1

CH AP TE R THR E E
Human Physiology
Digestion & Absorption Aminul Sir
Lecturer (Biology), CESC.
01912 -85 33 95 .
Topic – 1  Digestion & Digestive system : Alimentary canal + Digestive glands.

Topic – 2  Digestion in Buccal cavity (i.e. Mouth) :

i) Mechanical digestion, Dental formula.
ii) Chemical digestion.

Topic – 3  Digestion in Stomach : ✓ Homo sapiens belongs to Order: Primates.

i) Mechanical digestion ✓ ‘Primates’ means – suitable hands for griping.
ii) Chemical digestion. ✓ In order: Primates, the number of species = 280.

Topic – 4  - Digestion in Small intestine ✓ No digestion is required for – Vitamins, Minerals &

- Absorption in Small intestine. Water. Cells of the body can absorb them directly.

Topic – 5  Functions of Large intestine.

Topic – 6  Functions of Digestive glands – A) Liver (Assimilation) & B) Pancreas.

Topic – 7  Role of Nervous system and Hormone in Digestion.

Topic – 8  Obesity : Concept, Causes, Prevention.

Topic – 9  Practical : Observation and identification of the permanent slide of –

- Liver, Pancreas, Stomach and Small intestine.
           

Topic – 1  Digestion & Digestive system : Alimentary canal + Digestive glands.

Digestion : The physio-chemical process through which larger, complex, insoluble & unabsorbable food substances transformed
into small, simple, soluble & absorbable form, with the help of particular enzyme & hormone, is called - ‘Digestion’. These simple
food substances are transported by blood to the different parts of the body, enter into the body cells through ‘Diffusion’ process.

Digestive system : The organ system which is responsible for ingestion, digestion, absorption, assimilation & removal of
undigested food, is called - ‘Digestive system’.

Digestive system mainly consists of 2 parts –

1) Alimentary canal / Digestive tract / Gastrointestinal (GI) tract : A long muscular tube from Mouth -to- Anus.
[ MouthBuccal cavity (tongue, teeth: 4 types- Incisor, Canine, Premolar, Molar)PharynxOesophagusCardiac
sphincterStomachPyloric sphincterSmall intestine (Duodenum, Jejunum, Ileum)Large intestine (Caecum, Colon,
Rectum)Anus ]
2) Digestive glands : Five digestive glands are divided into 2 groups –
i) Glands situated outside the alimentary canal : 3 in number – 1. Salivary glands (3 pairs – parotid, submandibular,
sublingual), 2. Liver, 3. Pancreas.
ii) Glands situated inside the alimentary canal : 2 in number – 1. Gastric gland (in stomach), 2. Intestinal gland (in small
intestine).
 2
Topic – 2  Digestion in Buccal cavity (i.e. Mouth) :
i) Mechanical digestion, Dental formula.
ii) Chemical digestion.

Both sides of the mouth, there are 3 pairs of salivary glands – 1. Parotid gland; largest salivary gland, present below the ear; 2.
Submandibular gland; present posterior of mandible i.e. lower jaw; 3. Sublingual gland; located below the tongue. Each gland is a
round or oval shape sac-like structure and covered by epithelium cells. There are ‘Mucous cells’ & ‘Serous cells’ at the inner wall of
the ‘Sac’, which secrete ‘Saliva’. A healthy person secretes 1200 – 1500 ml saliva per day.

Chemical features of Saliva : Aminul Sir

Lecturer (Biology), CESC.
 Slightly acidic 01912 -85 33 95 .

 Contains 95.5% water

 Secretes ‘Ptyalin / Salivary amylase’ & ‘Maltase’ named carbohydrate digesting enzymes
 Maltase enzyme secretes in a very small quantity

Digestion in Buccal cavity is divided into two processes, based on how food is broken down - Mechanical digestion and Chemical
digestion. The term ‘Mechanical digestion’ refers to the physical breakdown of large piece of food into smaller pieces, without the
action of enzyme. In ‘Chemical digestion’, enzymes break down the food into small molecules that body can absorb.

i) Mechanical digestion :
Mechanical digestion in buccal cavity is the first step of digestion which starts after ingestion / intake of food. It is a less complex
process and help is to take from – teeth, tongue & water of saliva. The steps involved in Mechanical digestion are –

1) Water of saliva makes the food moist and soft.

2) Teeth speed up the process by chewing, breaking, crushing & tearing the food into smaller food particles.
3) Muscular tongue plays a major role by shifting the food materials all around the buccal cavity. It also helps to remove the
food particles from the teeth.
4) The swallowing is another important part as the tongue presses against the hard palate of buccal cavity and the chewed
food is pushed towards the soft palate.
5) Then, the food (actually, bolus) goes to oesophagus (food pipe) via pharynx. A tongue-like lid placed at the base of tongue
and near the trachea (wind pipe), is called - ‘Epiglottis’. Epiglottis covers the opening of trachea during food transport, so
that- food never goes to the trachea and directly enters into the oesophagus.

ii) Chemical digestion :

Chemical digestion in buccal cavity involves to the secretion of ‘Ptyalin / Salivary amylase’ & ‘Maltase’ named two carbohydrate
digesting enzymes. Maltase enzyme secretes in a very small quantity. The steps involved in Chemical digestion are –

1) Ptyalin breaks down the complex carbohydrate i.e. polysaccharide (e.g. starch) into Maltose i.e. disaccharide. Though the
activity of Ptyalin starts at buccal cavity, its digestion process takes place in stomach.
Ptyalin
Complex carbohydrate Maltose (disaccharide)

2) Small amount Maltase enzyme breaks down little number of Maltose into 2 molecules Glucose i.e. monosaccharide.
Maltase
Maltose (disaccharide) Glucose + Glucose (monosaccharide)
 3
3) Salivary glands do not secrete any protein or lipid digesting enzyme, hence no digestion of protein and lipid takes place in
the buccal cavity.

After both types of digestion, food particles are stuck together and molded into a small, round slurry mass (i.e. a semi-liquid
mixture), called - ‘Bolus’. Bolus travels down via oesophagus and reaches into the stomach by the action of peristalsis.

           

Aminul Sir
Topic – 3  Digestion in Stomach : Lecturer (Biology), CESC.
i) Mechanical digestion 01912 -85 33 95 .

ii) Chemical digestion.

 Wall of stomach consists of 3 layered smooth involuntary muscles; such as – outer longitudinal, middle circular & inner
oblique muscles.
 At Mucosa layer of stomach, tubular ‘Gastric gland’ lying which is made up of 4 types of cells; such as –
1. Parietal / Oxyntic cell : Secretes HCl (Hydrochloric acid) which kills maximum bacteria.
2. Mucous cell : Secretes Mucus which protects the inner lining from digestive action of HCl.
3. Peptic / Chief cell : Secretes Pepsinogen / Zymogen & Prorennin named inactive proteolytic enzymes
4. Argentaffine cell : Secretes ‘Gastric intrinsic factor’ which absorbs vitamin B12 .

 Secretions of the above mentioned 4 cells are collectively called – Gastric juice. It contains 99.45% water.
 A healthy person secretes approximately 2 litres Gastric juice per day.
 G cell of stomach secretes ‘Gastrin’ named hormone which controls the secretion of Gastric juice.
 Foods remain stay in the stomach for 2 – 6 hours.

i) Mechanical digestion :
1) Three different muscles work together and convert half grinded food (coming from buccal cavity) into ‘Paste’.
2) Gastric juice mixes with ‘Paste’ and then, paste turns into thick soup-like mixture, called - Chyme.
3) HCl kills maximum bacteria.

ii) Chemical digestion :

HCl reacts with inactive protein digesting enzymes Pepsinogen / Zymogen & Prorennin and converts them into active Pepsin &
Rennin, respectively. The steps involved in Chemical digestion are –

1) In acidic medium, Pepsin hydrolyses (means- break down by adding water molecule) the complex protein into Proteose &
Peptone.
Pepsin
Protein + H2O (Water) Proteose + Peptone (simpler proteins)

2) By adding H2O molecule (i.e. Hydrolysis), Rennin converts milk protein ‘Casein’ into Paracasein. Then, pepsin breaks down
paracasein into peptone.
Rennin
Casein + H2O (Water) Paracasein

Pepsin
Paracasein Peptone (simpler protein)
 4
3) Inner wall of stomach secretes fat digesting ‘Gastric lipase’ enzyme. At neutral medium or environment, Gastric lipase
breaks down fats into fatty acid & glycerol.
Gastric lipase
Fat Fatty acid + Glycerol

4) Gastric gland does not secrete any carbohydrate digesting enzyme, hence no further digestion of carbohydrate takes place
in the stomach.

After both types of digestion, food goes to the duodenum of small intestine. Pyloric sphincter controls the entrance of food from
stomach to duodenum of small intestine.

           
Aminul Sir
Lecturer (Biology), CESC.
01912 -85 33 95 .

Topic – 4  - Digestion in Small intestine

- Absorption in Small intestine.

 Main function of small intestine is – 1) Digestion & 2) Absorption. [Remember, maximum digestion of food takes place at

small intestine.]

 Because of rhythmic contraction & expansion (i.e. Peristalsis), Chyme moves towards and crosses - Duodenum, Jejunum,

Ileum. Chyme takes 1–6 hours time to cross the small intestine region.

 Complete digestion of Carbohydrate + Protein and majority amount of lipid occurs at small intestine.

Small Intestine:

Region after pyloric sphincter of stomach to iliocolic sphincter, 6–7 m in length, coiled tubular structure, is known as ‘Small

intestine’. It is divided into 3 sequential parts – Duodenum, Jejunum & Ileum. Duodenum covers 25–30 cm, Jejunum 2.5 m and

Ileum cover 3/5th of the total length.

Main function of Small intestine is – 1) Digestion & 2) Absorption. Remember, final digestion of all types of foods take place

here. Because of rhythmic contraction & expansion (i.e. Peristalsis), Chyme moves towards and crosses Duodenum, Jejunum &

Ileum. Chyme takes 1–6 hours time to cross the Small intestine region.
 56

Digestion :

Mechanical Digestion :

1) Brunner’s gland & Goblet cells of small intestine are unicellular and both of this two secrete ‘Mucus’. Mucus protects

intestinal wall from the activity of enzymes.

2) Mucin of intestinal juice makes the food slippery. Because of this, food can easily moves through intestines.

3) Mucosa of duodenum secretes Cholecystokinin (CCK) / Pancreozymin which causes contraction of gall bladder so that Bile

comes into small intestine.

4) Bile indirectly reduces the effectivity of germs at intestinal region.

5) Bile salts (e.g. NaHCO3) increase peristalsis of intestinal muscle & therefore food gradually goes to the large intestine.

6) Bile salts [e.g. Sodium glycocholate (C26H42NNaO6), Sodium taurocholate (C26H44NNaO7S), NaHCO3 etc.] break down the

small fat droplets into much more small fat particles. This process is called ‘Emulsification’. Because of Emulsification, it

becomes easier for lipase to digest the lipid substances easily.

Chemical Digestion :

3 types of juices work together on food (actually, on Chyme) at Small intestine – Bile, Pancreatic juice & Intestinal juice /

Succus entericus.

Bile (from Gall bladder of Liver) :

Bile is an alkaline liquid secreted from liver and stored at Gall bladder. It does not contain any enzyme. Its pH is 7.6 – 8.6.

The functions of Bile are –

 67
1. Alkaline Sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) of Bile effectively neutralizes the acidity of Chyme as well as HCl. This change of

pH is very essential for showing the activity of pancreatic & intestinal enzymes.

2. Bile salts [e.g. Sodium glycocholate (C26H42NNaO6), Sodium taurocholate (C26H44NNaO7S), NaHCO3 etc.] break down the

small fat droplets into much more small fat particles. This process is called ‘Emulsification’. Because of Emulsification, it

becomes easier for lipase to digest the lipid substances easily.

Pancreatic juice (from Lobule or Acinus of Exocrine gland of Pancreas) :

Pancreatic juice secreted from Lobule or Acinus of Exocrine gland of Pancreas contains the following enzymes –

1. Amylase: It breaks down Starch into Maltose (disaccharide).

2. Maltase: It breaks down Maltose into 2 molecules Glucose i.e. monosaccharide.

3. Trypsin: It is secreted as inactive Trypsinogen and is converted into active Trypsin with the help of Enterokinase enzyme

of villus. Trypsin breaks down Proteose & Peptone into Polypeptides. [ Endopeptidase ]

4. Chymotrypsin: It is secreted as inactive Chymotrypsinogen and is converted into active Chymotrypsin with the help of

Trypsin. Chymotrypsin also breaks down Proteose & Peptone into Polypeptides. [ Endopeptidase ]

5. Carboxypeptidase: It separates amino acids from the carboxyl end of Polypeptides. [ Exopeptidase ]

6. Aminopeptidase: It converts Polypeptides into Amino acids.

7. Tripeptidase: It converts Tripeptides into Amino acids.

8. Dipeptidase: It converts Dipeptides into Amino acids.

9. Collagenase: It converts Collagen into simpler peptides.

10. Elastase: It converts Elastin protein of connective tissue into Peptide.

11. Lipase: It converts Fats into Fatty acid & Glycerol.

12. Phospholipase: It converts Phospholipid into Phosphoric acid, Fatty acid & Glycerol.

13. Cholesterol esterase: It converts Cholesterol ester into Cholesterol & Fatty acid.
 7
Intestinal juice / Succus entericus :

Some unicellular glands are lying at epithelium of mucosa layer of inner small intestine, secrete digestive enzymes. Besides,

Goblet cells, Crypt of Lieberkuhn & Brunner’s gland are lying at inner small intestine. Secretions of these glands are combinely

called Intestinal juice / Succus entericus. Intestinal juice contains the following enzymes –

Aminul Sir
Lecturer (Biology), CESC.
01789 -64 53 12 .
1. Enterokinase: It activates inactive Trypsinogen into active Trypsin.

2. Amylase: It breaks down Starch & Dextrin into simpler carbohydrates i.e. disaccharides, trisaccharides etc.

3. Isomaltase: It breaks down Isomaltose/Trisaccharide i.e. Maltotriose into simpler carbohydrates i.e. Maltose & Glucose.

4. Maltase: It breaks down Maltose into 2 molecules Glucose i.e. monosaccharide.

5. Sucrase: It breaks down Sucrose into Glucose & Fructose i.e. monosaccharide.

6. Lactase: It breaks down Lactose into Glucose & Galactose i.e. monosaccharide.

7. Aminopeptidase: It converts Polypeptides into Amino acids.

8. Lipase: It converts Fats into Fatty acid & Monoglyceride.

9. Lecithinase: It converts Lecithin into Fatty acid+Glycerol+Phosphoric acid+Choline.

10. Monoglyceridase: Inside the cell, it converts Monoglyceride into Fatty acid & Glycerol.

11. Nuclease: It converts Nucleic acids into Nucleotides.

12. Nucleotidase: It converts Nucleotides into Pentose sugar (Ribose/Deoxy ribose), Nitrogenous base & Phosphoric acid.

 Absorption

After completion of all types of digestion, simplest food substances are absorbed at ileum of small intestine. Numerous small

projections lying inner membrane of ileum, specially modified & adapted for absorption, are known as – Villi (sing. Villus). The

upper surface of villi is constructed by – columner epithelial cells. There are about 50,000 villi are lying at small intestine.

Absorption of different types of food at small intestine, are described below –

 8
Absorption of Carbohydrate :

1. Glucose & Galactose, with the help of kinase enzyme (secreted from mucous membrane) are actively absorbed (i.e. Active

absorption where metabolic energy is required) and come into the liver via hepatic portal vein. During this absorption,

phosphorus is added with them (means- Glucose & Galactose).

2. Fructose, Sucrose & Lactose are absorbed through diffusion (i.e. Passive absorption) and come into the liver via hepatic

portal vein.

Absorption of Protein : Amino acids are absorbed by blood capillaries, then come into the liver through hepatic portal vein.

1. Generally, D- & L- Amino acids are absorbed by the diffusion & active absorption processes, respectively.

2. Besides amino acids, some proteins are absorbed directly without making them any change or break down, such as –

Proteose, Peptone & polypeptide.

Absorption of Lipid or Fat :

1. Fatty acid & Glycerol of digested Fat enter into the columner epithelial cells of villi through diffusion process and turn into lipid

again. Protein of epithelial cell (i.e. Epithelium) encloses the lipid molecule and forms lipo-protein particle, named -

Chylomicron. Chylomicron leaves the epithelial cells through exocytosis process (The process through which materials are

exported out of the cell via secretory vesicles) and enters into the lymphatic duct of villi. At that time, the lymph inside the

lymphatic duct, turns into white colour. This is why, the lymphatic duct is called – Lacteal, which means – milky (white).

2. Chylomicrons, through lymph, open into the plasma of blood of subclavian vein near heart. An ‘enzyme’ of plasma breaks

down the lipid again, converts into absorbable Fatty acid & Glycerol for body cells. Fatty acid & Glycerol are used in

respiration or stored in liver, mesentery & beneath the skin.

Absorption of Vitamins, Minerals & Water :

1. Vitamins, Minerals & Water are absorbed directly by the villi of small intestine through diffusion or active absorption process.

The sphincter muscle situated between ileum and caecum, opens & closes consequently and allows few amount of food

substances to enter into the large intestine from ileum.

           
 9
Topic – 5  Functions of Large intestine.

After digestion and absorption of food at small intestine, rest of the undigested food (which cannot be absorbed) and digestive

juices cross ileo-colic muscle and enters into large intestine. The thick walled, tubular and furrowed part of alimentary canal, started

from the end of ileum of small intestine, is called – Large intestine. Its length is almost 1.5 metres and is divided into 3 parts –

Caecum, Colon & Rectum. The spherical part neighbouring to jejunum, is - Caecum; The ‘U’-shaped, long, middle region of large

intestine, is - Colon and sac-like part adjacent to anus, is - Rectum. In the right side of lower abdomen, a finger-like pouch joins

with the caecum, is called - Appendix.

No digestion takes place at large intestine and no villus is here. Undigested food substances remain stored here for a long

time. The large intestine consists of tiny groove, called - ‘Crypt of Lieberkuhn’ which contains various glands. Functions of large

intestine are described below –

1) Different types of Bacteria (500 spp. approx.) live in the Caecum & Rectum as - symbiont. Since, alimentary canal does not

secrete any enzyme to digest Cellulose, Hemi-cellulose etc. of plant fibres, therefore, these bacteria convert them into small

food particles through the processes of fermentation & hydrolysis.

2) Almost 70 – 80% water of undigested waste products (came from small intestine) is absorbed at large intestine through

osmosis process. Then, undigested waste products turn into solid faeces.

3) A little amount of – glucose, amino acid, inorganic salt, Vitamin B complex, Vitamin B9 (Folic acid) and Vitamin K are also

absorbed in large intestine.

4) Goblet cell, lying at mucosa layer of large intestine, secretes mucus which keeps the inner wall slippery. Thus, it protects the

large intestinal wall.

5) Approximately 350 gm/day liquid ‘Chyle’ enters into large intestine. After absorption, approx. 135 gm faeces get produced and

egested out of the body.

Egestion of faeces from rectum through the anus, is called – Stool egestion. This is a reflex action. This reflex action can control if

necessary.

           
 10
Topic – 6  Functions of Digestive glands – A) Liver (Assimilation) & B) Pancreas.

A) Liver (Assimilation)

What is Liver? Liver is the largest visceral organ as well as largest gland, which is situated just below the diaphragm, at the right

side of stomach and above the duodenum & the right kidney.

Structure: Liver is the largest gland of human body. Its weight is almost 1.5 – 2.0 kg in an adult man, nearly 3 – 5% of total weight

of the body. Beneath the liver, sac-like ‘Gall bladder’ is attached. Liver is divided into 4 incomplete lobes, named - Right, Left,

Quadrate & caudate. Right lobe is the biggest one among them. They are covered by - elastic fibrous capsule. Each lobe consists

of polygonal cell, named - Hepatocyte. Hepatocytes form the functional unit of liver, called - Lobule. The empty space in lobule, is

called - Sinusoid. Bile ductules, which are originated from sinusoid, ended at – Bile duct. Right & left ducts of liver join together and

make - Hepatic duct. Hepatic duct & Bile duct unite and form - Common bile duct, which opens into the duodenum through a duct,

named – Ampulla of Vater (Hepato-pancreatic duct).

Storage and Metabolic roles :

Liver is an important visceral organ to maintain internal balance and equilibrium of human body. It is called ‘Organic laboratory’ of

human body, since different biochemical reactions take place in it, which plays a vital role in metabolism of the body. According to

scientists, more than 500 biochemical reactions occur in the liver.

Storage functions :

1) Storage of Glycogen: Glucose (C6H12O6) enters into the liver from small intestine through hepatic portal vein. The excess

glucose of blood is transformed into Glycogen by ‘Glycogenesis’ process and stored in liver cell - hepatocyte. A hormone named

‘Insulin’ helps in this process. If needed, Glycogen again breaks down into Glucose and balances the level of Glucose in blood.

2) Storage of amino acid & lipid: Excess lipid of blood is stored at the liver in the form of - Glycolipid. Liver also stores - Amino

acid. They turn into Glucose later on, if necessary.

3) Storage of Bile: Bile is produced in the liver and is stored in gall bladder, which is positioned - just beneath the right lobe.

4) Storage of Blood: Blood vessels, coming from intestine & spleen, combine together and form ‘Hepatic portal vein’. Though

there is continuous flow of blood in the liver, but these vessels & veins act as the reservoir of huge amount of blood. Liver stores
 11
upto 1500 cm3 of blood, which co-ordinates the pressure of blood during haemorrhage by mixing with the general circulation of

blood.

5) Storage of Vitamins: Liver stores fat soluble vitamins - A, D, E, K; water soluble vitamins - B,C; B9 (Folic acid) & B12

(Nicotinic acid). B9 (Folic acid) & B12 (Nicotinic acid) are used to form RBC in the bone marrow.

6) Storage of Minerals: Liver stores minerals which are required for healthy body; such as – Iron (Fe), Potassium (K), Cobalt

(Co), Copper (Cu), Molybdenum (Mo), Zinc (Zn).

Metabolic functions :

1) Carbohydrate metabolism :

a) Glycogenesis: All types of sugar such as - Glucose, Fructose, Galactose etc. enter into the liver through hepatic portal

vein. All the hexose sugars, such as - Fructose & Galactose are converted into Glucose, at first. Then, they join together

and make an insoluble polysaccharide ‘Glycogen’. Formation of Glycogen with the combination of innumerable number of

glucose in presence of insulin hormone, is called - Glycogenesis. Insulin is produced from ‘Islets of Langerhans’ of

Pancreas to control the sugar level in blood.

b) Glycogenolysis: When the level of blood sugar falls below its normal level, Glycogen is reconverted into Glucose through

a process, called - ‘Glycogenolysis’, under the control of Glucagon (hormone, produced by Pancreas) and Cortisol

(hormone, produced by Adrenal gland).

c) Gluconeogenesis: If there is shortage of Glycogen compared to the demand of Glucose, then Glucose is synthesized

from non-carbohydrate sources, such as - amino acids, glycerol etc. by the process, called – ‘Gluconeogenesis’.

2) Protein metabolism :

a) De-amination: Amino acids are taken to the liver through hepatic portal vein. Those amino acids that are excess of

body’s need, cannot store in the liver. The nitrogen containing part (i.e. NH2-) of amino acid is removed and changed to

Urea (NH2-CO-NH2) through a process, called – ‘De-amination’.

b) Production of Plasma protein: An essential component of blood plasma is – Plasma proteins; such as – Albumin,

Globulin, Prothrombin, Fibrinogen etc. Maximum plasma proteins are synthesized from the amino acids in the liver. Albumin
 12
carries – some steroid hormones, bile & minerals (like- Ca). Globulin protects immune system. Prothrombin & Fibrinogen

act as important blood coagulating factors.

3) Fat metabolism :

Liver refines the Fats instead of storing them. Hepatocyte converts excess Carbohydrate into Fat, removes or breaks down

cholesterol from blood and if needed synthesizes them. During shortage of glucose in respiration, liver breaks down Fat into

Fatty acid & Glycerol. Fatty acid is changed into different chemical substances and released from the liver. Glycerol

converts into Glucose by Gluconeogenesis process.

4) Other functions :

a) Production & destruction of RBC: The fetus (see 388 page) relies entirely on the liver for the production of RBC. In

adults, this role is transferred to the bone marrow. Whenever, bone marrow produces RBC, that time liver destroys those

RBC, completed the life span 120 days.

b) Breakdown of Haemoglobin: Life span of RBC is 120 days (4 months). After 4 months, they destroy at – Liver, Spleen

& in the bone marrow by the activity of Macrophage (Monocyte of WBC). After broken down of RBC, Haemoglobins inside

it, become free and they come at plasma. Then, macrophage i.e. Kuppher cell of liver engulfs the haemoglobin through

phagocytosis process and is broken down into Haeme and Globin. Globin is the protein part of the pigment and after

hydrolysis broken down to its individual amino acids. The central ‘Fe’ is removed from Haeme and the remaining part, forms

a green pigment, named ‘Biliverdin’ which after some conversion, forms yellow pigment, named ‘Bilirubin’, a component of

Bile. ‘Fe’ is either stored in the hepatocyte as a compound named ‘Ferritin’ OR, recycles in the formation of new RBC by

bone marrow.

c) Production of Cholesterol: If fat enriched food is taken, after several processes, they are stored at liver in the form of

cholesterol. Cholesterol causes complexities like – Heart attack (Coronary thrombosis) and Stroke (Cerebral thrombosis).

d) Production of Bile: Hepatocyte continuously secretes bile and stores in gall bladder. Hepatocyte synthesizes bile salt

from cell steroid, for e.g. – Sodium glycocholate, Sodium taurocholate. Bile production & secretion is an important work for

liver as a digestive organ.

e) Breakdown of Hormone: To varying degrees, liver breaks down all hormones. Some, such as- Testosterone (male sex

hormone) are rapidly broken down whereas others, like- Insulin are destroyed more slowly.
 13
f) De-toxification: Due to metabolic activities within the body, some substances are produced. If they are stored excess

amount in the body, they create toxic environment. They are called – Toxin. They detoxified within hepatocyte.

g) Production of Heat: A lot of heat is produced in the liver due to different reactions. This heat is circulated throughout the

body blood vessels. Hence, the body remains homeothermal i.e. temperature is not changes by the influence of outer

environment.

B) Pancreas

Pancreas is an irregular size, flat shape mixed gland, located behind the stomach and is outstretched from the opening of the

bend of duodenal loop to the spleen.

Structure :

 The length of Pancreas is 20 cm and width is 5 cm. The proximal wider part of Pancreas, which is lying in the bend of

duodenal loop, called the ‘Head’ of Pancreas; the distal narrow part outstretched to the spleen, is the ‘Tail’ and in between

these two parts, ‘Body’ of Pancreas is lying.

 The cells of exocrine gland are arranged like a bunch of grape, at the end of the small duct. Outside the exocrine part, small

polygonal cells combine and form an - Islets of Langerhans.

 Many small ducts are originated from exocrine gland part of pancreas and they combine together, form – Duct of Wirsung.

Duct of Wirsung join with common bile duct and open at duodenum through Ampulla of Vater (Hepato-pancreatic duct).