Nutrition in Humans

Nutrition
in Humans
Chapter 6
Learning Objectives
Questions to answer!
1. What is nutrition?
2. Which parts of the body are involved in digestion?
3. What is digestion?
4. What happens to the food after digestion?
What is Nutrition?
Objective 1:
State the definition of

nutrition.
What is Nutrition? Definition of Nutrition
Nutrition is the process of taking in food

and converting it into living matter.
Animals feed by taking in complex

organic matter –
HOLOZOIC NUTRITION
What is Nutrition? 5 Processes of Nutrition
1. Feeding or ingestion: food is taken into the body.
2. Digestion: large food molecules are broken down into
smaller soluble molecules that can be absorbed into
the body cells.
3. Absorption: digested food substances are absorbed
into body cells.
4. Assimilation: some of the absorbed food substances
are converted into new protoplasm or used to
provide energy.
5. Egestion: undigested food is being passed out of the
body via the anus.
Which parts of the body are involved in
digestion?
Objective 2:
Describe the functions

of the main regions of
the alimentary canal.
Which parts of the body
are involved in digestion? The Digestive System
• Consists of the alimentary

canal and the glands and
organs associated with it.
• The alimentary canal is like a
tube that extends from the
mouth to the anus.
• Most of its length is coiled in
the abdominal cavity.
mouth salivary gland

teeth pharynx
oesophagus
liver stomach
Gall bladder pancreas

duodenum pyloric sphincter
ileum descending colon

ascending colon
caecum
appendix rectum
anus
The Digestive System - Mouth
• Food enters the body
through the mouth.
• The mouth leads to the
buccal cavity.
The Digestive System - Mouth
What do you find in the mouth?:
• Teeth: chewing action
(mastication) breaks down large
pieces of food into smaller mouth
pieces. This increases surface
area to volume ratio of the food
for enzyme action.
• Salivary glands: secrete saliva
into the mouth via ducts. teeth
• Tongue: helps to mix food with
saliva. Taste buds help one to
identify and select suitable salivary gland
foods.
Process of nutrition??
The Digestive System - Pharynx
• Connects the buccal
cavity to the oesophagus
and larynx (voice box).
• Leads to the trachea. pharynx
• Both food and air must air
pass through the pharynx
larynx
then they enter the body. (voice-
box)
• Air will pass to the oesophagus
glottis
trachea, while food will
trachea
go into the oesophagus. (windpipe)
The Digestive System - Pharynx
• The epiglottis is above the
larynx, and it prevents food
from going the wrong way.
• During swallowing, the
larynx moves up and the pharynx
epiglottis moves food
downwards so that the particles
epiglottis covers the larynx. epiglottis

• If food or water enters the glottis oesophagus
trachea, it induces larynx
(voice-box)
coughing to force the trachea
food/water particles out (windpipe)
and prevent choking.

The Digestive System - Oesophagus
• Also known as the gullet.

• A narrow, muscular tube.
• Passes through the thorax
(chest) and the diaphragm
to join the stomach.
• Made up of 2 layers of
muscles, present from the
oesophagus to the rectum:
– Longitudinal muscles
(outer layer)
– Circular muscles (inner circular
muscles
layer)
• These muscles are
antagonistic muscles –
when one contracts, the
other relaxes
longitudinal Part of the gut wall
muscles
• The muscles cause
peristalsis – rhythmic, wave-
like contractions of the gut
walls.
• It helps to move food along
circular
the gut while mixing the muscles
food with digestive juices.
longitudinal Part of the gut wall

muscles

teeth
oesophagus
PERISTALSIS
• When circular muscles contract, longitudinal muscles relax.
The gut wall constricts (becomes narrower and longer). Food
is squeezed or pushed forward.
• When longitudinal muscles contract, circular muscles relax.
The gut wall dilates (becomes wider and shorter). This widens
the lumen for food to enter. wall dilates to allow
food to enter
circular muscles
longitudinal
muscles
food mass
wall constricts to push food forward

PERISTALSIS
• When circular muscles contract, longitudinal muscles relax.
The gut wall constricts (becomes narrower and longer). Food
is squeezed or pushed forward.
• When longitudinal muscles contract, circular muscles relax.
The gut wall dilates (becomes wider and shorter). This widens
the lumen for food to enter.
digestion?
Objective 2:

of the main regions of
the alimentary canal.
The Digestive System - Stomach
• The stomach is a distensible

(muscular) bag.
• The muscles of the stomach
wall are thick and well-
developed.
• When fully stretched, it
sends signals to the brain to
indicate that it is full.
The Digestive System - Stomach
• The stomach wall has many

pits which lead to gastric
glands.
• They secrete gastric juices
into the stomach.
What is one
enzyme found in
gastric juice?
pits
The Digestive
Where else can System - Stomach
we find circular
• The stomach stores food for
a few muscles?
hours. It digests food
to become chyme.
• Food stays in the stomach
because of the pyloric
sphincter – a ring of circular
muscle located between the
stomach and duodenum.
– Contracts: stomach exit closes
– Relaxes: stomach exit opens,
food leaves the stomach.
The Digestive System – Small Intestine
• Consists of 3 parts:
– Duodenum progressively
– Jejunum more coiled
– Ileum
The Digestive System – Small Intestine
• Wall of small intestine

has 2 functions:
– Contains glands which
secrete intestinal juice. It
contains digestive
enzymes.
– Wall is adapted to
absorb digested food
products and water.
The Digestive System – Large Intestine
large
• The large intestine is intestine
about 1.5 m long

– Shorter and wider than
the small intestine
• Consists of 2 parts:
– Colon
– Rectum
colon
rectum
small
intestine
• Only undigested food

enters the colon.
• It absorbs water and
mineral salts from the
food.
• No digestion occurs in
the colon.
colon
• The rectum temporarily

stores faeces.
• When it contracts,
faeces is expelled
through the anus.
rectum
• Between the small and large

intestines lie the caecum
and appendix.
• The caecum has no function
in humans.
• The appendix contains
bacteria that are useful to
the body.
caecum
appendix
digestion?
Objective 3:

of the organs
associated with
digestion.

teeth pharynx
oesophagus
liver stomach
Gall bladder pancreas

duodenum pyloric sphincter
ileum descending colon

ascending colon
caecum
appendix rectum
anus
The Digestive System - Liver
• The largest internal organ in

the body
• There are 3 important blood
vessels attached to the
liver:
– Hepatic vein
– Hepatic artery
– Hepatic portal vein
liver
Whygland in
• It is also the largest
the body. alkaline
– Secretes bile into?the
duodenum
• Properties of bile:
– Alkaline
– Greenish-yellow
– Contains bile salts and bile
pigments
– Produced in the liver, stored gall bile duct
in the gall bladder bladder
liver
• Functions of bile:
– Neutralize acid in chyme
– Activate intestinal enzymes
– Speed up fat digestion
– Gives faeces its colour
• When the gall bladder
contracts, bile is secreted
into the duodenum via the
bile duct.
gall bile duct
bladder
The Digestive System - Pancreas
• Connected to the
duodenum via the
pancreatic duct
• Secretes pancreatic juice
which contains digestive
enzymes.
• Also secretes hormones
which control blood
glucose level.
What is Digestion?
Objective 4:
State the definition of

digestion.
What is Digestion? Definition of Digestion
Digestion is the process by which the

body breaks down carbohydrates, fats
and proteins into simpler substances
that cells can absorb and use.
Physical digestion Chemical digestion

The mechanical break up of The breaking down of large
food into small particles. molecules in food into small,
soluble molecules which can
be absorbed.
Chemical digestion involves hydrolysis catalyzed by digestive enzymes.
What is Digestion?
Objective 5:
Describe the process of

digestion in the
alimentary canal and
the functions of
digestive enzymes.
What is Digestion? Physical Digestion
• Physical digestion breaks down food into smaller particles.
• Purpose: to increase surface area to volume ratio of the
food to aid enzyme action.
• Food substances are not chemically changed during
physical digestion.
• Where does physical digestion occur?
– In the mouth chewing / mastication
– Along the alimentary canal peristalsis
– Physical digestion of fats in the small intestine
emulsification
What is Digestion? Physical Digestion
EMULSIFICATION
• Fats do not dissolve in water – they
tend to clump together.
• This reduces the surface area for
enzymes to work, slowing down fat
digestion.
• Bile molecules place themselves in
between the fat and water – half
the molecule is hydrophilic, half is
hydrophobic.
• This prevents the fat from clumping
together.
• Surface area of fat molecules is
Picture taken from
increased, speeding up enzyme http://www.colorado.edu/eeb/web_resources/carto
ons/bile.html
action.
What is Digestion? Chemical Digestion
• Breaking down of large molecules in food (starch,
protein, fats) into small soluble molecules which can be
absorbed.
• Hydrolytic reactions – catalysed by ENZYMES
• Three groups of enzymes:

Carbohydrases Lipases Proteases
• Chemical digestion occurs mainly in 3 parts of the

alimentary canal:
– Mouth, stomach, small intestine
In the mouth...
• Food in the mouth stimulates the salivary glands to
secrete saliva.
• Saliva is mixed with food. Mucin in saliva softens the food.
• Salivary amylase is found in saliva:
– Digests to
• The optimum pHstarch
of salivary amylase
maltose is pH 7.
– The pH of saliva is neutral.
• The tongue rolls the food into small, slippery, round
masses called boli (singular: bolus).
• The boli are swallowed and passed down into the
oesophagus.
In the stomach...
 The presence of food in the stomach stimulates the
gastric glands to secrete gastric juice into the stomach.
 Gastric juice contains 3 substances:
– Hydrochloric acid
– Pepsinogen
– Prorennin
In the stomach... Action of Pepsin
 Pepsinogen is activated to pepsin by hydrochloric acid.
 Pepsin then digests protein to polypeptides.
hydrochloric acid
pepsinogen pepsin
pepsin
proteins polypeptides
In the stomach... Action of Rennin
 Prorennin is activated to rennin by hydrochloric acid.
 Rennin curdles milk proteins by converting soluble protein
caseinogen into insoluble casein.
– Soluble caseinogen would pass through the stomach as
easily as water and not be digested.
– Insoluble casein can remain in the stomach to be digested.
hydrochloric acid
prorennin rennin
rennin
caseinogen casein
pepsin
casein polypeptides
In the stomach... Purpose of Hydrochloric Acid
 Stops the activity of salivary amylase by denaturing it
 Activates pepsinogen and prorennin to form pepsin and
rennin respectively
 Provides acidic medium for the action of pepsin and
rennin
 Kills harmful microorganisms in food
In the small intestine...
 When chyme enters the small intestine, it stimulates 3
glands:
– Intestinal glands secrete intestinal juice, which
contains enzymes sucrase, maltase, intestinal lipase,
lactase, enterokinase, and erepsin. SMILEE!
– Pancreas secretes pancreatic juice, which contains
pancreatic amylase, pancreatic lipase, and ALT
trypsinogen.
– Gall bladder releases bile. It does not contain enzyme
In the small intestine...
 All 3 fluids are alkaline:
– Neutralize acidic chyme
– Provide suitable pH for the action of pancreatic and
intestinal enzymes
In the small intestine... Carbohydrate digestion
pancreatic
amylase maltase
starch maltose glucose
lactase
lactose glucose + galactose
sucrase
sucrose glucose + fructose
In the small intestine... Protein digestion
enterokinase
trypsinogen trypsin
trypsin
erepsin
polypeptides amino acids
In the small intestine... Fat digestion
lipase
fats fatty acids + glycerol
Recall: What process

speeds up fat digestion
in the small intestine?
What is Digestion? Digestive Enzymes
Carbohydrate digestion
salivary
mouth
starch amylase maltose
pancreatic
starch amylase maltose maltase glucose
small intestine
lactose lactase glucose + galactose
sucrose sucrase
glucose + fructose
What is Digestion? Digestive Enzymes
Protein digestion
hydrochloric acid
prorennin rennin
stomach
rennin
caseinogen casein
pepsin
casein polypeptides
enterokinase
small intestine
trypsinogen trypsin
trypsin
erepsin
polypeptides amino acids
What happens to the food after
digestion?
Objective 6:
Describe how digested

food is absorbed.
What happens to food
after digestion? Absorption
• Where does absorption occur?

✓ In the small intestine and large intestine
• What nutrients are being absorbed?
✓ Simple sugars
✓ Amino acids
✓ Fatty acids and glycerols
✓ Water and mineral salts
after digestion? Absorption
How does absorption take place in the small intestine?
• Glucose and amino acids:
– Absorbed by diffusion into blood capillaries of the villi.
– Absorbed by active transport when there is lower
concentration of digested food substances in the small
intestine than in the blood capillaries.
• Fatty acids and glycerol:
– Absorbed by diffusion into the epithelium
– Combine to form fat globules which enter the lacteals
• Water and mineral salts:
– Absorbed by the small intestine and colon
– Most of the water is absorbed by the ileum
after digestion? Absorption: Small Intestine
Adaptations of the Small Intestine for Absorption

• The rate of absorption of digested food substances
depends on 3 factors:
1. Surface area
2. The thickness of
cell membranes
3. Concentration
gradient
1. Surface Area
• The surface area of the small intestine is increased for
absorption in 4 ways:
1. Inner walls have folds
2. The surface of the folds are lined with numerous
villi (singular: villus), which are minute finger-like
projections.
3. The epithelial cells of the villi have numerous
microvilli.
4. The small intestine is long, providing large surface
area and ample time for absorption.
2. Thickness of Cell Membranes
• The villi have very thin membranes: the epithelium is
only one-cell thick.
3. Concentration Gradient
• In each villus is a lacteal (lymphatic capillary)
surrounded by blood capillaries.
• The lacteal continually transports fats away from the
villus, while the blood capillaries transports sugars
and amino acids away.
• This maintains the concentration gradient needed for
the absorption of food substances.
after digestion? Egestion
• Some food substances cannot be digested and remain

unabsorbed in the large intestine.
• These are stored temporarily in the rectum.
• When the rectum is full, they are discharged as faeces
through the anus .
• This process is known as egestion or defecation.
digestion?
Objective 7:
Describe how digested

food is assimilated.
after digestion? Transport and Assimilation
Transport of Simple Sugars

• After absorption, the blood in the villi is rich in sugars.
• Blood capillaries unite to form the hepatic portal vein.
• The hepatic portal vein transports sugars to the liver.
Assimilation of Simple Sugars

• In the liver, most sugars are converted to glycogen and
stored.
• Glucose leaves the liver and is distributed around the
body by the bloodstream.
– Used during respiration to provide energy for cells.
• Excess glucose is returned to the liver
– Hormone insulin (produced by Islets of Langerhan in the
pancreas) stimulates the liver to convert glucose to
glycogen for storage.
– When more glucose is required, the liver will convert
glycogen back to glucose.
Transport and Assimilation of Amino Acids

• Amino acids pass through the liver before they are
transported to the rest of the body.
• How are amino acids used?
– Converted to protoplasm by cells, used for growth and
repair of body parts
– Used to form enzymes and hormones
• Excess amino acids are deaminated.
digestion?
Objective 8:
State the functions of

the liver.
after digestion? Functions of the Liver
The Liver has 7 Functions

1. Regulation of blood glucose concentration
2. Production of bile
3. Protein synthesis
4. Iron storage
5. Deamination of amino acids
6. Detoxification
7. Heat production
1. Regulation of Blood Glucose Concentration

• Blood normally contains about 70-90 mg of glucose per
100 cm3 of blood.
• After a meal:
– Amount of glucose in the blood rises
– Stimulates Islets of Langerhans in the pancreas to
secrete insulin into the bloodstream
– Insulin is transported to the liver.
– Insulin stimulates liver to convert excess glucose to
glycogen for storage.
– Blood leaving the liver contains a constant amount of
glucose.
What about adrenaline??

• When body cells need glucose:
– Glucose level in the blood drops.
– Islets of Langerhan are stimulated to secrete hormone
glucagon.
– Glucagon stimulates liver to convert stored glycogen to
glucose.
– Glucose enters the blood; blood glucose level returns to
normal.

• If we have not eaten for a long time:
– Glucose level in the blood drops below average.
– Blood that is low in glucose reaches the hypothalamus
in the brain.
– Brain sends signals to the stomach.
– This causes strong contractions and we feel hunger
pangs.
– After eating, the blood glucose level rises. The
hypothalamus signals to the stomach to stop
contracting.

high blood low blood
glucose pancreas pancreas glucose
secretes insulin secretes
concentration glucagon concentration
converts glucose converts glycogen

to glycogen to glucose
normal blood glucose concentration

2. Production of Bile
• The liver produces bile which is stored in the gall
bladder before use.
• Bile is used in the emulsification of fats.
3. Protein Synthesis
• Blood plasma contains amino acids from the diet.
• The liver synthesizes these amino acids to form
proteins, e.g.:
– Albumins, globulins, fibrinogen (for blood clotting)
4. Iron Storage
• Red blood cells contain a iron, which is involved in the
transportation of oxygen around the body.
• These cells become worn out after some time.
• They are destroyed in the spleen, a gland near the liver.
• Haemoglobin from red blood cells is brought to the
liver.
• Haemoglobin is broken down, forming iron and bile.
• Iron is stored in the liver.
5. Deamination of Amino Acids

• Excess amino acids are transported to the liver.
• The amino groups are removed and converted to urea.
• Urea leaves the body in urine.
• The remains of the amino acid are converted into
glucose.
• Excess glucose is converted to glycogen .
6. Detoxification
• This is the process of converting harmful substances
into harmless ones.
• Breaks down alcohol to acetaldehyde by the action of
alcohol dehydrogenase
• Acetaldehyde can be broken down to compounds
which can be used in respiration.
• Excessive alcohol consumption stimulates acid
secretion in the stomach, increasing the risk of gastric
ulcers.
6. Detoxification
• Prolonged alcohol use can lead to cirrhosis of the liver.
– Liver cells are being destroyed and replaced with fibrous
tissue
– Cells are less able to function
– Can lead to liver failure and death
7. Heat Production
• There are many chemical reactions taking place in the
liver.
• Heat is produced from these reactions.
• The heat is distributed by the blood to other parts
other body.
• Helps to maintain body temperature.
Pure Biology Chapter 6
Nutrition Alimentary Canal

consists of consists of Organs and Glands
In digestion
Ingestion Mouth Teeth
consists of
Tongue
Liver Pancreas
Pharynx
Salivary contains
glands secretes
leads to
Gall bladder
Oesophagus stores
Pancreatic Hormones
Digestion Bile amylase
secreted into
consist
Stomach
of
Duodenum
Insulin
Absorption Small intestine Jejunum Hepatic

portal vein Glucagon
Colon Ileum walls

have
Large intestine unite to form
Folds
Rectum
Assimilation Simple
Villi sugars
Anus
via Blood
capillaries
Amino
Microvilli
acids
Egestion
via
Fats Lacteals
absorbs
Pure Biology Chapter 6
Nutrition Alimentary Canal

consists of consists of Organs and Glands
In digestion
Mouth Teeth
consists of
Tongue
Pharynx
Salivary contains
glands secretes
leads to
Gall bladder
stores
Pancreatic Hormones
amylase
secreted into
consist
of
Hepatic
portal vein Glucagon
Colon walls
have
unite to form
Folds
Rectum
Simple
Anus sugars
via
Amino
Microvilli
acids
via
Fats
absorbs

Nutrition in Humans

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Nutrition

State the definition of

Nutrition is the process of taking in food

Animals feed by taking in complex

Describe the functions

• Consists of the alimentary

mouth salivary gland

Gall bladder pancreas

ileum descending colon

epiglottis covers the larynx. epiglottis

and prevent choking.

• Also known as the gullet.

longitudinal Part of the gut wall

mouth salivary gland

wall constricts to push food forward

Describe the functions

• The stomach is a distensible

• The stomach wall has many

• Wall of small intestine

about 1.5 m long

• Only undigested food

• The rectum temporarily

• Between the small and large

Describe the functions

mouth salivary gland

Gall bladder pancreas

ileum descending colon

• The largest internal organ in

State the definition of

Digestion is the process by which the

Physical digestion Chemical digestion

Describe the process of

• Three groups of enzymes:

• Chemical digestion occurs mainly in 3 parts of the

Recall: What process

starch amylase maltose

lactose lactase glucose + galactose

Describe how digested

• Where does absorption occur?

Adaptations of the Small Intestine for Absorption

• Some food substances cannot be digested and remain

Describe how digested

Transport of Simple Sugars

Assimilation of Simple Sugars

Transport and Assimilation of Amino Acids

State the functions of

The Liver has 7 Functions

1. Regulation of Blood Glucose Concentration

1. Regulation of Blood Glucose Concentration

1. Regulation of Blood Glucose Concentration

1. Regulation of Blood Glucose Concentration

converts glucose converts glycogen

normal blood glucose concentration

5. Deamination of Amino Acids

Nutrition Alimentary Canal

Absorption Small intestine Jejunum Hepatic

Colon Ileum walls

Nutrition Alimentary Canal

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