PARTS AND FUNCTIONS OF RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Our cells require energy in a form of ATP and

certain raw materials (sugars, fats, and proteins) to
grow, reproduce, and carry out their special functions.
To create energy in a form they can use, cells rely on a
process called aerobic metabolism, in which oxygen
(O2) is consumed through different processes, and
carbon dioxide (CO2) waste is produced. We will be
discussing this topic in the next units. Without a
consistent supply of oxygen and a way to get rid of
carbon dioxide, essential cellular processes cannot
continue. So, oxygen must be supplied continuously,
and carbon dioxide has to be taken out. If no supply of
oxygen, that is where the problems start to occur, since
metabolic rate activity is high, in just a matter of minute
everything can go wrong. That is the reason why we
cannot survive without oxygen.
The primary function of the respiratory system
is to facilitate the exchange of oxygen and
carbon dioxide between the air and blood. The
organs of the respiratory system, which will be
discussed a bit later in detail, ensure that
oxygen enters the body and carbon dioxide
leaves the body. During inspiration, or
inhalation (breathing in), the air is conducted
from the atmosphere to the lungs by a series
of cavities, tubes, and openings. During
expiration, or exhalation (breathing out), the air
is conducted from the lungs to the atmosphere
by way of the same structures. Ventilation is
another term for breathing that includes both
inspiration and expiration. During ventilation, the respiratory system depends on the cardiovascular
system to transport oxygen (O2) from the lungs to the tissues and carbon dioxide (CO2) from the tissues
to the lungs. Gas exchange is necessary because our cells in our body carry out cellular respiration to
make energy in the form of
ATP. During cellular
respiration, cells use up O2
and produce CO2. The
respiratory system provides
these cells with O2 and
removes CO2. We can live
for days, perhaps even
weeks without food or
water, but we’ll die within
minutes if we cannot
breathe.
The respiratory system consists of a system of passageways for getting air to and from the lungs and the
lungs themselves, where gas exchange occurs. Also important to respiration are the bones, muscles, and
components of the nervous system that cause air to move into and out of the lungs. Like other organ
systems, the respiratory system is also dependent on the other organ system to serve fully its biological
function. For convenience, the respiratory system can be divided into the upper and lower respiratory
tracts. The upper respiratory tract comprises the nose (including the nasal cavity), pharynx—structures
above Adam’s apple, and the upper portion of the larynx. Some books or resources did not include larynx
to be part of the upper respiratory tract but for this, we will consider larynx as part of the Upper
Respiratory Tract. The lower respiratory tract trachea, the two bronchi that branch from the trachea, and
the lungs. Inside the lungs are the alveoli where gas exchange happens. 

The upper respiratory tract filters, warms,

and humidifies air. These organs that are
part of the upper respiratory tract are
anatomically structured and collectively
function to maintain homeostasis.

The nose, which forms the external entrance to the nasal cavity, functions in breathing, immunity, and the
sense of smell. Stiff hairs at the entrance of each nostril keep dust and other large particles out. If a large
particle is inhaled, a sensory cell in the nose may signal the brain to orchestrate a sneeze, it is a reflex,
which forcefully ejects the object. Observe the proper way of covering your nose when you sneeze. Take
note to not sniffle/lock your nose when you sneeze. The visible portion of the nose is known as the
external nose. The internal portion of the nose is called the nasal cavity. The external nose consists of
cartilage in the front and two nasal bones behind the cartilage. The nose varies in size and shape from
person to person, primarily as a result of individual differences in the cartilage tissue. The nose is divided
into chambers by the nasal septum. Air enters the nostrils, the two openings at the base of the external
nose, where it is partially filtered by nose hairs, and then flows into the nasal cavity. This cavity is lined
with moist epithelial tissue that is supplied with blood vessels. The blood vessels warm incoming air, and
the epithelial tissue secretes mucus, which humidifies the air. The epithelium is covered with hair-like
projections called cilia. The mucus in the nasal cavity traps dust, pathogens, and other particles in the air
before they get any further into the respiratory tract. The cilia beat in a coordinated motion, creating a
gentle current that moves the particle loaded mucus toward the back of the nasal cavity and pharynx .
There, we cough it out or swallow it to be digested by powerful digestive acids in the stomach. Ordinarily,
we are unaware of our nasal cilia. However, exposure to cold temperatures can slow down their activity,
allowing mucus to pool in the nasal cavity and drip from the nostrils. This is why your nose “runs” in cold
weather.

Air spaces called sinuses inside the skull are also lined with tissue that secretes mucus and helps trap
foreign particles. The sinuses drain into the nasal cavity via small passageways. Two tear ducts, carrying
fluid away from the eyes, drain into the nasal cavity as well. This is why excess production of tears,
perhaps due to strong emotions or irritating particles in your eyes, also makes your nose “runny.”

Is stifling a sneeze harmful?

Scientists have found that air travels at 100

miles an hour during a sneeze. This is enough
force to propel sneeze droplets up to 12 ft away
from the person sneezing. If a sneeze is stifled,
the air is forced into the auditory (eustachian)
tube and middle ear, potentially causing
damage to the middle ear. 
The pharynx, commonly referred to
as the throat, is a funnel-shaped
passageway that connects the
nasal and oral cavities to the larynx.
The pharynx has three parts: the
nasopharynx, where the nasal
cavities open above the soft palate;
the oropharynx, where the oral
cavity opens; and the
laryngopharynx, which opens into
the larynx. The tonsils form a
protective ring at the junction of the
oral cavity and the pharynx. The
tonsils, which are composed of
lymphoid tissue, are actually part of
the immune system. They contain
lymphocytes, which protect against
invasion of inhaled foreign antigens. The tonsils are the primary defense during breathing because
inhaled air passes directly over the tonsils. In the tonsils, B cells and T cells respond to antigens that may
subsequently invade internal tissues and fluids. Our tonsils will help us fight invaders. 

In the pharynx, the air passage and the food passage lie parallel to each other and share an opening in
the laryngopharynx. The larynx is normally open, allowing air to pass , but the esophagus is normally
closed and opens only when a person swallows. Let us have a short review of the food passage in the
pharynx. First, 1 voluntary movement of the tongue and jaws push a bolus of food into the pharynx. At rest
and during this voluntary phase, 2 muscles keep the esophagus closed. The arrival of the food in the
pharynx stimulates receptors that initiate the “swallowing reflex,” an involuntary act that cannot be stopped
once it is started. The purpose of the swallowing reflex is to close off the passageways for air to and from
the pharynx while the bolus of food passes through the pharynx. Breathing is halted temporarily during the
swallowing reflex. 3 The soft palate rises to close off the passageway into the nasal cavity, and 4 the
epiglottis bends down to close the airway to the trachea. At the same time, the tongue pushes the food
back even farther, sliding it past the epiglottis and into the esophagus. There are cases that if someone
swallows and some of the food enters the larynx, coughing occurs in an effort to dislodge the food. If the
passageway remains blocked, the Heimlich maneuver can be used to dislodge food blocking the airway. 
 The larynx, or voice box,
extends for about 5 cm (2
inches) below the pharynx. The
larynx serves to maintain an
open airway, route food, and air
into the appropriate channels,
and assist in the production of
sound. The larynx is a
cartilaginous structure that
serves as a passageway for air
between the pharynx and the
trachea. The larynx can be
pictured as a triangular box
whose apex, Adam’s apple
(laryngeal prominence), is
located at the front of the neck. The larynx is also called the voice box because it houses the vocal cords.
The vocal cords are mucosal folds supported by elastic ligaments, and the slit between the vocal cords is
called the glottis.

We produce most sounds by the vibration of the vocal cords,

although we can also make a few sounds by moving our tongue
and teeth. The tone of the sounds produced by the vocal cords
depends on how tightly the vocal cords are stretched, which is
controlled by skeletal muscle. When we are not talking, the
vocal cords are relaxed and open. When we start to talk, they
stretch tightly across the tracheal opening, and the flow of air
past them causes them to vibrate. Like any string instrument,
cords that are relatively short yield higher-pitched tones than
longer cords do. Also, the tighter the vocal cords stretch, the
higher the tone they produce. Men tend to have deeper voices
than women and a more prominent Adam’s apple, due to
testosterone that causes the larynx to enlarge at puberty. We
can exert some control over the volume and pitch of the voice by adjusting the tension on our vocal cords.
(You may have noticed that when you’re nervous, your voice becomes higher pitched.) The resulting
vibrations travel through the air as sound waves. Most of us can be recognized by the distinctive quality of
our voices. In addition to the shape and size of vocal cords, individual differences in voice are determined
by many components of the respiratory tract and mouth, including the pharynx, nose and nasal cavity,
tongue, and teeth. Muscles in the pharynx, tongue, soft palate, and lips cooperate to create recognizable
sounds. The pharynx, nose, and nasal sinuses serve as resonating chambers to amplify and enhance
vocal tone.

The larynx contains two important structures: the epiglottis and the vocal cords. The epiglottis is a flexible
flap of cartilage located at the opening to the larynx. When air is flowing into the larynx, the epiglottis
remains open, but when we swallow food or liquids, the epiglottis tips to block the opening temporarily.
This “switching mechanism” routes food and beverages into the esophagus and digestive system, rather
than into the trachea. This is why it is impossible to talk while you are swallowing.
 The Lower Respiratory
Tracts exchange gases. Once the
incoming air makes its way past the
larynx, it enters the lower respiratory
tract. The lower respiratory tract
consists of the trachea, the bronchial
tree, and the lungs. The lower
respiratory tract includes the lower
portion of larynx, then the trachea, the
bronchi, and the lungs with their
bronchioles and alveoli.

The trachea, commonly called the windpipe, is a tube connecting

the larynx to the primary bronchi. Its walls consist of connective
tissue and smooth muscle reinforced by C-shaped cartilaginous
rings. The rings prevent the trachea from collapsing.
As the air continues down the respiratory tract, it passes to the
trachea, the windpipe that extends from the larynx to the left and right bronchi. The trachea consists of a
series of C-shaped, incomplete rings of cartilage held together by connective tissue and muscle. Each
cartilage ring extends only three-quarters of the circumference of the trachea. The rings of cartilage keep
the trachea open at all times, but because they are not complete circles, they permit the trachea to
change diameter slightly when we cough or breath heavily. The trachea lies anterior to the esophagus. It
is separated from the esophagus by a flexible, muscular wall. This orientation allows the esophagus to
expand when swallowing.
 Like the nasal cavity, the trachea is
lined with cilia covered epithelial
tissue that secretes mucus. The
mucus traps foreign particles and the
cilia move them upward, away from
the lungs. The goblet cells produce
mucus, which traps debris in the air
as it passes through the trachea. The
mucus is then swept toward the
pharynx and away from the lungs by
the cilia that project from the
epithelium.

When you cough, the tracheal wall contracts, narrowing its diameter.
Therefore, coughing causes air to move more rapidly through the
trachea, helping expel mucus and foreign objects. If a foreign object
lodged in the trachea, respiration is interrupted and choking occurs. If
the airway is completely blocked, death can occur within minutes.
Choking often happens when a person carries on an animated
conversation while eating. Beyond good manners, the risk of choking  
provides a good reason not to eat and talk at the same time. Choking
typically stimulates receptors in the throat that trigger the cough reflex. This is a sudden expulsion of air
from the lungs in an attempt to dislodge foreign. If the object blocks the airway completely before the
person has finished inhaling, there may not be much air in the lungs. This will make the obstacle more
difficult to remove. If the object blocks airflow only partially, it may be possible to dislodge it by inhaling
slowly, then coughing. 
The trachea divides into the right
and left primary bronchi (sing.,
bronchus), which lead to the right
and left lungs. The bronchi
branch into a few secondary
bronchi that also branch, until the
branches become bronchioles,
which are about 1 mm in
diameter. The bronchi resemble
the trachea in structure. As the
bronchial tubes divide and subdivide, their walls become thinner and the small rings of cartilage are no
longer present.
The bronchi and bronchioles have several
other functions in addition to air transport.
They also clean the air, warm it to body
temperature, and saturate it with water vapor
before it reaches the delicate gas-exchange
surfaces of the lungs. The air is warmed and
humidified by contact with the moist surfaces
of the cells lining the bronchi and bronchioles.
Except for the very smallest bronchioles, the
bronchi and bronchioles are lined with ciliated
epithelial cells and occasional mucus-
secreting cells. The thin, watery mucus
produced by the mucus-secreting cells traps dust, bacteria, and other small particles. The ciliated cells
then sweep the accumulated mucus and trapped material upward toward the pharynx so that it can be
swallowed. Tobacco smoke contains chemicals and particles that irritate the respiratory tract. Mucus
production increases in response, but the smoke impairs the activity of the cilia. Continued smoking
destroys the cilia, allowing mucus and debris from the smoke to accumulate in the airway. “Smoker’s
cough” refers to the violent coughing necessary to dislodge the mucus from the airway . Mucus pooling
leads to frequent infections because pathogens and irritants remain in the respiratory tract. It also
increases the risk of bronchitis, emphysema, and lung cancer.

If

you could touch a living lung, you would find that it

is very soft and frothy. Most of it is air. The lungs
are a system of branching airways that end in 300
million tiny air-filled sacs called alveoli (singular:
alveolus). It is here that gas exchange takes
place. Alveoli are arranged in clusters at the end of
every terminal bronchiole, like grapes clustered on
a stem. A single alveolus is a thin bubble of living squamous epithelial cells only one cell layer thick. Their
combined surface area is nearly 800 square feet, approximately 40 times the area of our skin. This
tremendous surface area and the thinness of the squamous type of epithelium facilitate gas exchange
with nearby capillaries.
 The right ventricle of the
heart pumps
deoxygenated blood
into the pulmonary
trunk, which splits into
the left and right
pulmonary arteries. The
pulmonary arteries
divide into smaller and
smaller arteries and
arterioles, eventually
terminating in a capillary
bed called the
pulmonary capillaries. In
the pulmonary
capillaries, blood comes
into very close proximity
to the air in the alveoli. Only two living cells (the squamous epithelial cell of the alveolus and the cell of the
capillary wall) separate blood from the air at this point. A series of venues and veins collect the
oxygenated blood from the pulmonary capillaries and returns the blood to the left side of the heart, from
whence it is transported to all parts of the body. The close contact between air and blood and the large air
surface area of the lungs suggests that the lungs might be useful as an alternative method for delivering
medications to the bloodstream. Several pharmaceutical companies have developed fine mists or
powders that can be inhaled deep into the lungs. The latest, an inhalable insulin product called Afrezza,
was approved by the FDA in 2014. 

The lungs are organs consisting of supportive tissue enclosing the bronchi, bronchioles, blood vessels,
and the areas where gas exchange occurs. They occupy most of the thoracic cavity. There are two lungs,
one on the right side and one on the left, separated from each other by the heart.  

Each lung is enclosed in two layers of thin epithelial membranes called the pleural membranes. One of
these layers represents the outer lung surface and the other lines the thoracic cavity. The pleural
membranes are separated by a small space, called the pleural cavity, that contains a very small amount of
watery fluid. The fluid reduces friction between the pleural membranes like the lungs and chest wall
movement during breathing. Inflammation of the pleural membranes, a condition called pleurisy, can
reduce the secretion of pleural fluid, increase friction, and cause pain during breathing. Pleurisy can be a
symptom of pneumonia.