyribonucleic
acid). The RNA (ribonucleic acid) has the code
or formula for a particular protein to be
formed.
5. Protein metabolism is closely related with fat
and carbohydrate metabolism.
NITROGEN BALANCE (NB)
- Is the quantitative difference between nitrogen
input (nitrogen intake) and nitrogen
output(excretion in the urine, feces, adn sweat)
- Positive NB exists when intake is greater than
output.
- Negative NB exists when intake is less than
output.
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
Protein synthesis is controlled by two types of
nucleic acids, located primarily in the cytoplasm of the
cell.
● DNA
o Genetic material in the nucleus which initiates
and directs protein synthesis. It contains and
stores the genetic blueprint (genetic information)
necessary to control the sequence of amino acids
during protein synthesis.
o Forms part of the chromosome structure the
amount of DNA per set of chromosomes is
constante for a given species.
o Consists of subunits called nucleotides; a
combination of 3 nucleotides forms a coding unit
or codon. The sequins of nucleotides in DNA is the
code of pattern for the synthesis of the new
protein.
o Functions as a template to make strands of m-
RNA to initiate protein synthesis.
● RNA - carries out the actual synthesis of protein.
Two types of RNA are involved in protein synthesis:
messenger RNA(m-RNA) and transfer RNA(t-RNA).
RECOMMENDED PROTEIN INTAKE
• Dietary protein usually constitutes 10-15% of the
energy value of well balanced diets and seldom
exceeds 20%. Whereas the fat in the body can be
derived from dietary carbohydrates and the
carbohydrates from protein, the proteins of the
body are solely dependent on the proteins in the
food for their formation and maintenance.
• Food protein is the only source of the essential
amino acids and it is the only practical source of
nitrogen with which to build the non-essential
amino acids and other nitrogen-containing
compounds the body needs.
FOOD SOURCES
• All foods of animal origin(meat, fish, poultry, eggs,
seafoods, milk, and dairy products) are excellent
sources of protein, and except for the gelatin in
collagenous tissues, contain all the essential amino
acids.
• Of the plant foods, legumes, nuts, seeds, cereal
grains, and processed vegetable proteins are good
sources of protein, but the proteins they contain
lack or contain insufficient amounts of certain
essential amino acids.
• Proteinoid - synthetic source of protein.
PROTEIN NUTRITURE
• Protein-Energy Malnutrition (PEM) - refers to a
class of clinical disorders resulting from varying
combinations and degrees of protein and energy
deficiency usually accompanied by additional
physiologic and environmental stresses.
• Often aggravated by infection and accompanied
by other nutritional deficiencies such as severe
vitamin A deficiency.
The forms of PEM are:
a. Marasmus - named from the Greek word
meaning “dying away”. Marasmic children look
like “little old people” with just skin and bones.
b. Kwashiorkor - acute PEM basically due to
inadequate protein intake. Appears in infants
and young children in the late breastfeeding
and post-weaning phases when the diet is high
in carbohydrate and low in quality and quantity
of protein. Characterized by hypoalbuminemia
 the absorption of vitamin A and its
precursor, carotene.
● Source of essential fatty acids which are:
○ Components of cholesterol esters and
membrane phospholipids in retinal
photoreceptors, cerebral gray matter,
testes and sperm;
○ Precursors of prostaglandins,
thromboxanes, and prostacyclins which
help regulate blood pressure, vascular
dilation, blood clotting, lipolysis immune
response, and the nervous system.
Classification of Lipids
1. Simple Lipids - or called neutral fats
Triglycerides - is the chemical name for basic
fats or stored fats
2. Compound Lipids
3. Derived Lipids
a. Fatty acids - the key refined fuel forms of
fat that the cell burns for energy. They are
the basic structural units of fat
b. Glycerol
c. Cholesterol - is a complex fat-like
compound found practically in all body
tissues, especially the brain and nerve
tissues, bile, blood and liver where it is
mostly synthesized. It is an essential
component of cell membranes and is
required for cell growth, replication and
maintenance. It is needed by the body for
the following:
i. It is the precursor of
dehydrocholesterol, which has
vitamin D activity
ii. It is part of the bile acids, thus it helps
in the emulsification of dietary fat.
iii. It is also utilized in the biosynthesis of
adrenocortical hormones, which are
important in the development of
secondary male and female
characteristics.
Sources:
1. Endogenous cholesterol - it is synthesized
mainly in the liver
2. Exogenous cholesterol - it is supplied in the diet,
mostly from the fatty portions of meat(brain,
glandular organs and egg yolk).
Very Low Density Lipoproteins
- The liver is the most active site of lipid synthesis.
Lipids made in the liver and those collected from
chylomicron remnants are packaged with
proteins as very-low-density lipoproteins(VLDL)
and brought to other parts of the body as
needed.
- Body cells continue to remove triglycerides from
the VLDL as it travels through the body causing it
to shrink. As the VLDL loses triglycerides, it
becomes more dense. The remaining lipoprotein
eventually becomes a low-density
lipoprotein(LDL) which is loaded with cholesterol
but only a few triglycerides.
Low Density Lipoproteins
- The low-density lipoproteins circulate throughout
the body making their contents available to the
cells of all tissues. The cells take triglycerides,
cholesterol, and phospholipids to build new
membranes, make hormones and other
compounds, or store for later use. LDL receptors
on the liver cells control blood cholesterol
concentrations by removing LDL from circulation.
- LDLs and VLDLs seem particularly effective in
depositing cholesterol in the arterial walls. High
LDL cholesterol is associated with a high risk of
heart disease and is thus referred to as “bad
cholesterol”.
High Density Lipoproteins
- Only about one-fourth of the cholesterol in the
blood is carried as HDL. This lipoprotein
appears to remove cholesterol from deposits
on arterial walls and transports it to the liver
for disposal. HDL is called “good cholesterol”
due to this protective effect.
- Elevated HDL represents cholesterol returning
from the rest of the body to the liver for
breakdown and excretion.
Macrominerals Sources Deficiency Toxicity Functions

1. Calcium Milk Osteoporosis Kidney Stones Needed for bone and

teeth formation.
2. Phosphorus Milk Osteomalacia Hyperphosphatemia Needed for stronger
bones and teeth.
3. Potassium Fruits Hypokalemia Hyperkalemia Regulates normal heart
rhythm
4. Sodium Milk Hyponatremia Hyponatremia (edema) Regulates osmotic
(dehydration) pressure and water
balance
5. Magnesium Nuts Hypomagneenic Hypermagnesemia Builds and maintain bone
Tetany and teeth
6. Sulfur Milk Cystinuria Cystine Kidney Stones Needed for energy
metabolism
7. Chlorine Milk Alkalosis - Regulates osmotic
pressure and water
balance.

Microminerals Sources Deficiency Toxicity Functions

1. Iron Kidney Anemia Hemochromatosis Needed for hemoglobin

formation
2. Iodine Seafoods IDD - Needed in the synthesis of
thyroxine
3. Zinc Liver Impaired Growth - Promotes wound healing
4. Cobalt Liver Pernicious Polycythemia Essential for maturation of
Anemia RBC and normal
functioning of all cells
5. Copper Liver Anemia Wilson’s Disease Promotes maturation of
RBC
6. Manganese Nuts - Parkinson-like Needed for C,P,F
Symptoms metabolism
7. Molybdenum Liver - - An intefral part of various
enzymes
8. Fluorine Water Dental Caries Dental Fluorosis Prevents dental caries
9. Chromium Corn Oil - - Needed for C,P,F
metabolism
10. Selenium Cereals - - An anti-oxidant
 will be used for building and repairing of body
tissues.
3. Regulation of fat metabolism - adequate
carbohydrates prevent the rapid oxidation of fats
which results in the accumulation of ketone
bodies leading to ketosis
4. Roles in gastrointestinal function - lactose
promotes the growth of desirable bacteria, some
of which are useful in the synthesis of the b-
complex vitamins. Lactose enhances the
absorption of calcium. Fiber maintains gut
integrity and ensures normal elimination of
waste.
5. Vital constituents of body compounds that
regulate metabolism
DIGESTION
1. In the mouth - mechanical digestion tears fiber in
food and is moistened by saliva. Salivary amylase
(ptyalin) hydrolyzes starch to shorter
polysaccharides and to maltose
2. In the small intestine - pancreatic amylase
breaks down polysaccharides to shorter glucose
chains and disaccharides. Disaccharides
enzymes dismantle specific disaccharides. All
polysaccharides and disaccharides are broken
down to monosaccharides which are absorbed
by the intestinal cell. Fiber is not digested and
delays the absorption of other nutrients.
METABOLISM
1. Using Glucose for Energy
• Glucose plays the central role in the
carbohydrate metabolism and is used by the
body as a chief source of energy.
2. Storing Glucose as Glycogen (Glycogenesis)
• After a meal, blood glucose rises and cells in
the liver and muscles link excess glucose
molecules by condensation reactions to make
glycogen. The human body stores much of its
glucose as glycogen in the liver and muscles.
• About ⅓ of the body’s glycogen is stored in the
liver. Liver glycogen is used up rapidly and
must be replenished daily.
• Muscle cells store the remaining ⅔ of the body
’s total glycogen but howard most of it, using it
only for themselves during exercise and other
physical activities.
3. Converting Glycogen Stores to Glucose
(Glycogenolysis)
• People who do not eat enough dietary
carbohydrate survive by drawing energy from
their glycogen stores. When blood glucose
falls, the liver cells dismantle the glycogen by
hydrolysis reactions to produce glucose which
is released into the bloodstream for use by
body cells as needed.
4. Making Glucose from Protein (Gluconeogenesis)
• Body protein can be converted to glucose to
some extent, but its main role is to build and
repair body tissues. Only a very small portion
of body fat (glycerol) can be converted to
glucose. Thus, when dietary carbohydrate is
inadequate, body proteins are dismantled to
make glucose for the body’s energy needs.
5. Making ketone Bodies from Fat Fragments
• Inadequate intake of dietary carbohydrates
provides less glucose to meet the body’s
energy needs. When this happens, energy
metabolism is shifted and fat takes an
alternative metabolic pathway. Instead of
entering the main energy pathway, fat
fragments combine with each other forming
ketone bodies (acetone, acetoacetic acid, and
beta-hydroxybutyric acid) which serve as an
alternative fuel during starvation.
• When the production of ketone bodies
exceeds their use, they accumulate in the
blood causing ketosis. This disturbs the body’s
normal acid-base balance. The body needs at
least 50 to 1000g of carbohydrates per day to
spare body protein and prevent ketosis.
6. Using Glucose to Make Fat (Lipogenesis)
• After meeting its energy needs and glycogen
stores, the body uses any extra glucose to
make fat which is stored in adipose tissue.
• Glycogen can be stored to a limited extent
and provides energy for relatively short
periods only. On the other hand, fat cells can
store unlimited quantities of fat which serves
as more permanent energy-storage
compounds.
RECOMMENDED INTAKE
• Dietary carbohydrates are the main sources of
energy for man, providing 55-65% of the total
energy intake in different countries.
• A wide variation in carbohydrate intake is
compatible with health because of the
interrelationships with fatty acids and amino
acids in meeting the body’s energy needs.
FOOD SOURCES
• Carbohydrates are widely distributed in nature,
particularly in the vegetable kingdom.
• Cereals, grains, roots, tubers, and noodles
contain mainly starch.
• Milk, which contains lactose, is the only animal
food that contributes to carbohydrate intake.
ARTIFICIAL SWEETENERS
The Food and Drug Administration (DFA) has
approved the use of several artificial sweeteners-
acesulfame potassium, aspartame, neotame,
saccharin, and sucralose. Alitame and cyclamate are
awaiting FDA approval.
1. Acesulfame-K - approved for use by the FDA in
1988 and is used in more than 60 countries. ADI is
15mg/kg body weight
2. Aspartame - approved for use by the FDA in
more than 100 countries. ADI is 50mg/kg body
weight. Composed of phenylalanine, aspartic
acid, and a methyl group Because it contains
phenylalanine, the label must have a warning for
people with phenylketonuria(PKU).
3. Neotame - approved for use by the FDA in 2002.
ADI is 18 mg/day. Composed of phenylalanine,
aspartic acid, a methyl group, and an additional
side group which blocks the digestive enzymes
that normally separate phenylalanine and
aspartic acid. Ths, both amino acids are not
absorbed and neotame needs to carry a warning
for people with PKU.
4. Saccharin - approved for use by the FDA in more
than 100 countries. ADI is 5mg/kg body weight.
Unique because it is made from sugar that has
had 3 of its hydroxyl(-OH) groups replaced by
chlorine atoms. The body does not recognize it as
a carbohydrate so it passes through the GI tract
undigested and unabsorbed.
5. Sugar Replacers - the term describes the sugar
alcohols like mannitol, sorbitol, xylitol, maltitol,
and dulcitol. Sugar alcohols occur naturally in
fruits and vegetables and are used by
manufacturers as a low-calorie bulk ingredient
that provides sweetness in “sugar-free” or
reduced-calorie products like hard candies,
cookies, james, jellies, and gums.
CARBOHYDRATES AND HEALTH
• Weight Management, Overweight, and Obesity
o Taking calories in excess of body needs
contributes to weight gain. The notion that
sweet food stimulates appetite and promotes
overeating has not been supported by
research. Overweight or obesity can occur
without a high sugar diet.
o For people whose excess calories come mainly
from added sugars, limiting the intake of foods
and beverages high in added sugars can help
reduce weight.
o Foods rich in complex carbohydrates tend to
be low in fat and added sugars. They can
promote weight loss by providing less calories.
o High-fiber foods add bulk to the diet. They
create feelings of satiety and delay hunger. To
use fiber in a weight loss plan, select fresh
fruits, vegetables, legumes, and whole-grain
foods. They are economical, nutritious, and
provide fewer calories.
o Get your daily fiber intake from natural foods,
not fiber supplements.
• Dental Caries
o The onset of dental caries depends on how long
food stays in the mouth. Sticky foods stay on
the teeth longer and are fermented by mouth
bacteria which produce an acid that erodes the
tooth enamel, causing tooth decay.
o Another concern is frequent exposure of teeth
surfaces to sugar. Bacteria produce acid for 20
to 30 minutes after each exposure. Thus, it is
better to eat sugar with meals than between
meals.
o Good oral hygiene may be more effective in
preventing dental caries than restricting sugary
foods.
• Diabetes
o High-carbohydrate diets per se do not cause
diabetes, nor is there convincing evidence that
sugar will cause it. Due to the high association
between obesity and type 2 diabetes, caloric
control rather than the limitation of
carbohydrate is the most important factor in
delaying its onset in susceptible individuals.
o High-fiber foods help reduce the risk of type 3
diabetes. Viscous fibers trap nutrients and
delay their transit through the GI tract. They
delay glucose absorption which helps prevent
the glucose surge and rebound that seem to be
associated with the onset of diabetes.
Nutrient Intake
o Sugar contributes to the caloric intake and
palatability of the diet. However, excessive
intake of high-sugar foods delivers glucose and
energy with few, if any other nutrients thus
contributing to nutrient deficiencies.
• Heart Disease
o Among dietary risk factors, saturated fats,
trans fats, and excess calories have stronger
associations with heart disease than do sugar
intakes.
o For most people, moderate intakes do not
elevate blood lipids. For “carbohydrate
sensitive” individuals, high intakes of sugars
can alter blood lipids to favor heart disease.
o High-carbohydrate diets, especially those rich
in viscous fibers (such as oat, barley, and
legumes) may protect against heart disease
and stroke. Such diets are low in animal fat and
cholesterol, and high in vegetable proteins and
phytochemicals.
• Cancer
o Fibers help prevent colon cancer by diluting,
binding, and removing potential carcinogens
from the colon. Viscous fibers stimulate
bacterial fermentation of resistant starch and
fiber in the colon producing short-chain fatty
acids that lower the pH and inhibit cancer
growth in the colon.
o Although evidence gathered from studies are
inconclusive, health care professionals
recommend a high-fiber diet with at least 5
servings of fruits and vegetables and generous
portions of whole grains and legumes.
• Behavioral Problems
o Sugar has been blamed for the misbehaviours
of hyperactive children, delinquent adolescents,
and lawbreaking adults. The claims are based
largely on personal stories and a few controlled
studies. Conflicting reports have been obtained
and until more scientific evidence supports a
relationship between sugar and hyperactivity
or other misbehaviors, it is not possible to draw
any conclusions.
• Honey
o The composition of honey varies, but a
typical analysis is given at 36% glucose, 43%
fructose, 2.7% sucrose, and 18.3% water.
Contrary to belief, there are no nutritional
advantages in the choice of honey as
sweeteners. Although honey contains
vitamins and minerals that are not available
in refined sugars, the trace amounts involved
are inconsequential in terms of daily needs.
Because sucrose is rapidly hydrolyzed in the
small intestine, there is little difference
between sugar and honey in absorption time.
• GI Health and Fibers
o Dietary fibers enhance the health of the large
intestine. The healthier the intestinal walls, the
better they can block the absorption of
unwanted substances.
o With ample fluids, fibers help to alleviate or
prevent many GI disorders like diarrhea,
constipation, haemorrhoids, and diverticula.
They help in the normal elimination of waste
and normalize intestinal transit time.
o Despite the health benefits of fiber, a diet high
in fiber has its drawbacks. Clearly “more fiber
is better” is true only up to a certain point.
Balance, variety, and moderation must be
observed at all times.
 Energy giving Food - Fats
DEFINITION ● A monounsaturated fat contains
The word lipid is derived from the Greek word triglycerides in which most of the
“lipos” meaning fat, although not all lipids are fats. fatty acids are monounsaturated.
Lipids are insoluble in water but soluble in fat solvents. ● Ex. oleic acid and palmitoleic acid
■ Polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA)
CLASSIFICATION OF FATTY-ACID ● Lacks 4 or more hydrogen atoms
● Saturated fatty acid (SFA) and has 2 or more double bonds
○ A fatty acid with a rabon chain containing between carbons. It corresponds to
all the hydrogen atoms it can hold. It the general formula CnH2nO2 less
corresponds to the general formula 4H or more.
CnH2nO2. ● A polyunsaturated fat contains
○ A saturated fat contains triglycerides in triglycerides in which most of the
which most of the fatty acids are saturated. fatty acids are polyunsaturated.
○ Found abundantly in animal fat like lard, ● Ex. linoleic acid, linolenic acid, and
cod liver oil, and plant oils. arachidonic acid.
○ Ex. myristic, palmitic, and stearic. ● The omega number of PUFA
● Unsaturated Fatty Acid (UFA) indicates the position of the first
○ Lacks hydrogen atoms and has at least one double bond in relation to the
double bond between carbons. An methyl end of the carbon chain. The
unsaturated fat contains triglycerides in first double bond of an omega-3
which most of the fatty acids are fatty acid is found three carbons
unsaturated. from the methyl end, and the first
○ Depending on the number of double bonds, double bond of an omega-6 fatty
an unsaturated fatty acid may be acid is six carbons from the methyl
monounsaturated or polyunsaturated. end.
■ Monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA) ● The numbers of an omega family
● Lacks two hydrogen atoms and has may have different lengths and
one double bond between carbons. numbers of double bonds, but the
It corresponds to the general first double bond occurs at the
formula CnH2nO2 less 2H. same point in all of them.

18-C Fatty Acids

No. of No. of
Name carbon double Saturation Common Food Sources
atoms bonds

Stearic acid 18 0 saturated Most animal fats

Oleic acid 18 1 Monounsaturated Olive oil, canola oil
Linoleic acid 18 2 Polyunsaturated sunflower , safflower, corn
and soybean oils
Linolenic acid 18 3 polyunsaturated Soybean and canola oils,
flaxseed, and walnuts
 FUNCTIONS OF FATS
Essential Fatty Acids(EFAs)
- Are those that must be supplied in the diet
because they are needed by the body but
cannot be made or are not made by the body
in amounts sufficient to meet physiological
needs.
- Are linoleic acid (the 18-C omega-6 fatty acid)
and linolenic acid (the 18-C omega-3 fatty
acid).
- The most effective way to maintain body
supplies of all the omega-3 and omega-6 fatty
acids is to get them from foods-vegetable oils,
seeds, nuts, fish, and other marine foods.
● Linoleic Acid and the Omega-6 Family
- Linoleic acid (LA) is the primary
member of the omega-6 family. With
LA, the body can make other members
of the omega-6 family such as the 20-
C PUFA, arachidonic acid
- If there is a deficiency of LA, all the
other fatty acids that derive from LA
would become essential and will have
to be obtained from the diet.
- Normally, vegetable oils and meats
supply enough omega-6 fatty aids to
meet the3 body’s needs.
● Linolenic Acid and the Omega-3 Family
- Linolenic acid (LNA) is the primary
member of the omega-3 family. Given
dietary LNA, the body can make small
amounts of the 20-C eicosapentaenoic
Acid (EPA) and the 22-C
docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), both
members of the omega03 series.
- Regular consumption of omega-3 fatty
acids helps to decrease blood
triglycerides, defend against
inflammation, present blood clots,
protect against irregular heartbeats,
and lower blood pressure, especially in
people with hypertension or
atherosclerosis.
● Components of body cells
○ All body cells contain some fat. In healthy
non-obese women, fat makes up 16-25%
of body weight, and in healthy non-obese
men, the amount of fat is 15-25% of body
weight.
○ BOdy fat increases with age while lean
body mass decreases.
● Insulation and padding
○ Adipose tissue maintains body
temperature within the vital range (37-
37.5͒c) necessary for life.
○ Fat is a poor conductor of heat, so the
layer of fat beneath the skin helps keep
the body warm
○ Fat pads serve as natural shock
absorbers, providing a cushion that
protects bones and vital organs against
physical injury.
● Source of Energy
○ Triglycerides from foods or from the
body’s fat stores provide the body with
the most concentrated sources of energy.
As adipose tissue, it is the major source of
energy stored in quantity by the body. As
dietary fats, they give 9kcal/gram
● Give satiety value
○ Fats reduce gastric motility and stay in the
stomach longer, giving a feeling of satiety
and delaying the onset of hunger
sensation.
● Contribute to palatability
○ Many substances responsible for the
flavor and aroma of food are fat-soluble.
The use of fat in cooking improves the
texture and flavor of food
● Protein sparer
○ Like carbohydrates, fat acts as a protein
sparer by providing energy so that protein
can be used for building and repairing
body tissues.
● Carriers of fat-soluble vitamins or their
precursors
○ Fat is necessary for the transport and
absorption of the fat-soluble vitamins. E.g.
 the absorption of vitamin A and its
precursor, carotene.
● Source of essential fatty acids which are:
○ Components of cholesterol esters and
membrane phospholipids in retinal
photoreceptors, cerebral gray matter,
testes and sperm;
○ Precursors of prostaglandins,
thromboxanes, and prostacyclins which
help regulate blood pressure, vascular
dilation, blood clotting, lipolysis immune
response, and the nervous system.
Classification of Lipids
1. Simple Lipids - or called neutral fats
Triglycerides - is the chemical name for basic
fats or stored fats
2. Compound Lipids
3. Derived Lipids
a. Fatty acids - the key refined fuel forms of
fat that the cell burns for energy. They are
the basic structural units of fat
b. Glycerol
c. Cholesterol - is a complex fat-like
compound found practically in all body
tissues, especially the brain and nerve
tissues, bile, blood and liver where it is
mostly synthesized. It is an essential
component of cell membranes and is
required for cell growth, replication and
maintenance. It is needed by the body for
the following:
i. It is the precursor of
dehydrocholesterol, which has
vitamin D activity
ii. It is part of the bile acids, thus it helps
in the emulsification of dietary fat.
iii. It is also utilized in the biosynthesis of
adrenocortical hormones, which are
important in the development of
secondary male and female
characteristics.
Sources:
1. Endogenous cholesterol - it is synthesized
mainly in the liver
2. Exogenous cholesterol - it is supplied in the diet,
mostly from the fatty portions of meat(brain,
glandular organs and egg yolk).
Very Low Density Lipoproteins
- The liver is the most active site of lipid synthesis.
Lipids made in the liver and those collected from
chylomicron remnants are packaged with
proteins as very-low-density lipoproteins(VLDL)
and brought to other parts of the body as
needed.
- Body cells continue to remove triglycerides from
the VLDL as it travels through the body causing it
to shrink. As the VLDL loses triglycerides, it
becomes more dense. The remaining lipoprotein
eventually becomes a low-density
lipoprotein(LDL) which is loaded with cholesterol
but only a few triglycerides.
Low Density Lipoproteins
- The low-density lipoproteins circulate throughout
the body making their contents available to the
cells of all tissues. The cells take triglycerides,
cholesterol, and phospholipids to build new
membranes, make hormones and other
compounds, or store for later use. LDL receptors
on the liver cells control blood cholesterol
concentrations by removing LDL from circulation.
- LDLs and VLDLs seem particularly effective in
depositing cholesterol in the arterial walls. High
LDL cholesterol is associated with a high risk of
heart disease and is thus referred to as “bad
cholesterol”.
High Density Lipoproteins
- Only about one-fourth of the cholesterol in the
blood is carried as HDL. This lipoprotein
appears to remove cholesterol from deposits
on arterial walls and transports it to the liver
for disposal. HDL is called “good cholesterol”
due to this protective effect.
- Elevated HDL represents cholesterol returning
from the rest of the body to the liver for
breakdown and excretion.
Trans Fatty-acids - also called trans fats have been of
interest lately to health professionals due to its potential
role as one of the risk factors for cardiovascular
disease. These are made from the hydrogenation of
poly-unsaturated fatty-acids which changes liquid oils
into solid fats. With this process, the degree of
saturation of the fatty-acids is increased, linking it to
high blood cholesterol, as LDL.
Fat sources from the standpoint of physical appearance
1. Visible Fats - cooking oil, butter, margarine,
salad dressing, lard, animal fats (tallow)
2. Invisible Fats - egg yolk, olives, well-marbled
meats, milk, avocado.
3. 1gm of alcohol = 7kcal.
FATS AND HEALTH
Heart Disease
- The strongest dietary determinant of LDL
cholesterol is saturated fat. In general, the
more saturated fat in the diet, the more LDL in
the body. The elevation of cholesterol level
leads to the formation of fatty streaks in the
walls of arteries thus restricting blood flow and
raising blood pressure.
- Blood cholesterol is often used to predict the
likelihood of having a heart attack or a stroke;
the higher the cholesterol, the earlier and more
likely the tragedy. Efforts to prevent heart
disease focus on lowering blood cholesterol.
- A heart-healthy diet limits the intake of foods
rich in saturated fats and trans fats. Like
saturated fats, trans fats raise heart disease
risk by elevating blood cholesterol, specifically
LDL cholesterol.
- Animal fats are the main sources of saturated
fats. Some vegetable fats (coconut oil and
palm) and hydrogenated fats provide smaller
amounts of saturated fats. Choosing poultry,
fish, and fat-free milk products helps to lower
saturated fat intake and risk of heart disease.
- Replacing saturated fats and trans fats with
monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats
may be the most effective dietary strategy in
preventing heart disease. Replacing saturated
fats with the polyunsaturated of other
vegetable oils also lowers blood cholesterol.
Overweight and Obesity
- These conditions result from taking calories
above requirements regardless of the source.
Because fat is a concentrated source of energy,
it is easy to exceed one’s caloric intake by
eating foods rich in fat.
Cancer
- Evidence to link dietary fats in the etiology of
cancer is less convincing than for heart disease,
but it suggests a possible association between
fat and some types of cancers. Dietary fat does
not seem to initiate cancer development but
seems to promote cancer once it has arisen.
- Epidemiologic studies in different countries
have shown a strong association between the
incidence of colon cancer and the consumption
of total fat, saturated fat, and cholesterol.
However, no proof of a direct association has
been found to support or dispute the role of
dietary fat in colon cancer.
- Evidence to like dietary fat and breast cancer
has been wark and inconclusive. Some studies
associate a high incidence of breast cancer
with a high fat diet. Such a diet may increase
the risk of breast cancer by increasing serum
prolactin: estrogen ratio which promotes
mammary tumors.
- Other studies find that total energy intake and
obesity are better predictors than percentage
of fat calories. Finally, some studies show little
or no association between dietary fat and
breast cancer.
- There appears to be a harmful association
between prostate cancer and dietary fat,
although a specific type of fat has not yet been
implicated.
- The association between cancer and dietary fat
appears to be due primarily to saturated fats
from meats. Fat from milk or fish has not been
implicated in cancer risk. In fact, increasing the
intake of omega-3 fatty acids from fish and
decreasing saturated fat is recommended.
Macrominerals Sources Deficiency Toxicity Functions

1. Calcium Milk Osteoporosis Kidney Stones Needed for bone and

teeth formation.
2. Phosphorus Milk Osteomalacia Hyperphosphatemia Needed for stronger
bones and teeth.
3. Potassium Fruits Hypokalemia Hyperkalemia Regulates normal heart
rhythm
4. Sodium Milk Hyponatremia Hyponatremia (edema) Regulates osmotic
(dehydration) pressure and water
balance
5. Magnesium Nuts Hypomagneenic Hypermagnesemia Builds and maintain bone
Tetany and teeth
6. Sulfur Milk Cystinuria Cystine Kidney Stones Needed for energy
metabolism
7. Chlorine Milk Alkalosis - Regulates osmotic
pressure and water
balance.

Microminerals Sources Deficiency Toxicity Functions

1. Iron Kidney Anemia Hemochromatosis Needed for hemoglobin

formation
2. Iodine Seafoods IDD - Needed in the synthesis of
thyroxine
3. Zinc Liver Impaired Growth - Promotes wound healing
4. Cobalt Liver Pernicious Polycythemia Essential for maturation of
Anemia RBC and normal
functioning of all cells
5. Copper Liver Anemia Wilson’s Disease Promotes maturation of
RBC
6. Manganese Nuts - Parkinson-like Needed for C,P,F
Symptoms metabolism
7. Molybdenum Liver - - An intefral part of various
enzymes
8. Fluorine Water Dental Caries Dental Fluorosis Prevents dental caries
9. Chromium Corn Oil - - Needed for C,P,F
metabolism
10. Selenium Cereals - - An anti-oxidant
Fat-Soluble Sources Deficiency Toxicity Functions
Vitamins
1. Vitamin A Liver/Milk Xerophthalmia Hypervitaminosis A Needed for normal Night
Vision
2. Vitamin D Milk Osteomalacia Hypervitaminosis D Promotes normal bone
and teeth
3. Vitamin E Oils RBC Hemolysis - An anti-oxidant
4. Vitamin K Liver Hemorrhage Disease Hemolytic Anemia Needed for normal blood
in Newborn clotting

Water Soluble Sources Deficiency Toxicity Functions

Vitamins
1. Vitamin C Citrus Fruits - An anti-oxidant that protects
us against infection
2. Vitamin B1 Liver Beri-Beri - Needed for C,P,F metabolism
3. Vitamin B2 Milk/Liver Ariboflavinosis - Needed for energy production
4. Niacim Liver Pellagra - Needed for C,P,F metabolism
5. Folate Liver Megaloblastic - Necessary for the
Anemia regeneration of RBC
6. Vitamin B6 Liver - - Needed for C,P,F metabolism
7. Panthenic Milk/Liver - - Needed for C,P,F metabolism
Acid
8. Biotin Milk/Liver - - Needed for C,P,F metabolism
9. Vitamin B12 Milk/Liver Pernicious Anemia - Needed for normal
development and maturation
of RBC