Md.

Aminul Islam Chowdhury Lecturer (Biology)

M. Phil. (Researcher), M. Sc. (Thesis), B. Sc. (Hons.) Cantonment English School & College
Dept. of Botany, University of Chittagong. Hello: 01912-85 33 95 ; 01789-64 53 12 .

CHAPTER FIVE [Revised: 2020]

Subject code: 1 7 9
Breathing and Respiration

Topic - 1  Human Respiratory System :

i) Concept
ii) Structure & Function
iii) Structure of Alveolus.

Topic - 2  Ventilation mechanism / Pulmonary ventilation / Breathing : Inhalation & Exhalation.

Topic - 3  Ventilation control / Control of Breathing.

Topic - 4  Transportation of Gases :

i) Transportation of O2 &
ii) Transportation of CO2 .

Topic - 5   Respiratory pigment i.e. Haemoglobin,

 Role of respiratory pigment during Respiration.

Topic - 6  Causes, Symptoms & Prevention of Respiratory Tract Infection – RTI :

i) Sinusitis
ii) Otitis media i.e. Middle ear infection.

Topic - 7  Comparison between the X-ray film of the lungs of Smoker and Non-smoker.

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Respiration is a biochemical process by which organisms

Topic - 1  Human Respiratory System : convert potential energy of foods into heat & kinetic
i) Concept energy by the environmental oxygen and produces
ii) Structure & Function
carbon-di-oxide & water as by-products.
iii) Structure of Alveolus.

i) Concept : Respiration is a catabolic process which leads to, and includes, the chemical break down of materials to provide
energy for life. The word ‘Respiration’ is derived from the Latin word ‘respirare’ which mean ‘to breathe’. Respiration may be
defined as – a conversion of the chemical energy of organic molecules into metabolically usable energy within living cells. This
process occurs inside the living cells of every type of organisms.

There are two types of Respiration – 1) Aerobic respiration and 2) Anaerobic respiration. Generally, Respiration implies to -
Aerobic respiration. The aerobic respiration of glucose is summarized by the following equation –

Enzymes
C6H12O6 + 6O2  6CO2 + 6H2O + 38 ATP
 Md. Aminul Islam Chowdhury Lecturer (Biology)
M. Phil. (Researcher), M. Sc. (Thesis), B. Sc. (Hons.) 2 Cantonment English School & College
Dept. of Botany, University of Chittagong. Hello: 01912-85 33
Aminul Sir
95 ; 01789-64 53 12 .
Lecturer (Biology), CESC.
 What are the differences between Breathing and Respiration ? 01789 -64 53 12 .

Both breathing and respiration are required for all living organisms. Generally, breathing and respiration are often considered the
same. However, there is a great difference between these two words, such as –

1) Breathing is a constant process where breathe in and out constantly throughout the day. It is a process of taking of O2 and
expelling of CO2. Respiration is a process where the food particles are broken down in presence or absence of oxygen, so
that the cells of the body can use it. It is a catabolic process where energy is released in the form of ATP.
2) Breathing is a physical process while Respiration is a chemical process.
3) Breathing is a process of taking O2 into the lungs while Respiration is taking the O2 from the lungs into the blood stream or
to the cells of the body.
4) Breathing can be controlled whereas Respiration can't be controlled. For instance, one can able take a deep and shallow or
fast and slow breaths. Since, Respiration takes places in the cells and tissues, it can’t be controlled like breathing.

ii) Structure of Human Respiratory System :

Human respiratory organ is one pair of lungs. Air enters the lung & gets out from the lung through ‘Respiratory passage’
which starts from Anterior nostrils. The passage or path through which O2-air enters into the lung and expels CO2 from lung to
environment, is known as ‘Respiratory passage’. Human Respiratory System consists of the following parts –

1) Anterior Nostrils: Two openings lying side by side in front of the nose, are called ‘Anterior Nostrils’. Nasal septum divides the
opening into two apertures. Anterior Nostrils always remain open. The O2-air enters and CO2-air expels through the anterior
nostrils.

2) Vestibule: The inner region just after Anterior Nostrils, is called ‘Vestibule’. Cilia (Hairs) are present here. Cilia acts as dust filter,
so that germ & dust free air enters the lungs.

3) Nasal Cavity: Comparatively narrower region just after Vestibule, is called ‘Nasal Cavity’. Mucus secreting cells with cilia/hair
and Olfactory nerve cells are lying here. O2-air is warmed and moistured partly by body temperature. Ciliated mucus cell secretes
mucus, which trap dust & germs. Olfactory nerve cells are responsible for smelling.

4) Posterior Nostrils/Choanae: Two passages by which nasal cavity open into nasopharynx, is called ‘Posterior nostrils or
Choanae’. Air passes to Nasopharynx via this way.

5) Nasopharynx: The pharynx region above the oropharynx, is called ‘Nasopharynx’. After Nasopharynx, oropharynx is positioned
which extended up to Larynx.

6) Larynx: Top most region of Trachea, is called ‘Larynx’. It consists of fragmented cartilages. Out of these fragmented cartilages,
‘Thyroid cartilage’ is the largest one and in male it is seen from outside due to its protrusion. It is called ‘Adam’s Apple’. Above on
larynx, ‘Epiglottis’ is located. Mucus membrane and vocal cord are lying at inner side of the larynx. Contraction & relaxation of
muscle controls tension & relaxation of vocal cord. Vocal cord produces sound by vibrating in tensed condition with the help of air.
Epiglottis closes the opening of Larynx during swallowing of food. As a result, food can't enter into the Larynx.
 Md. Aminul Islam Chowdhury Lecturer (Biology)
M. Phil. (Researcher), M. Sc. (Thesis), B. Sc. (Hons.) 3 Cantonment English School & College
Dept. of Botany, University of Chittagong. Hello: 01912-85 33 95 ; 01789-64 53 12 .
7) Trachea: From larynx to 5th thoracic rib, 12 cm long & 2 cm in diameter, hollow tubular pipe is known as- Trachea or Wind pipe.
It is enclosed by 16-20 ‘C’-shaped semi-circular cartilages. Inner wall of trachea is ciliated with mucus membrane, for which dusts,
germs or any other unwanted materials cannot enter into the trachea.

8) Bronchus (pl. Bronchii): At 5th thoracic rib, Trachea divides into two (right & left) branches, one leading to each lung. These 2
branches are- Bronchii. Right bronchus again divided into 3 branches, which enter the 3 lobes of right lung and on the other side,
left bronchus into 2 branches, enter into 2 lobes of left lung. Each bronchus subdivides later on to form numerous small ‘Bronchiole’
inside the lungs.

9) Lungs: Both sides of thoracic cavity, right & left lungs are positioned. ‘Pleura’ named a bi-layered thin membrane covers the
lungs. Outer layer is known as - Parietal pleura and the inner one is - Visceral pleura. Between these two layers, ‘Serous fluid’
named liquid is there, which protects the lungs from frictional stress. Right lung has 3 lobes & 10 lobules, while the left lung has 2
lobes & 8 lobules. Inside the lungs, ‘Bronchial tree’ is formed.

Very fine & non-cartilaginous ends of Bronchioles, are called ‘Alveolar duct’. Each duct opens into an ‘Alveolar sac’. Each alveolar
sac is made of some ‘Alveoli’. Wall of Alveolus is made by single layered flat epithelial cells. It is surrounded by capillary network of
pulmonary artery & pulmonary vein. Gaseous exchange between blood & lungs occurs easily as Alveolar wall is very thin.

Bronchial Tree: Trachea  2 bronchii  Bronchiole  Alveolar duct  Alveolar sac  Alveoli (sing. Alveolus).

Function of Human Respiratory System :

1) Exchange of respiratory gases i.e. O2-air & CO2: O2 of environment mixes with blood and CO2 is removed from blood to
environment during respiration.
2) Production of energy: O2 is derived from respiratory system, is used in cellular respiration to produce energy.
3) Control of body temperature: Some amount of body heat is released with CO2 during exhalation which maintains body
temperature.
4) Equilibrium of water: About 400 - 600 ml of water is excreted from the body daily through expiration. It helps to maintain
balance of water in the body.
Aminul Sir
5) Acid-base balance: Expiration helps in control of body pH. Lecturer (Biology), CESC.
01912 -85 33 95 .

iii) Structure of Alveolus :

A very tiny bubble-like air sac, which forms the surface for gaseous exchange, made by squamous epithelial cells and
surrounded by capillary network, is called ‘Alveolus’ (Pl. Alveoli). There are over 700 million (70 crores) alveoli present in the
lungs, representing a total surface area of 70-90 m2.

Each Alveolus has very thin wall (only 0.1 µm thick), since it is made by squamous epithelium. Its outer side is rich in capillary
network. These capillaries are formed from pulmonary artery & reunite to form pulmonary vein. It also has ‘Collagen’ & ‘Elastin’
fibres. These fibres make contraction-relaxation easier during respiration. Adjacent alveoli are separated by ‘Trabeculae’ named
membrane.
 Md. Aminul Islam Chowdhury Lecturer (Biology)
M. Phil. (Researcher), M. Sc. (Thesis), B. Sc. (Hons.) Cantonment English School & College
Dept. of Botany, University of Chittagong. Hello: 01912-85 33 95 ; 01789-64 53 12 .
Some specialized cells of alveolus secrete detergent-like chemical substance at the inner surface of alveolus, named
‘Surfactant’. It reduces surface tension of alveolar wall fluid, as a result lungs can be expanded-contracted by a lesser effort during
breathing. It also helps in rapid exchange of O2 & CO2 in between air & fluid adjacent to alveolar wall. Surfactant also destroys
germ or pathogen that has entered alveolus.

Surfactant for the first time secretes in the alveolus of a foetus, when it is 23 weeks of embryonic life. That’s why, the fetus is
considered to be incapable of independent existence before 24 weeks. Permission of abortion is granted up to this period in many
countries for this reason.

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Topic - 2  Ventilation mechanism / Pulmonary ventilation / Breathing: Inhalation & Exhalation.

Mechanism of Breathing

Respiration is a rhythmic process. This process takes place 14–18 times per minute in an adult healthy human during rest and 40
times in a newborn baby. Gaseous exchange between alveoli and blood capillaries in the lung occurs in 2 (two) phases –
1) Inhalation or Inspiration &
2) Exhalation or Expiration

1) Inhalation or Inspiration: Inhalation or Inspiration occurs by the combined action and contraction of many muscles. Muscle
‘Diaphragm’ moves downward, when it is contracted. As a result, length of thoracic cavity increases. At the same time, elevation of
lower ribs increases the volume of thoracic cavity. Elevation of shaft of ribs occurs due to the contraction of ‘Intercostal muscles’.
This causes elevation of sternum. As a result, the overall internal area or volume of chest is increased. Thus, thoracic cavity
increases in all direction due to contraction of diaphragm & intercostal muscles. Internal pressure of expanded thoracic cavity is
less than normal atmospheric pressure. As a result, atmospheric air enters into the lungs via respiratory passage.
 Md. Aminul Islam Chowdhury Lecturer (Biology)
M. Phil. (Researcher), M. Sc. (Thesis), B. Sc. (Hons.) Cantonment English School & College
Dept. of Botany, University of Chittagong. Hello: 01912-85 33 95 ; 01789-64 53 12 .
Fig.: Ventilation of lungs (lateral view)

2) Exhalation or Expiration: It is a passive process occurring after inhalation. Exhalation occurs due to relaxation of the
inspiratory muscles. During exhalation, inspiratory muscles go back to previous state due to elasticity. Then ribs move downward,
diaphragm bends like arrow due to pressure exerted by abdominal muscles and thus, volume of thoracic cavity decreases. Lungs
volume also decreases when air escapes from lungs to atmosphere via respiratory passage.

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Topic - 3  Ventilation control / Control of Breathing .

Respiratory centre is located in the medulla oblongata of hind brain i.e. rhombencephalon. Lower part of the respiratory centre
(ventral) is ‘Inspiratory centre’. It increases the rate & depth of inspiration. Dorsal & lateral side of inspiratory centre inhibits
inspiration & accelerates expiration. Therefore, this is ‘Expiratory centre’. Inspiratory & expiratory centres connected to the
intercostal muscles through intercostal nerves. Bronchiole and bronchi are connected with the brain by vagus nerve (Xth cranial
nerve). Respiratory movement occurs in these parts due to rhythmic nervous stimulation to the diaphragm & intercostal muscles.

Lungs expand due to inspiration. Stimulated receptors of bronchiole send nerve stimulus to the expiratory centre through vagus
nerve. Inspiratory centre & inspiration are stopped temporarily at this period. External intercostal muscles then become relaxed and
as a result expiration occurs. After that, receptors of bronchiole are not stimulated. Inspiratory centre becomes active & inspiration
begins again. Thus, the whole cycle is rhythmically repeated throughout life.

Medulla controls the basic rhythm of respiration. But under normal condition, various stimuli can change this basic rhythm. The
main stimulus controlling inspiration-expiration is the concentration of CO2 in blood rather than O2. Increased level of CO2 (during
exercise) causes the chemoreceptors in carotid & aortic bodies of blood circulatory system to be stimulated & send signal to the
inspiratory centre. Inspiratory centre then sends signal to external intercostal muscles & diaphragm by intercostal nerve & vagus
nerve, respectively and accelerates their contraction rate. As a result, inspiration rate increases.
 Md. Aminul Islam Chowdhury Lecturer (Biology)
M. Phil. (Researcher), M. Sc. (Thesis), B. Sc. (Hons.) Cantonment English School & College
Dept. of Botany, University of Chittagong. Hello: 01912-85 33 95 ; 01789-64 53 12 .

CO2 can be harmful rapidly in favourable condition. The acid produced by dissolution of CO2, is destroyed by enzymes and various
proteins. Respiratory rate will be double when concentration of CO2 in air increases to 0.25%. Concentration of O2 also affects
respiratory rate. Respiratory rate also doubles when concentration of O2 in air falls from 20% to 5%.Chemoreceptors sensitive to
the concentration of O2 are found in the medulla oblongata, carotid & aortic bodies.

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Topic - 4  Transportation of Gases :

i) Transportation of O2 &

ii) Transportation of CO2 .

Exchange of O2 & CO2 occurs between alveolar wall & alveolar blood capillaries in the lung.

i) Transportation of O2 :
Pressure of O2 in lung alveoli is 107 mm Hg when incoming air reaches in the lung during inspiration. On the other hand,
pressure of O2 in the alveolar blood capillaries is 40 mm Hg. So, O2 enters the blood by diffusion process from lung through
alveolar membrane. This diffusion continues until pressure of O2 in blood reaches at 100 mm Hg.

O2 is transported in 2 (two) ways in blood. They are – 1) As physical solution & 2) As chemical compound.

1) As physical solution: Each 100 ml arterial blood contains 0.2 ml of O2 as physical solution. This dissolved O2 is responsible for
producing 100 mm Hg pressure. But, this does not play any vital role in supplying O2 in the body cell as it is only minute in amount.

2) As chemical compound: About 98% (Ref: Alim) O2 forms Oxyhaemoglobin (4HbO2) by combining with Haemoglobin (Hb4) of
RBC after entrance of O2 in the blood. It is an unstable chemical compound which again breaks downs when pressure of O2 falls.
This combination is dependent on the pressure of the dissolved part of O2 in blood. Rise of pressure causes increase attachment of
Haemoglobin (Hb4) with O2.

Hb4 + 402  4HbO2

ii) Transportation of CO2 :

CO2 is produced in the cell during oxidation of carbohydrate. This CO2 is harmful for the body. CO2 is transported in the blood
from body cell to lung and then released in the air from lung. CO2 is transported in 3 different ways in blood. They are –
As physical solution
As carbamino compound
As bicarbonate compound

1. As physical solution: Some amount (5%) of C02 combines with water of plasma to form carbonic acid.
 Md. Aminul Islam Chowdhury Lecturer (Biology)
M. Phil. (Researcher), M. Sc. (Thesis), B. Sc. (Hons.) Cantonment English School & College
Dept. of Botany, University of Chittagong. Hello: 01912-85 33 95 ; 01789-64 53 12 .
H20 + C02H2C03(Carbonic acid).
Carbonic anhydrase enzyme acts as a catalyst in this reaction. Only one molecule of C02 among one thousand remains as H2C03.
So very few amount of C02 is transported as H2C03.
2. As carbamino compound: Some part of C02 in plasma coming from tissue cell enter into RBC. Carbamino haemoglobin
compound is formed by combination of amino group (NH2). of globin (Protein) part ofHb ofRBC with C02 (10% C02. Ref: Alim).
/H
C02 + HbNH2HbN = HbNHCOOH (carbaminohamoglobin)
\COOH
One part of C02 directly combines with plasma protein to form carbamino protein.
PrNH2 + C02PrNHCOOH
This chemical reaction is completed at a very rapid rate within less than one second.
27% of total C02 is transported as carbamino compound. It is about 3ml/100ml of blood and 2ml of it is transported as carbamino
protein.
3. As bicarbonate compound: Most of the C02 is transported (65%) [85% C02- Ref: Alim] as bicarbonate in blood. It is transported
in two forms. They are: (1) As NaHC03 in plasma & (2) As KHC03 in RBC.
C02 from tissue fluid first enters plasma and then RBC. C02 reacts with water in RBC in the presence of carbonic anhydrase
enzyme to produce carbonic acid (H2C03). Carbonic anhydrase is absent in plasma. So it produces very small amount of carbonic
acid.
H2C03 produced in the RBC is analysed into H+& HCO3¬- ions. Concentration of HCO3- is more in RBC than in plasma as more
HCO3-is stored in the RBC.
HCO3- ion diffuses from RBC to plasma. This ion combines with Na+ ion of plasma to form NaHC03. HCO3- reacts with K+ ion of
RBC to produce KHC03.
To maintain equality to entrance of HCO3- ion in plasma from RBC, Cl enters into RBC from plasma and combines with K+ ion of
RBC to form KCl. The net deficit of negative charge produced by expulsion of HCO3- ion from RBC is covered up by entry of Cl-
ion of plasma into RBC. This is called chloride shift. [This maintains the acid base balance (pH = 7.4)- Ref: Alim]. Chloride shift is
also known as hamburger shift named after its first describer, a German physiologist.

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 Md. Aminul Islam Chowdhury Lecturer (Biology)
M. Phil. (Researcher), M. Sc. (Thesis), B. Sc. (Hons.) Cantonment English School & College
Dept. of Botany, University of Chittagong. Hello: 01912-85 33 95 ; 01789-64 53 12 .
Topic - 5   Respiratory pigment i.e. Haemoglobin,

 Role of respiratory pigment during Respiration .

‘Haemoglobin (Hb4)’ is red coloured proteinous heavy substance found in RBC. Blood looks red due to the colour of Hb4.

Haemoglobin plays the main role in transport of respiratory gas O2 and also transports some amount of CO2. Haemoglobin is a

round molecule formed by 4 (four) units. Each unit is made of polypeptide protein ‘Globin’ and iron (Fe) containing ‘Haeme’. Ration

of Haeme & Globin is 1:25 in blood. 33.33% of Haeme is iron (Fe). Only 3 gm iron (Fe) is present in an adult human blood.

1) Transportation of Oxygen (O2): During respiration, O2 enters into blood from lungs by diffusion. All the entered O2 in the blood

are not free. A large part of it combines with Hb4 of RBC to form an unstable compound ‘Oxyhaemoglobin (4HbO2)’.

Hb4 + 402  4HbO2

It is an unstable chemical compound which again breaks downs when pressure of O 2 falls. This combination is dependent on the

pressure of the dissolved part of O2 in blood. Rise of pressure causes increase attachment of Haemoglobin (Hb4) with O2.

2) Transportation of Carbon-di-oxide (CO2): C02 reacts with Hb to form an unstable compound carbamino haemoglobin.

Carbamino haemoglobin rich blood reaches lung for filtration from various organs through heart. During circulation of blood in the

body, some amount of 02 enters tissue fluid from plasma by diffusion as tissue fluid is less oxygenated. As a result, Hb begins to

release 02 that is attached with it. Thus 02 first enters plasma & then tissue fluid.

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Topic - 6  Causes, Symptoms & Prevention of Respiratory Tract Infection – RTI :

i) Sinusitis

ii) Otitis media i.e. Middle ear infection .

Respiratory Tract: Diseases, Symptom & treatment

Healthy organ-system is needed for active human body. Respiratory tract is one of the main organ of respiratory system. But
sometimes it is infected by virus & occasionally by bacteria and this causes impairment of the body. Scientists divided respiratory
tract infections into two categories. They are- (1) upper respiratory tract infection (as a result nose, ear, throat & sinus are infected)
 Md. Aminul Islam Chowdhury Lecturer (Biology)
M. Phil. (Researcher), M. Sc. (Thesis), B. Sc. (Hons.) Cantonment English School & College
Dept. of Botany, University of Chittagong. Hello: 01912-85 33 95 ; 01789-64 53 12 .
& (2) Lower respiratory tract infection (as a result trachea & lungs are infected). Here problem, symptoms & treatment of sinusitis &
otitis media are discussed as an example of upper respiratory tract infection.
Sinusitis
Sinusitis is the inflammation of mucous membrane of sinus by virus, bacteria or fungus. Four pairs of air filled specialized space,
lying on both sides of nasal cavity in the facial part of skull, are known as sinus or paranasal sinus. When these sinuses are filled
with fluid instead of air & that fluid is infected by pathogens (virus, bacteria, fungi) then the mucous membrane of sinus becomes
inflamed (sinusitis). Sinusitis can be divided into following types according to site & duration.
Types according to site: Human has 4 pairs of sinus (para nasal sinus). They are: maxillary, ethmoidal, frontal & sphenoidal sinus.
Sinusitis occurring in these sinuses are also different in nature.

Name of Sinus Type of Inflammation

1. Maxillary Sinus Pain in the maxillary region like headache, toothache.
2. Frontal Sinus Pain in the frontal sinus cavity (above eye), headache.
3. Ethmoidal Sinus Pain in between two eyes or in middle, headache.
4. Sphenoidal Sinus Pain behind eye or at the top of head.

Types as per duration: Sinusitis is of 2 types as per duration:

Type of sinusitis Duration
1. Acute sinusitis About 4 — 8 weeks
2. Chronic sinusitis 8 weeks or more
Who are the victims of sinusitis?
Specialist doctors suggest that some individuals are more susceptible to sinusitis who have edematous mucous membrane of nose
due to common cold or allergy; have polyp inside nose; height related changes while diving in water or travelling through air; has
enlarged adenoid (lymphatic gland behind nasopharynx & epiglottis); are used to smoke in active or passive manner; has allergic
hay fever; has cystic fibrosis; has reduced level of body immunity (due to HIV or chemotherapy or due to drug therapy) ; reside in
smog environment.
The main reasons of sinusitis in case of children are allergic tendency, transmission of infection from other children in school or day
care centres, loud crying, drinking water in recumbent position & residence in smog environment.
Symptom: Some symptoms of actue sinusitis are-
Foul smelling breath or hyposmia; cough, severe coughing in night; fatigue & tiredness; fever; headache; retro-orbital pain;
toothache; nasal obstruction; runny nose & pharyngitis.
Some symptoms of chronic sinusitis are-
1. Worsening of the condition just at the beginning of recovery.
2. Fever for at least 3 days with blackish discharge through nose.
3. Runny nose for ten days without any improvement (During this period, complications of sinusitis not only affect area around
nasal cavity but also eye & brain. The sinuses are located adjacent to very sensitive organs like eye & brain. So inflammation may
not be limited within only sinus and can reach eye & brain and cause serious complications. Headache, blindness and even death
can occur due to infection of brain. Periorbital & orbital cellulitis and many other complications can occur due to spread of infection
to eye.
Treatment:
 Md. Aminul Islam Chowdhury Lecturer (Biology)
M. Phil. (Researcher), M. Sc. (Thesis), B. Sc. (Hons.) Cantonment English School & College
Dept. of Botany, University of Chittagong. Hello: 01912-85 33 95 ; 01789-64 53 12 .
Self-caution: Following steps can be effective to keep the sinus normal pressure-free by lysing the fluid plugged in the sinus.
A piece of cloth is soaked in warm water & pressed against the face daily; drinking of enough water to loosen & liquefy the plugged
mucus; steam inhalation 2-4 times per day; spraying of nasal saline several times a day; use of nasal decongestants; mechanical
nasal irrigation to clean the sinus; caution about the use of nasal spray for relief of nasal congestion [Although nasal spray works
well initially, continuous us for 3-5 days may worsen the condition]; it is better to avoid air travel during nasal congestion; bending
body with lowering the head is also discouraged.
Drugs: No drug is needed for the treatment of acute sinusitis. But treatment can be continued for 2 weeks. Chronic sinusitis needs
3-4 weeks of treatment. Special type of drug is prescribed in the treatment fungal sinusitis. Use of antibiotic should be according to
the physician's advice and prescription.
If any child suffers from runny nose & cough for 2-3 weeks; fever of 102.20º F, headache, severe swelling of the eye, then antibiotic
should be used according to the advice of specialist doctor.
Prevention: Enough antioxidant rich fruit & vegetables should be taken to keep or increase the body immunity; influenza vaccine
should be taken in every year; shouldbe free from stress; hand should be washed after handshaking; smoke & pollution should be
avoided; enough fluid should be taken to avoid dehydration; should be cautious in any respiratory tract infection; early &
appropriate treatment of allergy should be done and nose & sinus should be kept wet.
Otitis Media
Otitis is the inflammation of ear inside or outside. Inflammation of middle ear is called otitis media/middle ear infection. It is of 2
types based on duration: (l) Short lasting or acute otitis media & (2) Long lasting or chronic otitis media.
This two types of ear inflammation are also called severe otitis media and otitis media with effusion.
1. Acute otitis media: Eustachian tube doesn't work properly in individuals with common cold, so fluid is trapped inside middle ear.
Middle ear is connected with nasopharynx through Eustachian tube (During most of the time it is closed; it only opens during
swallowing. -Ref: Parveen). It helps air & fluid to enter and leave middle ear. But when this fluid is trapped inside Eustachian tube &
gets infected by bacteria or virus, then middle ear is inflamed & filled with pus. This very painful condition of ear is called acute
otitis media. This painful condition becomes normal within 2-4 weeks.
Chronic otitis media: If the individual doesn't recover from infection within 2-4 weeks irrespective of treatment, then this long lasting
condition is called chronic otitis media. This can spread to adjacent structures. Sometime this type of inflammation disappears but
the fluid still remains. As a result, tympanic membrane fails to transmit sound wave properly. The fluid becomes dense, sticky when
a few weeks or months pass further. Hearing then is impaired more & this condition is called otitis media with effusion.
Chronic otitis media has another variation which is called chronic suppurative otitis media.In chronic suppurative otitis media,
tympanic membrane is ruptured & large amount of pus comes out of the ear due to continuous bacterial infection inside middle ear
for few weeks or more. Patient can be deaf due to this disease.
Symptom of otitis media: Otitis media is an infective disease of upper respiratory tract, especially in children. Otitis media has many
variations but very few differences among them. Symptoms of otitis media are discussed below-
Scratching & pulling of ear; excessive crying; disturbance of sleep; temperature more than 100.40º F&fever; severe headache;
anorexia, cough, runny nose; pain in the ear; tinnitus; vomiting or diarrhoea; escape of pus or blood through pinna of external ear
when tympanic membrane is ruptured; problem in maintenance of equilibrium of the body hearing (hearing impairment to
deafness).
Treatment of otitis media: As otitis media is known as a disease of children so our future generation should be kept free from this
disease. Some advice should be followed in this disease. Smoking should be avoided (for own self) or children should be kept out
of the range of smoking; air pollution should be avoided; immunity should be maintained in children; breast feeding should be
 Md. Aminul Islam Chowdhury Lecturer (Biology)
M. Phil. (Researcher), M. Sc. (Thesis), B. Sc. (Hons.) Cantonment English School & College
Dept. of Botany, University of Chittagong. Hello: 01912-85 33 95 ; 01789-64 53 12 .
continued for one year or more (if possible); child should be placed vertically while feeding bottle milk; hot water bag should be
applied beside ear; analgesic & antibiotic drug or ear drop should be used according to specialist doctor's advice. Those who are
affected frequently in this disease, are treated by special tube known as tympanostomy tube by the doctors.

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Topic - 7  Comparison between the X-ray film of the lungs of Smoker and Non-smoker .

Lungs of smoker & non-smoker: A cigarette stick has about 4000 (500 types- Ref: Alim) different types of chemical substances.
These substances enter inside the body, especially in the lungs due to smoking & start making impairment. Nicotine, arsenic,
methane, ammonia (tar- Ref: Alim), CO, HCN are the main chemical compounds in cigarette. X-ray of a smoker's lung is coloured&
show patches for this reason. An action which is performed by a non-smoker easily & quickly, is time consuming & more laborious
for a smoker.
Smoker's lung has less alveoli than non-smoker's lung. Alveoli are important in transfer of 02 to human blood circulation. Alveoli are
destroyed & they are never regenerated due to smoking. They become blackish in colour. For this reason, smokers cannot cope up
with non- smokers in any physical activity. Normal human lung inner wall has hair like cilia. No harmful dust can remain inside lung
due to the movement of these. Cilium becomes disable due to smoking; so dust particles are trapped inside. It is one of the
features of x-ray of smoker's lung.
The light used in x-ray machine has small amount of energy which penetrate patient's body & produces image in special film. X-ray
can easily pass through soft tissue but can't pass through dense tissue like bone. The image in the film then looks similar to photo
negative shadow. Dark part of this film indicates that light didn't get any resistance or got less resistance while passing. A white
mark (sternum) is found in the middle of a black film. White part indicates that light is resisted while passing through. Doctors thus
detect dust, foreign body in the lung of smokers.
X-ray film of non-smoker-will be black; in case of smokers it will be whitish or white. Lungs of smoker also would be black if x-ray is
done before smoking started. But his lungs start to become whitish after starting smoking. If cancer tumour is found, it is detected
as a dense white area in x-ray film.
 By observing x-ray, doctors can identify pleural effusion (accumulation of fluid in lungs). Hilar glands can also enlarge (hilar
lymphadenopathy). Heart shadow is tubular & diaphragm level is low in smokers.
Only smoking doesn't form black patch & dust particles in the lung. Those who regularly visit office, road or other areas where
smoke of cigarette is regularly inhaled, also suffer from bad effects of smoking. Emphysema, bronchitis, even cancer can occur
due to this type of passive smoking. Physician should be informed thoroughly about this during treatment.
Aim of artificial respiration: If breathing does not occur for 4-6 minutes, then it causes irreplaceable damage of brain & even death
of the victim. If any movement of chest occurs due to mouth to mouth breathing, then same procedure should be reapplied.
Blowing of air should be 20 times/min until the patient can breathe by himself or the assisting individual thinks the child has died.
This procedure can be applied for hours.

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