Chapter 9: Respiratory Systems

Chapter 9: Respiratory Systems

1. The physics of Respiratory Systems, including Fick's equation, partial pressure, Henry's law,
Graham's law and Boyle's law,

Fick’s equation: dQ/dt = D  A  (dC/dx)

dQ/dt = Rate of diffusion

D = diffusion coefficient (D)
A = area of the membrane (A)
dC/dx = gradient (Difference in pressure (not concentration))

Partial pressure – each gas in a gas mixture exerts its own pressure

Ideal gas law – PV = nRT

Henry’s law: [G] = Pgas  Sgas; concentration of gas in liquid is proportional to its partial pressure. Gas
molecules in the air must first dissolve in liquid to diffuse into cell.

[G] = concentration of the gas

Pgas = partial pressure of the gas
Sgas = solubility of the gas

Graham’s law: Diffusion rate is proportional to solubility/MW

Diffusion rate of gas molecule proportional to: D  A  DPgas  Sgas / X  MW

Boyle’s Law P1V1 = P2V2

P1V1 = initial pressure and volume of the gas

P2V2 = final pressure and volume of the gas

Law of bulk flow: Q = P/R

P = difference in pressure
R = resistance to flow

2. Animal Respiratory System Diversity, including diffusion, cutaneous respiration, gills and
lungs, as well as ventilation and gas exchange in water dwelling animals.

Sponges, cnidarians and many terrestrial arthropods circulate the external medium through the body.
Many aquatic invertebrates, terrestrial annelid worms, and some vertebrates like frogs and salamanders
use cutaneous respiration. These animals obtain oxygen from diffusion across the skin. Disadvantages:
(1) very thin skin necessary to minimize diffusion distance and maximize rate of diffusion leaves animal
vulnerable to predation or physical damage; (2) thin barrier must remain moist so that dissolved oxygen
can diffuse into cell; (3) surface area of skin is limited

Gills are outpocketings of the body surface and can be external or located within respiratory cavity
protected by a flap or other covering. They are used for gas exchange in water.

Lungs originate as infoldings of the body surface, forming an internal body cavity that contains the
external medium. They are used for gas exchange in air.

Ventilation reduces the formation of static boundary layers. Nondirectional ventilation is when the medium
flows past the respiratory surface in an unpredictable pattern. Tidal ventilation occurs when the external
medium moves in and out of the respiratory chamber in a back-and-forth movement. Unidirectional
ventilation is where the medium enters the chamber at one point and exits out the other.

3. Concurrent, countercurrent, and crosscurrent flow, as well as unidirectional and bidirectional

ventilation as each of these relate to respiration.

Unidirectional includes: concurrent, countercurrent and crosscurrent flow.

Concurrent- blood may flow in the same direction as the medium. Concurrent flow allows the Po2 of
the blood to equilibrate with the Po2 of the respiratory medium (Figure 9.6d)

Countercurrent- the blood and medium may flow in opposite directions. The Po2 of the blood leaving
the gas exchange surface can approach that of the inhaled medium. 9figure 9.6c)

Crosscurrent- the blood my flow at an angle relative to the flow of the external medium. Multiple
capillaries are arranged at an angle to the flow of the external medium. After they exit the gas
exchange surface, these capillaries coalesce into an efferent blood vessel. (figure 9.6f)

Unidirectional ventilation- medium enters the chamber at one point and exits at another causing the
medium to flow in a single direction across the respiratory surface.

Bidirectional (tidal) ventilation - occurs when the external medium moves in and out of the respiratory
chamber in a back-and-forth movement

4. Anatomy and mechanics of ventilation in animals. Some terms to know and understand the
function of: spiracles, operculum, swim bladders, ram ventilation, gill arches, lamellae, book
lungs, and draft ventilation. Water-dwelling animals: (porifera, cnideria, gastropoda, mollusca
(including cephalopoda), crustacea, echinodermata, hagfish and lampreys, elasmobranchs,
and teleosts) and land-dwelling animals (arthropoda, amphibia, reptilia, aves, and mammals).
Spiracles- a part of nostril-like structure on the top of the head

Operculum- protects fills

Swim bladders - gas-filled organ. Maintains vertical position in the water. Located just above the gut

Ram ventilation- fish swim forward with mouth open, water will flow across the gills without active
pumping by the muscles surrounding the buccal and opercular cavities. Used by active fish species
like tunas and some sharks. Fish does not use energy to ventilate the respiratory surface, may
increase drag though and increase the cost of locomotion.

Gill arches- provide structural support for the two rows of gill filaments that project from each gill arch
in a V shape. (under operculum)

Lamellae- a thin layer, membrane, especially in bone tissue.

Book lungs- consist of a series of 10-100 very thin lamellae that project into an air-filled cavity inside
the body that opens to the outside via a spiracle.

Draft ventilation- ram ventilation but in flying insects

Sponges and Cnidarians

Circulates external medium through an internal cavity. Sponges move flagella in water through
ostia and out through osculum. Cnidarians use muscle contractions to move water in and out of the
mouth. Gases diffuse directly in and out of the cells.

Molluscs

Mantle is an outfolding of the body wall that surrounds the rest of the body and contains gills
(ctenidia). The mantle acts as the respiratory surface in some species. The gills are ciliated. In snails
and clams, cilia on the gills move water across the gills unidirectionally and flow is countercurrent. In
cephalopods, the muscular contractions of mantle propel water unidirectionally past the gills in the
mantle cavity, and flow is countercurrent.

Crustaceans

They are a filter-feeding species (barnacles) or very small species (copepods) that lack gills and
rely on diffusion across body surface for gas exchange. Gills are modified regions of appendages
within branchial cavity. Movements of the gill bailer propels water out of the branchial chamber.
Negative pressure sucks the water across the gills.

Echinoderms (sea stars, sea urchins, brittle stars, sea cucumbers)

 Their tube feet are small water-filled tubes with suction cups on the end that are part of complex
water vascular system and gas exchange. Water is sucked in via sieved opening called madreporite
and pump water around water vascular system to move tube feet via hydraulic mechanism.
Countercurrent flow! External gill-like structures called respiratory papulae are scattered across body
surface that can absorb oxygen from water. Cilia move water over the surface.

Brittle stars and sea cucumbers have internal invaginations. Brittle stars use cilia to move water
into saclike cavity (bursae). Sea cucumbers use muscular contractions of cloaca and the respiratory
tree to pump water tidally via the anus.

Lamprey and hagfish

Hag fish have a muscular pump (velum) that propels water through respiratory cavity. Water
enters the mouth and leaves through the gill opening. The flow is unidirectional and blood flow is
countercurrent.

Lampreys are similar to hagfish when not feeding (unidirectional). When feeding, the mouth is
attached to the prey. Ventilation is tidal through gill openings.

Elasmobranches

1) expand buccal activity

2) increased volume sucks water into buccal cavity via mouth and spiracles
3) mouth and spiracles close
4) muscles around the buccal cavity contract, forcing water past gills and out the gill slits

Blood flow is countercurrent.

Teleost Fishes

Gills are located in the opercular cavity protected by the flaplike operculum

1) with mouth open and opercular valve closed, buccal and opercular cavities expand
2) pressure decreases and sucks water in through mouth
3) mouth closes
4) floor of buccal cavity raises and operculum expands
5) pressure pushes water into opercular cavity
6) opercular valve opens and water leaves through opercular slit

Active fish use ram ventilation – swimming with mouth and opercular valve open

Terrestrial crabs
 Respiratory structures and ventilation are similar to marine relatives. Gills are stiff so they do not
collapse in air. Branchial cavity itself is highly vascularized and acts as primary site of gas exchange.

Terrestrial isopods (woodlice and sowbugs)

They have a thick layer of chitin on one side of the gill for support. Anterior gills contain air-filled
tubules and gases diffuse from pseudotrachea into blood.

Chelicerates (spiders and scorpians)

They have 4 book lungs, 10-100 lamellae project into air-filled cavity. The cavity opens to outside
via spiracle. Gases diffuse in and out. Some spiders have a tracheal system, series of air-filled tubes.

Insects

They have an extensive tracheal system with air-filled tubes called tracheae. They are open to
the outside via spiracle. The tracheae branch forms tracheoles and the ends are filled with hemolymph.
Gases diffuse in and out. Contraction of abdominal muscles or movements of thorax are tidal or
unidirectional. They can also use ram ventilation (draft ventilation) in some flying insects. There is
discontinuous gas exchange: phase 1 (closed phase) – spiracles closed, no gas exchange with
environment, oxygen used and CO2 converted to bicarb. Decrease in total pressure in tracheae. Phase 2
(flutter phase) – spiracles open and close in rapid succession and air enters tracheae. Phase 3 – excess
CO2 no longer stored as bicarb and total pressure in tracheae increases. Spiracles open and CO2 is
released.

Amphibians

Can use cutaneous respiration, external gills, or simple bilobed lungs (more complex lungs).
Ventilation is tidal using a buccal force pump.

1) Air enters pocket of buccal cavity

2) Glottis opens, elastic recoil of lungs and compression of chest wall reduces lung volume, air
is forced out of lungs and out of nares
3) Nares close, floor of buccal cavity rises, air is pushed into lungs
4) Glottis closes, gas exchange in lungs

Reptiles

Most have two lungs. In snakes, one lung is reduced or absent. They can be simple sacs with
honeycombed walls or highly divided chambers in more active species. They use tidal ventilation and rely
on suction pumps (may supplement with buccal pump). Separation of feeding and respiratory muscles.
Two phases of inspiration and expiration

Birds
 Lungs are stiff and change little in volume. Lungs between a series of air sac that act as bellows,
posterior and anterior air sacs. Gas exchange occurs as air flows through parabronchi in lungs. Air flow
through parabronchi is unidirectional. Blood flow is crosscurrent.

1) Expansion of chest during first inhalation causes fresh air to flow through bronchi to posterior air
sacs
2) Compressions of chest during first exhalation pushes fresh air from posterior air sacs into lungs
3) Expansion of chest during second inhalation causes stale air to flow from lungs into anterior air
sacs
4) Compression of chest during second exhalation pushes stale air from anterior air sacs out via
trachea

Mammals

Two main parts: upper respiratory tract (mouth, nasal cavity, pharynx, and trachea) and lower
(bronchi and gas exchange surfaces like alveoli). Alveoli are the site of gas exchange. Each lung is
surrounded by a pleural sac: two layers of cells with small space (pleural cavity). Pleural cavity contains
small volume of pleural fluid. Intrapleural pressure is subatmospheric (keeps lungs expanded)

Inhalation – motor neurons stimulate inspiratory muscles and contraction of the external
intercostals and diaphragm. Ribs move outwards and diaphragm moves downward. Volume of thorax
increases while intrathoracic pressure decreases. Transpulmonary pressure gradient increases as well.
Lungs expand and air is pulled in.

Exhalation- Nerve stimulation of inspiratory muscles stops. Muscles relax. Ribs and diaphragm
return to their original positions. Volume of thorax ; intrathoracic pressure . Passive recoil of the lungs
pushes air out. During rapid, heavy breathing, forced exhalation is by contraction of the internal
intercostal muscles.

5. Understand the relationship between lungs, pleural sacs and the chest wall.

Lungs- infoldings of the body surface, forming an internal body cavity that contains the external
medium

Pleural sacs- consists of two layers of cells with small amount of fluid between them, forming a space
called the pleural cavity.

At rest, the intrapleural pressure is lower than atmospheric pressure. This low pressure pulls on the
lungs and keeps them expanded.

The chest wall surrounds the pleural sac which surrounds the lung. In the pleural sac, the force due to
negative intrapleural pressure from the elastic recoil of lung and chest wall.
6. Understand how alveoli function and the role of surfactants.

The alveoli are the site of gas exchange. The alveolar epithelium is composed of 2 types of cells: thin
Type I are responsible for gas exchange while thick Type II are responsible for maintaining fluid balance
across lungs and secreting lipoproteins surfactants. The alveoli are wrapped with extensive capillary
network.

Surfactants reduce surface tension by disrupting the cohesive forces between water molecules.

7. Understand the function of the following as they relate to respiration: transpulmonary

pressure, elastic recoil, compliance, elastance, tidal volume, dead space, vital capacity, total
lung capacity.

Transpulmonary pressure – the force applied to the lung is the pressure difference between alveoli and
esophagus.

Elastic recoil – decreases lung volume, causing alveolar pressure ot increase and air flow out of lungs

Lung compliance is how easily the lungs stretch during inhalation. Surface tension in alveolar fluid lowers
compliance.

Lung elastance expresses how readily the structure returns to its original shape and the measure of the
degree of return to resting volume after the lung is stretched.

Tidal volume (VT) is the volume of air moved in one ventilatory cycle.

Dead space (VD) is the air that does not participate in gas exchange. Anatomical dead space is the
volume in trachea and bronchi. Alveolar dead space is the volume in alveoli that are not perfused.

Vital capacity is the maximum amount of air that can be moved in or out of respiratory system in one
breath.

Total lung capacity is the sum of vital capacity + residual volume.

8. Understand the changes in normal lung volumes and capacities for a healthy human.
9. Gas transport concepts that you should understand: oxygen carrying capacity, hemoglobin,
myoglobin, oxygen equilibrium curves, cooperativity as it applies to oxygen binding, the Bohr
effect, the Root effect, the Haldane effect.

Oxygen carrying capacity is the max amount of oxygen blood can carry

Hemoglobin is the most common type of respiratory pigment in animals. It is one molecule of protein from
globin noncovalently bonded to heme molecule.

Myoglobin is found in muscles where it helps provide oxygen needed for metabolism.

Oxygen EQ curves show the relationship between partial pressure of oxygen in the plasma and
percentage of oxygenated respiratory pigment in volume of blood. When partial pressure in soln is 0, no
oxygen will be bound to respiratory pigment. When molecules fully bound to oxygen, the blood is
saturated with oxygen. Curves are expressed in terms of % saturation to allow comparison of properties
of respiratory pigments in blood with amounts of different pigment.
Bohr Effect – decrease in pH or increase PCO2 reduces oxygen affinity causes a right shift in the oxygen
EQ curve. It facilitates oxygen transport to active tissues.

Root effect is the Bohr Effect with reduction in oxygen carrying capacity. Decreases in pH cause
exaggerated right shift of oxygen EQ curve and decrease in carrying capacity of blood. D

Haldene effect is the CO2 EQ curve of deoxygenated blood shifted to the left. Deoxygenated blood can
carry more CO2 than oxygenated blood.

10. Understand the contributions of respiration to acid-base balance, the Henderson-Hasselbalch

equation, and compensatory mechanisms to achieve homeostatic blood pH levels. To this
end, you should understand the following terms: respiratory alkalosis, respiratory acidosis,
metabolic alkalosis, metabolic acidosis.

Pco2 affects the [HCO3–] and pH of body fluids. As Pco2 , [HCO3–]  and pH  (i.e., [H+] ) and reaction
goes “to the right.” As Pco2 , [HCO3–]  and pH  (i.e., [H+] ) , reaction goes “to the left.” Changes in
ventilation affect body fluid pH. Hyperventilation causes Pco2 . Hypoventilation causes Pco2 .

Henderson-Hasselbach EQ: pH = pK + log [HCO3-]/[CO2]

As HCO3- forms, H+ ions are quickly bound to buffer groups to prevent H+ from accumulating and
furthering HCO3- formation.

Respiratory alkalosis is the condition of too little carbon dioxide in the blood

Respiratory acidosis is condition when pH of blood falls below 7.35

Metabolic acidosis characterized by low plasma HCO3- and pH

Metabolic alkalosis characterized by elevated plasma HCO3- and pH

11. The effects of environmental hypoxia and high-altitude on respiratory systems.

Hypoxia is caused by environmental hypoxia, inadequate ventilation (hypoventilation), reduced blood

hemoglobin content (anemia), and diseases. It is the lower than normal PO2 in the environment or blood.

The ventilatory response to high altitude causes respiratory alkalosis. Over long exposure, this persistent
respiratory alkalosis triggers kidneys to excrete HCO3- in an attempt to homoestatically regulate pH.

Increase in RBCs as well which increases blood viscosity which could impair blood flow through
capillaries and interfere with gas exchange.
 Cooperativity – when hemoglobin changes shape after more oxygen keeps binding to the protein.
o Oxygen binds to the heme part of the hemoglobin.
 HbO2 is oxyhemoglobin – transporting oxygen
 O2 can also be dissolved into plasma to be transported.
 RBC then goes to another tissue to deposit the oxygen
o CO2 is in the tissue and constantly made by cellular respiration.
o CO2 will diffuse into the RBC
o Low PO2 in the tissue cell
o Oxygen will fall off and diffuse into the tissue cell since the partial pressure of oxygen is
low in the tissue cell
o Oxygen will fall off and diffuse into tissue cell if CO2 meets up with H2O in RBC.
Carbonic anhydrase binds the two and dissociate carbonate into bicarb + H+.
 Bicarb will diffuse outside the RBC.
  H+ will meet up with an oxyhemoglobin and takes off oxygen.
 H+ competes with oxygen
 CO2 competes with oxygen
 H+ binds to hemoglobin
 CO2 binds to hemoglobin
 RBC brings back CO2 and H+ to the lung
o HbCOO- carbaminohemoglobin
o H+Hb (HCO3- dissolved in plasma)
o Some CO2 dissolved in the plasma
 When CO2 binds with oxyhemoglobin, it makes carbaminohemoglobin + H+ + O2
o Oxygen tries to bind to H+Hb and HbCOO-
o Oxygen competes with hemoglobin again and pushes off H+ and CO2
 Reasons for CO2 delivery
o Low CO2 partial pressure
o Oxygen competing with CO2 and protons  oxyhemoglobin
o CO2 diffuses
o H+ combines with bicarb  carbonate ion  CO2 + H2O
 Once CO2 in the lungs, it diffuses into the alveolus because low PCO2.