Learning Objectives on Nutrition:

1. Discuss the biochemical aspects of digestion and absorption

specifically the enzymes and reactions involved in the different
stages of digestion, the constituents of the saliva, gastric juice,
pancreatic juice, bile and intestinal juice, and the products of
intestinal bacteria.

There are two main classes of proteolytic digestive enzymes (proteases), with different
specificities for the amino acids forming the peptide bond to be hydrolyzed.
Endopeptidases hydrolyze peptide bonds between specific amino acids throughout the
molecule. They are the first enzymes to act, yielding a larger number of smaller
fragments.
Pepsin in the gastric juice catalyzes hydrolysis of peptide bonds adjacent to aromatic
and branched-chain amino acids and methionine. Trypsin, chymotrypsin, and elastase
are secreted into the small intestine by the pancreas. Trypsin catalyzes hydrolysis of
lysine and arginine esters, chymotrypsin esters of aromatic amino acids, and elastase
esters of small neutral aliphatic amino acids.
Exopeptidases catalyze the hydrolysis of peptide bonds, one at a time, from the ends of
peptides. Carboxypeptidases, secreted in the pancreatic juice, release amino acids from
the free carboxyl terminal; aminopeptidases, secreted by the intestinal mucosal cells,
release amino acids from the amino terminal. Dipeptidases and tripeptidases in the
brush border of intestinal mucosal cells catalyze the hydrolysis of di- and tripeptides,
which are not substrates for amino- and carboxypeptidases.
The proteases are secreted as inactive zymogens; the active site of the enzyme is
masked by a small region of the peptide chain that is removed by hydrolysis of a specific
peptide bond. Pepsinogen is activated to pepsin by gastric acid and by activated pepsin
(autocatalysis).
In the small intestine, trypsinogen, the precursor of trypsin, is activated by
enteropeptidase, which is secreted by the duodenal epithelial cells; trypsin can then
activate chymotrypsinogen to chymotrypsin, proelastase to elastase,
procarboxypeptidase to carboxypeptidase, and proaminopeptidase to aminopeptidase.

2. Define nutrition.
Nutrition is the study of how food and drink affects our bodies with a special regard to
the essential nutrients necessary to support human health. It looks at the physiological
and biochemical processes involved in nourishment and how substances in food provide
energy or are converted into body tissues.

3. Classify foods according to nutrient content and function.

Based on the amount of the nutrients that each person needs to consume on a daily
basis, these nutrients are categorised into two groups. These are macronutrients,
which should be consumed in fairly large amounts, and micronutrients, which are only
required in small amounts.
 A. Macronutrients
‘Macro’ means large; as their name suggests these are nutrients which people need to
eat regularly and in a fairly large amount. They include carbohydrates, fats, proteins,
fibre and water. These substances are needed for the supply of energy and growth,
for metabolism and other body functions.

• Carbohydrates are referred to as energy-giving foods. They provide energy in the form
of calories that the body needs to be able to work, and to support other functions.
Carbohydrates are needed in large amounts by the body. Indeed, up to 65% of our
energy comes from carbohydrates. They are the body’s main source of fuel because they
are easily converted into energy. This energy is usually in the form of glucose, which all
tissues and cells in our bodies readily use. For the brain, kidneys, central nervous system
and muscles to function properly, they need carbohydrates.

These carbohydrates are usually stored in the muscles and the liver, where they are later used
for energy. The main sources of carbohydrates are bread, wheat, potatoes of all kinds, maize,
rice, cassava, ‘shiro’, pasta, macaroni, ‘kocho’, banana, sweets, sugar cane, sweet fruits, and
honey. Other foods like vegetables, beans, nuts and seeds contain carbohydrates, but in lesser
amounts.

Classification of carbohydrates
Based on the number of sugar units, carbohydrates are classified into three groups;
these are:
✓ monosaccharides
✓ Disaccharides
✓ Polysaccharides

• Proteins are needed in our diets for growth (especially important for children,
teens and pregnant women) and to improve immune functions. They also play an
important role in making essential hormones and enzymes, in tissue repair,
preserving lean muscle mass, and supplying energy in times when
carbohydrates are not available.

Sources of protein
The main sources of proteins are meats, chicken, eggs, breastmilk, beans, ground nuts, lentils,
fish, cheese and milk.

• Fats and oils are concentrated sources of energy and so are important nutrients for
young children who need a lot of energy-rich food. Fats can also make meals more tasty
and satisfying. Fat is found in meat, chicken, milk products, butters, creams, avocado,
cooking oils and fats, cheese, fish and ground nuts.

Classification of fats
Fats are classified into saturated and unsaturated fats. The classification is important to enable
you to advise your community about which fats can be consumed with less risk to people’s
health. Saturated fats are not good for a person’s health.

✓ Saturated fats are usually solid at cool temperatures. Eating too much saturated fat is
not good for a person’s health, as it can cause heart and blood vessel problems.

✓ Unsaturated fats are usually liquid at room temperature. These types of fats are healthy
fats. Examples include fats from fish, oil seeds (sesame and sunflower), maize oil and
ground nut oil and breastmilk.
 • Fibre is a mixture of different carbohydrates which are not digested like other nutrients
but pass through the gut nearly unchanged. Foods rich in fibre are ‘kocho’; vegetables
like cabbage, ‘kosta’, carrots, cassava; fruits like banana and avocado; peas and beans;
whole-grain cereals like wheat flour and refined maize or sorghum.

Including fibre in the diet

Fibre should be included in the diet for the following reasons:

✓ Fibre makes food bulky or bigger — this can help a person who is overweight to eat
less food
✓ Fibre makes the faeces soft and bulky; this can help prevent constipation
✓ Fibre slows the absorption of nutrients, so it helps nutrients to enter the blood stream
slowly.

• Water is essential for life. We need water for a number of reasons:

✓ For the body to make cells and fluids such as tears, digestive juices and breastmilk
✓ For the body to make sweat for cooling itself
✓ For essential body processes — most take place in water
✓ For keeping the lining of the mouth, intestine, eyelids and lungs wet and healthy
✓ For the production of urine, which carries waste from the body.

B. Micronutrients
As their name indicates (‘micro’ means small) micronutrients are substances which
people need in their diet in only small amounts. These include minerals and vitamins.

• Vitamins are groups of related substances present in small amounts in

foodstuffs and are necessary for the body to function normally. Vitamins are also
called protective foods. They are grouped together because, as their name
implies, they are a vital factor in the diet.

Classifications of vitamins
Vitamins are classified into two groups:

✓ Fat soluble vitamins (vitamins A, D, E and K) are soluble in fats and fat
solvents. They are insoluble in water. So these are utilised only if there is enough
fat in the body.

✓ Water soluble vitamins (vitamins B and C, and folic acid) are soluble in water
and so they cannot be stored in the body.
 • Minerals
Minerals are the substances that people need to ensure the health and correct working of their
soft tissues, fluids and their skeleton. Examples of minerals include calcium, iron, iodine, fluorine,
phosphorus, potassium, zinc, selenium, and sodium.
 4. Describe the different nutritional standards.
The Nutrition Standards provide the foundation for the NSLP and the SBP. The
related Meal Requirements facilitate the actions needed to implement the Nutrition
Standards and develop menus and meals. At present, Meal Requirements reflect two
sets of meal standards. The food-based menu planning (FBMP) approach focuses on
the types and the amounts of foods to be offered. The second set of meal standards, the
nutrient-based menu planning (NBMP) approach makes use of computer software to
plan menus that meet the Nutrition Standards. Local school food authorities (SFAs)
decide which menu planning approach is to be used and, hence, which set of meal
standards is to be followed. The SFAs then develop their specific menus accordingly.
Currently, approximately 70 percent of schools use the FBMP approach (USDA,
2007a).

5. Discuss the functions and food sources of carbohydrates including

dietary fibers.
Carbohydrates are referred to as energy-giving foods. They provide energy in the form
of calories that the body needs to be able to work, and to support other functions.
Carbohydrates are needed in large amounts by the body.
The main sources of carbohydrates are bread, wheat, potatoes of all kinds, maize, rice,
cassava, ‘shiro’, pasta, macaroni, ‘kocho’, banana, sweets, sugar cane, sweet fruits, and
honey. Other foods like vegetables, beans, nuts and seeds contain carbohydrates, but in
lesser amount.
Dietary fiber is defined as the nondigestible carbohydrates and lignin (a complex
polymer of phenylpropanoid subunits) present intact in plants.
Dietary fibre or ‘roughage’ comprises the edible parts of plant that cannot be digested or
absorbed in the small intestine and passes into the large intestine intact. This includes
non-starch polysaccharides (e.g. cellulose, hemicellulose, gums, pectins),
oligosaccharides (e.g. inulin), lignin and associated plant substances (e.g. waxes,
suberin). The term dietary fibre also includes a type of starch known as resistant starch
(found in pulses, partly-milled seeds and grains, some breakfast cereals) because it
resists digestion in the small intestine and reaches unchanged the large intestine.
Dietary fibre is found in fruits (pears, strawberries, blackberries, raspberries, currants,
oranges), vegetable (brussel sprouts, artichoke, onion, garlic, corn, peas, green beans,
broccoli), pulses (lentils, chickpeas, beans) and wholegrains (all bran and oat bran
cereals, whole and mixed grain breads).
The function of the dietary fiber, they prevent constipation, improved blood glucose
levels, and blood lipid profiles predominate as beneficial outcomes of a diet high in
dietary fibre, other benefits are worth noting. For example, because fibre provides bulk in
the diet, without added calories, it can have a satiating effect on appetite; helping in
weight management.

6. Discuss sugar substitutes.

Sugar substitutes are chemical or plant-based substances used to sweeten or enhance
the flavor of foods and drinks. You may have heard them called “artificial sweeteners” or
“non-caloric sweeteners.” They can be used as a tabletop sweetener (for example, to
sweeten a glass of iced tea) and/or as an ingredient in processed foods and drinks. Most
sugar substitutes are many times sweeter than sugar. It takes a smaller amount of these
sugar substitutes to provide the same level of sweetness. Some sugar substitutes are
low in calories. Others have no calories.Sugar substitutes are regulated as food
additives by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). This means that the FDA
reviews scientific evidence to be sure that a sugar substitute is safe before it can be
used in foods and drinks.

7. Classify the different dietary fats.

There are four major dietary fats in the foods we eat:

1. Saturated fats
2. Trans fats
3. Monounsaturated fats
4. Polyunsaturated fats

8. Discuss the functions and food sources of fats.

✓ Saturated fats

Saturated fats are simply fat molecules that have no double bonds between carbon
molecules because they are saturated with hydrogen molecules. Saturated fats are
typically solid at room temperature.
Replacing foods that are high in saturated fat with healthier options can lower blood
cholesterol levels and improve lipid profiles.
Examples of foods with saturated fat are:
• fatty beef,
• lamb,
• pork,
• poultry with skin,
• beef fat (tallow),
• lard and cream,
• butter,
• cheese and
• other dairy products made from whole or reduced-fat (2 percent) milk.

✓ Trans fats

There are two broad types of trans fats found in foods: naturally-occurring and
artificial trans fats. Naturally-occurring trans fats are produced in the gut of some animals
and foods made from these animals (e.g., milk and meat products) may contain small
quantities of these fats. Artificial trans fats (or trans fatty acids) are created in an
industrial process that adds hydrogen to liquid vegetable oils to make them more solid.

Trans fats raise your bad (LDL) cholesterol levels and lower your good (HDL) cholesterol
levels. Eating trans fats increases your risk of developing heart disease and stroke. It’s
also associated with a higher risk of developing type 2 diabetes.
Trans fats can be found in many foods – including fried foods like doughnuts, and baked
goods including cakes, pie crusts, biscuits, frozen pizza, cookies, crackers, and stick
margarines and other spreads. You can determine the amount of trans fats in a
particular packaged food by looking at the Nutrition Facts panel. However, products can
be listed as “0 grams of trans fats” if they contain 0 grams to less than 0.5 grams
of trans fat per serving. You can also spot trans fats by reading ingredient lists and
looking for the ingredients referred to as “partially hydrogenated oils.”

✓ Monounsaturated fats

monounsaturated fats are basically fat molecules that have one unsaturated carbon
bond within the molecules, typically too called a double bond. Oils that contain
monounsaturated fats are regularly fluid at room temperature but begin to
turn strong when chilled. Olive oil is a case of a sort of oil that contains monounsaturated
fats.

Monounsaturated fats can offer assistance decrease terrible cholesterol levels in your
blood which can lower your chance of heart malady and stroke.
They moreover give supplements to assist create and keep up your body’s cells.
Oils wealthy in monounsaturated fats too contribute vitamin E to the eat less, an
antioxidant vitamin most Americans require more of.

Examples of foods high in monounsaturated fats include plant-based liquid oils such as:

• olive oil,
• canola oil,
• peanut oil,
• safflower oil and
• sesame oil.

Other sources include avocados, peanut butter, and many nuts and seeds.

✓ Polyunsaturated fats

Polyunsaturated fats are simply fat molecules that have more than one unsaturated
carbon bond in the molecule, this is also called a double bond. Oils that contain
polyunsaturated fats are typically liquid at room temperature but start to turn solid when
chilled.
Polyunsaturated greasy acids (PUFAs) are imperative for nerve function, blood clotting,
brain health, and muscle quality. They are “essential,” meaning that the body needs
them to operate but cannot make them, so a individual must get PUFAs from their slim
down.
Foods high in polyunsaturated fat include a number of plant-based oils, including:
• soybean oil
• corn oil
• sunflower oil
 9. Discuss fat substitutes.
Fat substitutes are planned to imitate one or more of the parts of fat in nourishments.
The calorie thickness of fat substitutes shifts from for all intents and purposes none to 9
calories per gram. A few fat substitutes can accomplish the utilitarian qualities of fat with
a littler sum of the substitute indeed in spite of the fact that the sum of fat and calories
per gram within the substitute is indistinguishable to routine fat. Fat
substitutes ordinarily are categorized on the premise of the macronutrient source, ie,
protein, carbohydrate, or fat. The particular fat substitute utilized in
a nourishment item may be the result of its useful properties,
but government direction too may confine the nourishments in which particular fat
substitutes may be utilized. For case, olestra can be utilized in
savory nibble nourishments such as chips but cannot be utilized to supplant fat in most
other nourishment items.

10. Discuss the functions and food sources of proteins.

Proteins are frequently called the body’s building blocks. They
are utilized to construct and repair tissues. They assist you battle disease. Your
body employments additional protein for vitality. The
protein nourishments gather incorporates fish, incline meat and poultry, eggs, beans and
peas, soy items, and unsalted nuts and seeds. Protein is additionally found within
the dairy group. Protein from plant sources tends to be lower in immersed fat, contains
no cholesterol, and gives fiber and other health-promoting supplements

11. Define positive, negative and normal nitrogen balance.

Positive nitrogen balance is related with periods of development, hypothyroidism,
tissue repair, and pregnancy. This implies that the admissions of nitrogen into the body
is more noteworthy than the misfortune of nitrogen from the body,
so there's an increment within the add up to body pool of protein.
Negative nitrogen balance is related with burns, serious tissue wounds, fevers,
hyperthyroidism, squandering maladies, and amid periods of fasting. This implies that
the sum of nitrogen excreted from the body is more prominent than the sum of nitrogen
ingested. A negative nitrogen adjust can be utilized as portion of a
clinical assessment of lack of healthy sustenance.
Normal nitrogen balance the body nitrogen content should be both quantitatively and
qualitatively normal, as well as normally maintained, to ensure normal body functions.

12. Describe the measures of protein quality.

The quality of a protein is decided by its basic amino corrosive composition and the
digestibility and bioavailability of its amino acids, concurring to
the Nourishment and Horticulture Affiliation and the World Wellbeing Organization
(FAO/WHO). A few measurements have been created in an exertion to condense
these subjective terms into easy-to-understand scores:
• Protein Efficiency Ratio (PER)
• Biological Value (BV)
 • Net Protein Utilization (NPU)
• Protein Digestibility Corrected Amino Acid Score (PDCAAS)

Determines protein quality by measuring how effectively the human

body employments dietary protein. Particularly, BV measures the nitrogen (to a great
extent gotten from dietary protein) that's held within the body
and hypothetically utilized in tissue and muscle arrangement, and partitions it by add up
to sum of nitrogen absorbed from dietary protein. Since BV could be a work of how much
protein is ingested and how much ends up being utilized, the hypothetical best score is
100. Be that as it may, since whole egg (the finest whole nourishment source of
protein substance) was initially set as the protein digestibility standard, it
is conceivable for handled protein sources like whey protein concentrate
to surpass this esteem.

13. Classify vitamins and minerals.

Classifications of vitamins
Vitamins are classified into two groups:

✓ Fat soluble vitamins (vitamins A, D, E and K) are soluble in fats and fat
solvents. They are insoluble in water. So these are utilised only if there is enough
fat in the body.

✓ Water soluble vitamins (vitamins B and C, and folic acid) are soluble in water
and so they cannot be stored in the body.

There are two categories of minerals that the body needs to properly operate. These
divisions are the major minerals and trace minerals.
✓ Major minerals
Calcium
Phosphorus
Magnesium
Sodium
Chloride
Potassium
Sulfur

✓ Trace minerals
Iodine
Iron
Zinc
Selenium
Copper
Manganese
Fluoride
Chromium
Molybdenum
14. Discuss the functions and food sources of vitamins and minerals.
 15. Discuss the Recommended Daily Allowance for CHO, protein, fats,
vitamins and minerals, and energy for Filipinos.
Energy. The recommendation for infants are based on new estimates derived from total
energy expenditure (TEE) by the doubly labeled water (DLW) method, and energy
deposition based on rates of protein and fat gains. The recommendations for children
are based on an extensive review on energy expenditure, growth and activity patterns of
free-living, healthy children and adolescents. Estimation of TEE also considered studies
using DLW and heart rate method. Timed-motion observations and activity diaries were
used to gather information on the activity patterns and habitual physical activities. For
adults, the Oxford equation which included BMR data on tropical people 10 was used
rather than the Schofield equation used in the 1985 FAO/WHO/UNU Report.
Protein. The RNIs for children, pregnant and lactating women were based on the 1985
FAO/WHO/UNU 11 estimates for a reference protein (milk), adjusted for protein quality
of Filipino rice-based diets of 70% PDCAAS (Protein Digestibility Adjusted Amino Acid
Score). The RNIs for adults were based on the average requirement derived from a
meta-analysis of nitrogen balance studies among adults from several countries, adjusted
for 70% PDCAAS. These intake levels are very close to estimates obtained from direct
studies on Filipinos consuming usual diets.12

Carbohydrates 55%-70%
Fats and fatty acids Infants 30%-40%
All others 20-30%
Protein 10%-15%
Carbohydrates may contribute 55%-70% of total dietary energy, 70% of which should
come from complex carbohydrates and not more than 10% should come from simple
sugars. Following IOM and FAO/WHO recommendations, a daily intake of 20-25 g
dietary fiber is also suggested.

Table from: Food and Nutrition Research Institute, Department of Science and
Technology (FNRI-DOST). 2002. Recommended Energy and Nutrient Intakes.
Philippines, 2002 Edition.
 16. Compute the desirable body weight, total energy requirement,
prepare dietary prescription of an individual and sample menu.
The Philippines uses the daily nutritional guide pyramid and has developed pyramids for
different population groups. The pyramid is divided into levels of recommended
consumption. Messages about exercise and personal and environmental hygiene serve
as support messages for the pyramid.
The healthy food plate for Filipino adults (Pinggang Pinoy) completes the messages of
the pyramid by showing adequate distribution of nutritious foods in a meal.
✓ Eat a variety of foods every day to get the nutrients needed by the body.
✓ Breastfeed infants exclusively from birth up to 6 months, then give appropriate
complementary foods while continuing breastfeeding for 2 years and beyond for
optimum growth and development.
✓ Eat more vegetables and fruits every day to get the essential vitamins, minerals
and fibre for regulation of body processes.
✓ Consume fish, lean meat, poultry, eggs, dried beans or nuts daily for growth and
repair of body tissues.
✓ Consume milk, milk products and other calcium-rich foods, such as small fish
and shellfish, every day for healthy bones and teeth.
✓ Consume safe foods and water to prevent diarrhoea and other food and water-
borne diseases.
✓ Use iodized salt to prevent iodine deficiency disorders.
✓ Limit intake of salty, fried, fatty and sugar-rich foods to prevent cardiovascular
diseases.
✓ Attain normal body weight through proper diet and moderate physical activity to
maintain good health and help prevent obesity.
✓ Be physically active, make healthy food choices, manage stress, avoid alcoholic
beverages and do not smoke to help prevent lifestyle-related non-communicable
diseases.

Female age: 19-29

Weight: 51 kg
Energy kcal: 1860
 17. Enumerate the different fat – soluble and water soluble vitamins and
minerals and discuss their structure, functions in the body,
pathologic state due to their deficiency or excess and their RDA.

Water soluble structure;

Vitamins are usually required only in small amounts (in order of micro- or milligrams), but they
play an irreplaceable function within the body. Many vitamins act as enzyme cofactors and
participate in the enzyme-catalyzed reactions of metabolic pathways. Some vitamins
are antioxidants and protect cellular structures against the oxidative stress.
Vitamin deficiency, which can occur for various reasons (inadequate intake of vitamins in diet,
impaired intestinal absorption or metabolism of provitamins), may lead to hypovitaminosis or, in
extreme cases, avitaminosis. Clinical manifestations differ (depending on the extent of
deficiency or the type of the missing vitamin) – e.g. beriberi disease (thiamine deficiency)
or scurvy (vitamin C deficiency). Pathological conditions may rarely develop due to an excess
intake of some vitamins as well. They concern mainly fat-soluble vitamins, most often vitamin A
and D and are termed hypervitaminosis.