LESSON 2.

1
THE NEED
TO RESPIRE
AND
EXCHANGE
ESSENTIAL
GASES
 ⊷ The air that you breathe is composed
of 21% oxygen, 78% nitrogen,
about 1% carbon dioxide and minute
proportions of other gases.

2
GAS EXCHANGE IN
ANIMALS
 RESPIRATION

• PROCESS OF OBTAINING SUFFICIENT

OXYGEN AND EXPELLING EXCESSIVE
AMOUNTS OF CARBON DIOXIDE

• ONE OF THE MAJOR PHYSIOLOGICAL

CHALLENGES OF MULTICELLULAR
ANIMALS

4
 IN ANIMALS THERE ARE 4 MAJOR TYPES OF GAS
EXCHANGE SYSTEMS THAT ALLOW THEN TO
OBTAIN OXYGEN FROM THE ENVIRONMENT.

• BODY SURFACE

• GILLS

• TRACHEAE

• LUNGS
5
 BODY
SURFACE

6
 GAS EXCHANGE IN
UNICELLULAR ORGANISMS,
SUCH AS PROTIST AND IN
PRIMITIVE PHYLA OF ANIMALS
⊷ CELL IS WHERE THE
GAS EXCHANGE
HAPPENS IN THE
ORGANISM’S SURFACE
⊷ IN WHICH THE PLASMA
MEMBRANE IS MOIST
ALL THE TIME.

7
 Invertebrates such as cnidarians, sponges, and
worms can easily exchange oxygen and
carbon dioxide by diffusion also because their
skin is only a few layers thick.

8
9
 Earthworms use their entire outer
skin to exchange gases.

This is known as INTEGUMENTARY EXCHANGE or

CUTANEOUS RESPIRATION.

• Integumentary system comprises the skin and its

appendages acting to protect the body from
various kinds of damage, such as loss of water
or damages from outside)
• Example- hair, scales, feather, hooves and nails.

10
 Amphibians breathe through their skin as a
gas exchange surface, and that is why they
have to be moist all the time.

They rely heavily on their lungs and cannot

breathe air when they are underwater.

When completely submerged in water,

oxygen diffuses into a dense net of thin-
walled capillaries beneath their skin,
which allows them to spend prolonged time
underwater.

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12
 TRACHEAL
SYSTEM

13
Arthropods, such as
insects and spiders,
have a tracheal system
that consists of
branched internal
tubes that extend
throughout the body.
 SPIRACLES - On the surface of the insect’s body are tiny openings.
TRACHEAE - Arising from these spiracles are sturdy tubes.
The tracheal system uses these fine air-conducting tubules to carry out gas
exchange.
TRACHEOLES The smaller tubes that can become smaller enough, with tips that
reach all its cells.

15
 The tips of the tracheoles are filled with
small amounts of an aqueous substance
where oxygen can be dissolved from air,
whereas carbon dioxide diffuses in the
opposite direction.

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17
 GILLS

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Gills are found in more advanced marine
.
invertebrates and vertebrates

Gills are thin sheets of

tissue that wave through the
water, increasing the
surface area available for
diffusion.
 Marine invertebrates, such as mollusks and
echinoderms, have External gills that are often
in the form of extensive projections.
These gills are highly folded, thin walled
vascularized epidermis that project outward
of the organism’s body.

20
 Organisms that use this gas exchange mechanism ventilate by waving these
gills back and forth through the water, an action that is important for sessile
invertebrates that rely on water currents for ventilation

21
 Despite having this adaption,
external gills have some
limitations

they are susceptible to damage

from the environment as they are
exposed,
a considerable amount of energy
is needed to move them
continually through the water,
and their appearance and motion
make the animal susceptible to
predators by drawing attention to
it.

22
INTERNAL GILLS - set of feather-like or
comb-like filaments found on each side of
its head that flap open and close with the
exchange of gases.

Operculum a bony plate covering the gills

Lamellae - gill arches that contain gill
filaments composed of numerous plate-
like structures that supports the gills.

Gill rakers – bony or cartilaginous that

serve to protect the gill from large debris
and to trap food, particularly plankton
 Countercurrent exchange

Dissolved oxygen from the water that

enters the mouth diffuses across the gill
surfaces into the capillaries, with
carbon dioxide diffusing in the opposite
direction to the outside environment.

This is highly efficient in extracting

oxygen dissolved in water where
oxygen content is lower than in air.

24
 Different fishes can ventilate in three possible
ways:

⊷ Actively drawing water in through their

mouth and out of their operculum,

⊷ Swimming while their mouth is open so that

water can continuously flow across the gills,

⊷ Resting near a water current while keeping

their mouth open

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 LUNGS

26
Higher forms of terrestrial vertebrates have evolved
lungs that are internally lined with moist epithelium.
Air-breathing vertebrates have their lungs located
inside the chest or thoracic cavity, and are protected
by the rib cage.
 Amphibian lungs are designed as a sac
with convoluted (complex) internal
membrane that opens up to a certain
cavity.
As mentioned earlier, amphibians can also
breathe through their skin.

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 • Filling its mouth with air
• Then closing mouth
• Closing the internal
opening to its nostrils
• Opening its glottis
• Raising floor of its
mouth thus forcing air
into the lungs

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 As mentioned earlier, amphibians can also breathe through their skin.

Reptiles, being more active than amphibians, cannot rely on their skin to breathe
and have evolved dry, scaly skin that is watertight to avoid moisture loss.

Their lungs are similar in structure with amphibians but with wider surface area and
many small air chambers, thus increasing the surface for more oxygen diffusion.
30
 Although the ventilation of bird lungs is similar to that of reptiles, their
effectiveness is increased by the presence of air sacs.
Although no gas exchange occurs in the air sacs, their arrangement increases
the efficiency of lung ventilation by enabling fresh air to pass in one direction
through the lungs during both inhalation and exhalation.

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 An avian lung has evolved
into three components
⊷ Posterior Sacs ⊷ Anterior air ⊷ Parabronchi
⊷ A series of air sacs ⊷ Air passageways
sacs outside of the ⊷ A series of air through the
lungs sacs in front of lungs
the lungs

32
 Air passes through a bird’s lungs and directly to its
posterior air sacs that act as holding tanks.

There is no dead
volume. The air passing
across the bird’s lungs
always fully oxygenated

During exhalation, the air flows from the posterior air sacs in front
of the lungs and to the lungs themselves, then on to another set of
anterior air sacs and out of its body

33
 CROSSCURRENT FLOW -
blood flow is a 90-degree angle.
This is the reason why some
birds can fly at an altitude of
6000 meters where the oxygen
level is low

34
 “
⊷ Factors Affecting Gas
Exchange

35
 Have you experienced the popping in your ears
when the plane descends during a flight? Then you
have experienced air pressure in your ears.

Similarly, gases in the air exert pressure on the body

surfaces of animals when they breathe

36
 Atmospheric pressure - refers to the sum total of
the exerted pressures by each gas mixed in the air,
corresponding to the exact proportion of their
amounts.
Partial Pressure - Each individual gas pressure,
symbolized as P, and a subscript of the gas.

Therefore, oxygen’s partial pressure symbol is Po.

The air that you breathe is composed of 21%

oxygen, 78% nitrogen, about 1% carbon dioxide
and minute proportions of other gases.
Because oxygen’s amount in air is at 21 percent, the
computation of the atmospheric pressure of oxygen
in sea level is 0.21 x 760 mmHg = 160 mmHg.

37
 Fick’s law of diffusion
The rate of diffusion between these two regions.
Fick’s law states that the diffusion rate is affected by the concentration
difference and surface of the membrane area

All gases diffuse from a region

of higher pressure to a region
of lower pressure.

The direction of diffusion is

driven by the concentration
difference in pressure
gradients.

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 Because of this, the rate of oxygen
diffusion into the blood of a
terrestrial animal decreases when
the animal moves from sea level to
a higher altitude where the oxygen’s
partial pressure is lower (low P).

39
 In terms of temperature, more gas
can dissolve in a given volume of
cold water than in warm water.

It is because at higher temperatures,

there is more thermal energy present
in gases in solution that can likely
drive them to escape from the liquid.

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 • Animals living in warm waters will
have less oxygen available than
those living in colder environments.

• Oxygen dissolves less in warm, salty

water than in cold, freshwater.

The presence of ions and other solutes

also decreases the amount of gas
dissolved in water.

Animals in cold freshwater environments

may have more oxygen available to them
than those that live in warm.

41
 Oxygen-binding proteins
It increases the total amount of oxygen in cells

• Respiratory pigments
contained inside the red blood cells of vertebrates or in the hemolymph of invertebrates.

These respiratory pigments contain one or

more metals that can bind with oxygen.

In invertebrates, In vertebrates,
hemocyanin is the copper-containing hemoglobin is the major iron-containing
pigment that gives their blood a bluish tint. pigment that gives blood its red color when
oxygenated.
.

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 Each hemoglobin contains four
polypeptide subunits, each
containing an iron atom bounded by
an oxygen molecule.
The oxygen’s binding is reversible,
which is necessary so that oxygen can
be unloaded when it reaches the
tissues.

43
 Hemoglobin in red blood cells circulates in the
bloodstream like a ship bringing its cargo. Oxygen
binds to hemoglobin as the cells pass through the
capillaries of the lungs alveoli.

Oxygen-bearing hemoglobin releases oxygen at different

parts of the body.
While red blood cells are unloading OXYGEN,
they are also absorbing carbon dioxide from the tissue.
Carbon dioxide is converted to carbonic acid in the red blood
cells by an enzyme known as carbonic anhydrase,
and then dissociates into hydrogen (H+) and bicarbonate
(HCO) ions.

44
 The hydrogen ions bind to hemoglobin, and
bicarbonate is transported out of the red
blood cells.

Oxygen-poor blood is carried back to the

heart and pumped into the lungs.

In the lungs, carbon dioxide diffuses outward

from the blood into the alveoli.

The diffusion of carbon dioxide out of the red

blood cells causes the hemoglobin within the
cells to release the CO, and take up oxygen
instead.

In this step, the red blood cells with a new

load of O, will start the respiratory cycle
again.

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 FACTORS AFFECTING GAS
EXCHANGE
1. Pressure
2. Diffusion of gas
3. Altitude
4. Temperature
5. Presence of ions
and other solutes
6. Oxygen binding
proteins.

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47
LESSON 2.2
THE NEED TO TRANSPORT ESSENTIAL MATERIALS
ANIMAL TRANSPORT SYSTEM
TO SURVIVE, ANIMALS MUST TAKE IN NUTRIENTS, EXCHANGE ESSENTIAL GASES, AND REMOVE UNWANTED
PRODUCTS FROM EVERY CELL OF ITS BODY.

IN A ONE-CELLED ORGANISM, LIKE THE PROTISTS (AMOEBA) OR BACTERIA, OXYGEN AND OTHER SUBSTANCES
FROM THE OUTSIDE ENVIRONMENT CAN EASILY PASS THROUGH ITS BODY AND IT CAN REACH THE CENTER OF
THE CELL RAPIDLY BY SIMPLE DIFFUSION OR ACTIVE TRANSPORT.
HOWEVER, IN MULTICELLULAR ORGANISMS SUCH AS ANIMALS, PLANTS, AND HUMANS, THERE ARE MANY
CELLS SITUATED AT THE CENTER OF THE BODY FAR AWAY FROM THE OUTSIDE ENVIRONMENT.

IN THIS CASE, ANIMALS WITH THICK, MULTIPLE LAYERS OF CELLS WILL NEED A MORE ADVANCED TRANSPORT
SYSTEM TO CARRY SUBSTANCES FROM ONE PART OF THE BODY TO ANOTHER.

SIMILAR WITH RESPIRATION, THE BODY OF CNIDARIANS SUCH AS HYDRA, JELLYFISH, AND MOST FLARWORMS
(PLANARIA) ARE ONLY TWO CELL LAYERS THICK, WHICH ARE IN DIRECT CONTACT WITH EITHER THE OUTSIDE
ENVIRONMENT OR ITS GASTROVASCULAR CAVITY.

A HYDRA’S BODY WALL CAN ALLOW THE CELLS TO EXCHANGE MATERIALS DIRECTLY FROM THE WATER AND
INTO ITS GASTROVASCULAR CAVITY DUE TO ITS SHORT DISTANCE.

IN PLANARIA, THE MOVEMENT OF THE ANIMAL HELPS IT TO STREAM FLUID TO ITS CENTRAL CAVITY IN WHICH
THE MATERIAL CAN DIFFUSE EASILY INTO AND OUT OF ITS CELLS.

THEIR FLUID IS MIXED RESPIRATORY GASES, NUATRIENTS, AND OTHER SUBSTANCES THAT ARE INGESTED FROM
THE OUTSIDE ENVIRONMENIT.
COMPLEX FORMS OF ANIMALS WITH HIGHER METABOLIC RATES CANNOT RELY ON DIFFUSION AND ACTIVE
TRANSPORT TO BEING ESSENTIAL MATERIALS INSIDE THEIR BODIES.

TWO BASIC TYPES OF CIRCULATORY SYSTEM HAVE EMERGED, WHICH

ALLOWED MULTICELLULAR ORGANISMS TO PERFORM COMPLEX ACTIVITIES.

MOLLUSKS AND ARTHROPODS HAVE AN OPEN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM.

DISSECTING A GRASSHOPPER WILL REVEAL A TUBULAR HEART.

THE BLOOD IS CONFINED WITHIN BLOOD VESSELS SEPARATED FROM THE INTERSTITIAL FLUID. DIFFERENT BLOOD
RESSELS MOVE THE BLOOD AWAY FROM AND TO THE HEART, BODY ORGANS, AND TISSUES.

ALTHOUGH HIGHER VERTEBRATES HAVE CLOSED CIRCULATORY SYSTEMS, THEY ALSO DIFFER IN TERMS OF THEIR
EFFICIENCY, WHICH IS MEASURED BY THE RATE OF TRANSPORTING SUBSTANCES AROUND THEIR BODIES.

BLOOD FLOWS INTO A SERIES OF SMALLER BRANCHING BLOOD VESSELS THAT LEAD TO THE INTERNAL ORGANS
AND TISSUES OF ANNELIDS, WHERE EXCHANGE OF MATERIALS OCCURS ACROSS THE THIN WALLS OF THE
CAPILLARIES.
THE HEART OF THE FISH HAS TWO MAIN CHAMBERS ORGANIZED INTO ROWS.

HAVING FLOWED THROUGH THE GILLS, THE OXYGEN-RICH BLOOD TRAVELS TO THE
DORSAL ARTERY TO BE DELIVERED AROUND THE BODY.

AMPHIBIANS SUCH AS FROGS, SALAMANDERS, AND TOADS HAVE A THREE-

CHAMBERED HEART THAT CONSISTS OF ONE VENTRICLE AND TWO ATRIA.

THE VENTRICLE PUMPS BLOOD TO CAPILLARY BEDS FOUND IN THE LUNGS AND THE
SKIN.

THE GAS EXCHANGE THAT OCCURS BOTH IN THE LUNGS AND THE SKIN IS CALLED
PULMOCUTANEOUS CIRCUIT.
OXYGEN-RICH BLOOD RETURNS TO THE LEFT ATRIUM.

BECAUSE ONLY SOME OF THE BLOOD IS PUMPED TWICE, THE AMPHIBIAN

CIRCULATION IS SOMETIMES REFERRED TO AS INCOMPLETE DOUBLE CIRCULATION.

CELLULAR ACTIVITY ALSO GENERATES WASTES THAT MUST BE REMOVED RAPIDLY.

THE RIGHT SIDE OF THE HEART TAKES CARE OF THE OXYGEN-POOR BLOOD,
WHEREAS THE LEFT SIDE RECEIVES OXYGEN-RICH BLOOD.

THIS SYSTEM IS CALLED THE CLO SED DOUBLE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM.

HUMAN HEART

THE HEART, A MUSCULAR ORGAN POSITIONED BEHIND THE RIB

CAGE AND BETWEEN THE LUNGS, IS THE PUMP THAT PUSHES BLOOD
THROUGHOUT THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM. THE

THE RIGHT SIDE OF THE HEART PUMPS BLOOD TO THE LUNGS TO RECEIVE
OXYGEN WHEREAS THE LEFT SIDE PUMPS BLOOD TO
THE ENTIRE BODY.

IN ADDITION, A TISSUE WALL CALLED SEPTUM DIVIDES THE HEART IN

HALF AND PREVENTS BLOOD FROM FLOWING BETWEEN THE TWO ATRIA
OR TWO VENTRICLES.
OXYGEN-POOR BLOOD COMING FROM THE BODY FLOWS TO THE RIGHT SIDE OF THE HEART INTO
THE RIGHT ATRIUM.

THE RIGHT ATRIUM RECEIVES OXYGEN-POOR BLOOD FROM THE SUPERIOR VENA CAVA, WHICH
DRAINS BLOOD FROM THE JUGULAR VEIN THAT COMES FROM THE UPPER PART OF THE BODY
(BRAIN AND ARMS), AND THE INFERIOR VENA CAVA FROM THE LOWER PART OF THE BODY
(LOWER ORGANS AND THE LEGS).

THIS OXYGEN-POOR BLOOD THEN FLOWS TO THE RIGHT VENTRICLE VIA THE
ATRIOVENTRICULAR VALVE ALSO KNOWN AS THE TRICUSPID VALVE, WHICH IS A FLAP OF
CONNECTIVE TISSUE THAT OPENS IN ONLY ONE DIRECTION, PREVENTING THE BACKFLOW OF
BLOOD.

IN THE LUNGS, CARBON DIOXIDE IS RELEASED WHILE OXYGEN IS ABSORBED VIA INHALATION.

THE LEFT ATRIUM RECEIVES THE OXYGEN-RICH BLOOD FROM THE LUNGS WHERE IT PASSES
THROUGH ANOTHER VALVE KNOWN AS BICUSPID VALVE OR MITRAL VALVE, THEN TO THE LEFT
VENTRICLE WHERE THE BLOOD IS PUMPED INTO THE AORTA.

THE AORTA IS THE MAJOR ARTERY OF THE BODY, WHICH TAKES OXYGEN-RICH BLOOD TO THE
ORGANS AND MUSCLES.
THE BLOOD
THE BLOOD IS A COLLECTION OF CELLS IN THE FORM OF A FLUID BY WHICH OXYGEN AND
NUTRIENTS REACH THE BODY’S CELLS AND WASTE MATERIALS ARE TAKEN AWAY.

THE MOVEMENT OF MATERIALS FROM BLOOD TO CELLS AND VICE VERSA HAPPENS THROUGH
THE PROCESS OF DIFFUSION.

IN A MICROSCOPIC AND CHEMICAL LEVEL, THE BLOOD IS MADE UP OF TWO COMPONENTS:

PLASMA (FLUID PORTION) AND THE BLOOD CELLS (RED BLOOD CELLS, WHITE BLOOD CELLS,
AND PLATELETS).

THE REMAINING EIGHT PERCENT IS MADE UP OF A DISSOLVED COMPLEX MIXTURE OF VARIOUS

SUBSTANCES SUCH AS SOLUBLE OR PLASMA PROTEINS, DISSOLVED MINERAL SALTS, FOOD
SUBSTANCES, EXCRETORY PRODUCTS, AND HORMONES.
THERE ARE THREE TYPES OF CELLULAR COMPONENTS SUSPENDED IN THE PLASMA
OF THE BLOOD.

THE RED BLOOD CELLS (RBCS) OR ERYTHROCYTES THAT MAKE UP 44 PERCENT OF THE
BLOOD TRANSPORT OXYGEN AND SOME CARBON DIOXIDE THROUGHOUT THE BODY.

UNDER THE MICROSCOPE, THEY LOOK LIKE BICONCAVE DISKS, AND BECAUSE THEY
HAVE A THIN MIDDLE PORTION, THEY CAN BEND AND TWIST EASILY IN THE TINIEST
BLOOD VESSELS.

RED BLOOD CELLS HAVE IRON-CONTAINING PROTEIN KNOWN AS HEMOGLOBIN,

WHICH BINDS CHEMICALLY TO OXYGEN MOLECULES.

MATURE RED BLOOD CELLS LIVE FOR ABOUT 120 DAYS, SHUTTLING OXYGEN AND
CARBON DIOXIDE.
THE WHITE BLOOD CELLS (WBCS) OR LEUKOCYTES ARE COLORLESS AND DO NOT CONTAIN
HEMOGLOBIN.

EACH WBC IS IRREGULAR IN SHAPE AND CONTAINS A NUCLEUS.

WBC’S BEGIN ITS DEVELOPTNENT IN BONE MARROW AND MATURE IN THE LYMPH ORGANS AND
NODES.

THE NUMBER OF WBC INCREASE DRAMATICALLY WHEN THE BODY IS FIGHTING AN INFECTION.

THERE ARE MANY DIFFERENT KINDS OF WBCS THAT HAVE SPECIALIZED FUNCTIONS.

WHEN YOU CUT YOURSELF OR SCRAPE YOUR KNEE, BLOOD OOZES INTO THE SITE WITH
PLATELETS OR THROMBOCYTES FORMING TO STOP THE BLEEDING.

THEY DO NOT CONTAIN A NUCLEUS AND CAN BREAK DOWN QUICKLY IN THE BLOOD.

WHEN A BLOOD VESSEL IS DAMAGED, PROTEINS IN THE BLOOD PLASMA FORM LONG STICKY
STRANDS OF A SUBSTANCE CALLED FBIRIN.

THE CLOT BECOMES HARD, FORMING A SCAB AS THE WOUND HEALS.

BLOOD IS CARRIED THROUGHOUT THE BODY BY A VAST NETWORK OF BLOOD VESSELS, LIKE A
SERIES OF PIPELINES DELIVERING WATER FROM THE WATER STATION TO HOMES. FIGURE 2-22
SHOWS THE POSITION OF THE HEART AND THE LOCATION AND NAMES OF THE MAJOR BLOOD
VESSELS OF THE BODY.
THREE TYPES OF BLOOD VESSELS ARE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE TRANSPORT OF BLOOD AND ITS COMPONENTS.

EACH OF THE TWO VENTRICLES OF THE HEART IS CONNECTED TO A MAJOR ARTERY.

THE ARTERY’S WALL IS GENERALLY THICK AND CONSISTS OF THREE LAYERS OF TISSUE.

IF YOU LIGHTLY TOUCH THE INSIDE OF YOUR WRIST, VOU CAN FEEL THE PULSATING RHYTHM OF YOUR ARTERY
CAUSED BY THE EXPANSION AND RELAXATION OF THE ARTERIAL WALL.

BLOOD FROM THE ARTERIOLCS LEADS TO ELABORATE, NARROW, AND THIN-WALLED TUBES CALLED CABILLARIES.

THIS ALLOWS OXYGEN AND NUTRIENTS TO DIFFUSE THROUGH THE CAPILLARY WALLS AND INTO BODY CELLS, AND
FOR CARBON DIOXIDE AND OTHER WASTE MATERIALS TO DIFFUSE THROUGH CELL WALLS AND INTO THE CAPILLARIES.

VEINS ARE BLOOD VESSELS THAT MOVE BLOOD-CARRYING WASTE PRODUCTS TOWARD THE HEART.

INSTEAD, VEINS HAVE ONE-WAY VALVES TO KEEP BLOOD FROM FLOWING TOWARD THE HEART.

LIKE ARTERIES, VEINS HAVE THREE LAYERS OF TISSUE, WITH A MUSCLE IN THE MIDDLE PART.
PLANT TRANSPORT SYSTEM

IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY, AN EXPERIMENT WAS CONDUCTED BY

ITALIAN SCIENTIST MARCELLO MALPIGHI, WHERE HE DISCOVERED A SWEET- TASTING
FLUID THAT COMES OUT AFTER REMOVING THE BARK AND OUTER LAYER OF TISSUE
AROUND A TREE TRUNK.

AFTER SEVERAL WEEKS, THE TREE DIED. HE CONCLUDED THAT WATER WAS NOT
TRANSPORTED IN THE OUTER TISSUE LAYER OF THE PLANT BUT THE SWEET FLUID
THAT CARRIES NUTRIENTS FROM THE LEAVES TO THE ROOTS. WHEN THIS SUPPLY WAS
CUT OFF, THE PLANT MAY SURVIVE FOR A WHILE DUE TO STORED FOOD BELOW THE
CUT BUT THE PLANT WILL EVENTUALLY DIE. THIS EXPERIMENT PROVIDED EVIDENCE
THAT PLANTS TRANSPORT NOT ONLY WATER BUT ALSO NUTRIENTS THROUGHOUT THE
BODY. IN ORDER FOR THIS MECHANISM TO HAPPEN, THE PLANTS HAVE A TRANSPORT
SYSTEM OF VESSELS, WHICH DISTRIBUTE WATER AND CARRY NUTRIENTS UP AND
DOWN.

THESE VESSELS, ANALOGOUS TO BLOOD VESSELS IN HUMANS, ARE KNOWN AS

TRANSPORT OR VASCULAR
TISSUES IN PLANTS. THE VASCULAR TISSUES IN FLOWERING PLANTS ARE OF TWO
TYPES:
THE XYLEM (OR WOOD) AND THE PHLOEM.
BOTH CONTAIN STRANDS OF CELLS THAT ARE STACKED END, TO END AND ACT LIKE
TINY PIPES. THEY ACT AS A PLUMBING SYSTEM THAT TRANSPORTS MATERIALS
THROUGHOUT THE PLANT.
CONDUCTING WATER AND DISSOLVED MINERALS THROUGH THE XYLEM
- THE XYLEM TISSUE HAS TWO FUNCTIONS----CONDUCT WATER AND DISSOLVED MINERAL
SALTS FROM THE ROOTS TO THE STEMS AND LEAVES, AND PROVIDE MECHANICAL SUPPORT
WITHIN THE PLANT.
- ONE TYPE OF XYLEM CELL FOUND IN ALL VASCULAR PLANTS IS CALLED TRACHEID.
- FLOWERING PLANTS HAVE ANOTHER XYLEM CELL CALLED VESSEL.
A PLANT ABSORBS WATER FROM THE SOIL THROUGH THE ROOTS. THE ROOTS TAKE
UP WATER MOLECULES FROM THE THIN FILM OF WATER AND DISSOLVED MINERALS
THAT COAT THE SOIL PARTICLES.
THERE ARE THREE THEORIES THAT EXPLAIN THE TRANSPORT MECHANISM OF WATER AMONG
PLANTS:

A. ROOT PRESSURE – SUGGESTS THAT CELLS IN ROOTS ACTIVELY PUMP WATER OR IONS INTO THE
XYLEM TISSUE, CAUSING A CHANGE IN THE CONCENTRATION GRADIENT, SO WATER MOVES TO
THE XYLEM VIA OSMOSIS. ONCE WATER HAS BUILT UP IN THE XYLEM OF THE ROOTS, IT CREATES
PRESSURE THAT FORCES WATER TO MOVE UPWARD. THIS PROCESS IS KNOWN AS GUTTATION,
WHICH IS OBSERVED AMONG SHORT PLANTS WHERE THE LEAVES ARE NOT FAR FROM THE SOURCE
OF PRESSURE.

B. CAPILLARY ACTION – MAKES USE OF WATER’S ADHESION PROPERTY. CAPILLARY ACTION IS THE
ABILITY OF A SUBSTANCE TO DRAW OR STICK ANOTHER SUBSTANCE INTO IT. IN PLANTS, WATER
RISES ON ITS OWN IN A PLANT STEM WHEN IT IS IN CONTACT WITH ANOTHER SURFACE THROUGH
THE XYLEM TUBES. THIS IS SEEN IN AN EXPERIMENT WHEN A PALE CELERY PLANT TAKES ON A
REDDISH DYE MIXED WITH WATER. IN THAT SITUATION, THE XYLEM TUBES PRESENT IN THE STALK
MOVE THE RED COLORING MIXTURE TOWARD THE UPPER PORTIONS OF THE PLANT. THE RED
COLORING WILL BE DEPOSITED IN THE LEAVES WHILE THE REST OF THE WATER WILL EVAPORATE
VIA TRANSPIRATION. DURING EVAPORATION, THE WATER IS PULLED IN THE ROOTS, KEEPING THE
XYLEM TUBES FILLED, THUS THE WATER IS MOVED CONTINUOUSLY THROUGH THE PLANT.
C. COHESION TENSION – RELIES IN THE ATTRACTION BETWEEN
WATER MOLECULES WHERE WATER IS PULLED UP FROM BELOW.
THIS PROCESS EXPLAINS HOW WATER MOVES UP A TALL PLANT
THROUGH THE PROCESS KNOWN AS TRANSPIRATION PULL OR
COHESION TENSION. IN THIS MECHANISM, WATER IS PULLED UP
THROUGH A PLANT AS IT L EVAPORATES FROM THE PLANT’S
LEAVES. WHEN THE STOMATA OF THE LEAVES ARE OPEN, WATER
VAPOR DIFFUSES OUT OF A LEAF THROUGH TRANSPIRATION. THE
COHESION OF WATER MOLECULES CAUSES WATER MOLECULES
THAT HAVE BEEN LOST BY A PLANT TO PULL ON THE WATER
MOLECULES THAT ARE STILL IN THE XYLEM. THIS PULL
EXTENDS THROUGH THE WATER IN THE XYLEM AND DRAWS
WATER UPWARD IN THE SAME WAY LIQUID IS DRAWN UP A
DRINKING STRAW. AS LONG AS THE COLUMN OF WATER IN THE
XYLEM DOES NOT BREAK, WATER WILL KEEP MOVING UPWARD
AS TRANSPIRATION OCCURS. ROOTS TAKE IN WATER FROM THE
SOIL BY DIFFUSION (OSMOSIS). THE WATER ENTERS THE XYLEM
AND REPLACES THE WATER LOST THROUGH TRANSPIRATION.
WATER MAY MOVE VIA OSMOSIS THROUGH THE ROOTS.

- IN HOWEVER, THE ABSORPTION OF MINERALS IS DIFFERENT FROM THE MECHANISM

MINERALS, IT IS ITS CONCENTRATION IN THE SOIL THAT CREATES A CONCENTRATION
GRADIENT THAT PROVIDES A MECHANISM FOR ITS MOVEMENT.
- IN THE SOIL, MINERALS EXIST AS IONS DISSOLVED IN WATER CONTAINED IN THE
SOIL. THEY ARE TAKEN INTO THE ROOTS VIA ACTIVE TRANSPORT. AS THE IONS PASS
INTO DIFFERENT LAYERS OF CELLS, THEY WILL BE INCORPORATED INTO OTHER
COMPOUNDS. THESE IONS AND MINERAL COMPOUNDS WILL NOW BE TAKEN BY THE
XYLEM VESSELS WHERE THEY WILL BE MOVED UP TOGETHER WITH WATER.
CONDUCTING MANUFACTURED FOOD VIA THE PHLOEM

THE PHLOEM TISSUE CONDUCTS MANUTACTURED TOOD (SUCROSE AND AMINO ACIDS) AS WELL AS
HORMONES FROM THE GREEN PARTS OF THE PLANTS, ESPECIALLY THE LEAVES, TO THE OTHER PARTS OF
THE PLANT. IT CONSISTS MAINLY OF SIEVE TUBES AND COMPANION CELLS THAT AID THE TRANSPORT OF
MANUTACTURED FOOD. THE PHLOEM CONTAINS CELLS WITH LIVING CYTOPLASM AND WITH POROUS
CELL WALLS, ALLOWING EXCHANGE OF MATERIALS BETWEEN NEIGHBORING CELLS. THE PROCESS OF
TRANSPORTING MANUFACTURED FOOD THROUGH THE PHLOEM TISSUE IS CALLED TRANSLOCATION.

IN PLANTS, THE STEM HOUSES THE VASCULAR TISSUE THAT TRANSPORTS

SUBSTANCES BETWEEN THE ROOTS AND THE LEAVES. AMONG HERBACEOUS PLANTS WITH FLEXIBLE
BODIES, THE STEM CONTAINS BUNDLES OF XYLEM AND PHLOEM CALLED VASCULAR BUNDLES.
MONOCOT AND DICOT PLANTS DIFFER IN TERMS OF THEIR
VASCULAR BUNDLE STRUCTURES. IN MONOCOT STEMS, THE VASCULAR BUNDLES ARE SCATTERED IN
THE GROUND TISSUE.
 LAYERS OF XYLEM FORM THE INNERMOST CYLINDER THAT CONSTITUTES THE COMPONENTS OF WOOD. A CYLINDER OF
PHLOEM LIES OUTSIDE THE CYLINDER OF XYLEM. IN FULL MATURITY, THE WOOD IN THE CENTER OF A MATURE STEM OR
TREE TRUNK IS CALLED HEARTWOOD. THE XYLEM IN HEARTWOOD CAN LONGER CONDUCT WATER BUT RATHER FUNCTIONS
ONLY AS A SUPPORT. SAPWOOD, WHICH LIES OUTSIDE HEARTWOOD, CONTAINS CELLS THAT CAN CONDUCT WATER.

The mass-flow theory is the most accepted explanation, which combines the concept of osmosis
and dynamic pressure in the movement of materials. Sucrose that is manufactured in the leaves
through photosynthesis travels in storage areas as a solution to the plant s body where it will be
transformed into starch, or in plant tissues where it will be consumed as its food. When sucrose
enters the phloem tissue through the leaf, its concentration increases, Causing the water to move
and consequently leads to an increased pressure on the phloem. The sucrose is then moved by the
other tissues in the stem and the root. This situation will cause the water to move out via Osmosis,
and the pressure in the phloem decreases. When this happens, the pressure gradient between the
root and the leaf will trigger the direction flow, which is through the phloem from the leaf to the
root system for storage, or other parts for immediate use.
THE NEED FOR A
DEFENSE SYSTEM
LESSON 2.3
• Pathogens, agents that cause disease, infect a wide range of animals,
including humans
• The immune system recognizes foreign bodies and respond with the
production of immune cells and proteins
• All animals have innate immunity, A defense active immediately upon
infection
• Vertebrates also have addaptive immunity
• Innate immunity Is present before any exposure of
pathogens and is effective from the time of birth
• It invloves nonspecific responses to pathogens
• Innate immunity consist of external barriers plus
internal cellular and chemical defenses
• Adaptive immunity, or acquaired immunity, develops after exposure to agents
such as microbes, toxins, or other foreign substances
• It involves a very specific response to pathogens.
• The immune system is composed of special cells, proteins, tissues and orgams
that protect the body from the potential dangers of foreign bodies, thus keeping
the body healthy and free from infection.
• Immune response- Is the collective and coordinated process performed by the
immune system upon the introduction of a foreign substance.
 TABLE 2-1
VERTEBRATE IMMUNITY

Innate Immune System Adaptive Immune

Physical Barriers:
hair, cilia, mucus membrane, Mucus
and chemical secretions digestive
enzyms in the mouth stomach acid.
Internal Defenses:
System
Inflammatory responseComplement
proteinsPhagocytic cellsNatural killer
(NK) cells. Antibodies and humoral immune responseCell-
mediated immune responseMemory response
 FIRST LINE OF DEFENSE
• Consist of a surface barrier and internal structures that employ physical
and biochemical strategies to get rid of many microorganisms before they
can invade body tissues
• The skin accounting for 15% of your body weight and its dead skin layers,
provides a nearly impenetrable barrier that helps against the entry of
microorganism.
• The oil and sweat glands give the skin a pH of 3-5, which is acidic enough
to make it a hostile environment for microorganisms.
• When the airway is infected, extra mucus is secreted.
• Microbes that have entered the digestive tract will be destroyed by a chemical
defense in the form of hydrochloric acid secreted in your stomach.
• The vagina also produces mucus that has an acidic environment.
• Despite these physical and chemical defenses, pathogens may still enter the body
through skin abrasions, wounds, or punctures.
• Infection – is the successful invasion of a phatogenic organism inside the body
 TABLE 2-2
SECRETIONS AT EPITHELIAL SURFACES
Site Sources Secretions
Eyes Lacrimal galns (tears) Lysozyme, IgA, IgG

Ears Sebaceous glands Waxy secretions (Cerumen)

Digestive enzymes, lysozyme, IgA,
Mouth Salivary galnds IgG, lactoferin
Sweat glands (sweat) Lysozyme, high NaCI, short-chain
Skin Sebaceous glands (sebum) fatty acid
Digestive enzymes (pepsin, renin),
Stomach Gastric juices hydrochloric acid
 SECOND LINE OF DEFENSE

• Is nonspecific resistance that destroys invaders in a generalized way without

targeting specific individuals
• Phagocytic cells ingest and destroy all microbes that pass into body tissues.
• Lymph – the lymphatic system consists of a network of lymphatic vessels and
organs, nodes, and tiny bean structure. That store cells used in immune
response.
• Lymph tissues are also located in various parts of the body, which include the
tonsils, thymus, spleen, and bone marrow.
• Lymphocytes – is the nodes that are filled with white blood cells, which
fight off infections.
• It is also produced in the spleen, the largest organ if the lymphatic system.
• Internal defenses of the innate immune response consist of the
combination of white blood cells, antimicrobial proteins, and the
inflammatory response.
 WHITE BLOOD CELLS
IN THE SECOND LINE OF DEFENSE, VARIOUS WBCS CIRCULATE TO ATTACK THE
INVADERS AT THE SITE OF INFECTION IN A NONSPECIFIC RESPONSE.

• Macrophages – are large, irregularly shaped WBCs that patrol and ingest
microorganisms through phagocytosis. Monicytes, the largest WBC,
differentiate into macrophages.
• Neutrophils – ar the most abudant circulating WBCs similar to
macrophages as they engulf bacteria through phagocytosis.
• Natural killer cells – are cells that do not attack the microbes directly.
They kill the infected cell by puncturing a hole the plasma membrane of
target cell. Proteins, called perforins are released by the natural killer
cells through vesicles and disgorge the content, thereby forming a pore.
• Dendritic cells – are phagocytes that process and alert the adaptive immune system
(lymphocyte) when an antigen is present.
• Eosinophils – are granular WBCs with enzymes that target parasitic worms.
• Basophils – are granular WBCs that contain histamines, which cause inflammation during
immune responses and allergic reactions.
• Mast cells – are granular WBCs that also contain histamines and other substances that
anchor themselves in response to injury or allergic reaction, together with basophils.
• Lymphocytes – are responsible for specific immunities.
 ANTIMICROBIAL PROTEINS

• are endogenous, generally. small proteins, which are characterized by their

capacity to. kill a wide variety of micro-organisms. AMPs are effector. molecules
of the innate immunity and offer a fast and.
• Antigens - are substances that cause an immune response in the body by
identifying substances in or markers on cells.
• Cytokines - are proteins produced by cells that serve as molecular messengers
between cells. In arthritis, cytokines regulate various inflammatory responses.
• Interferons - are proteins that are part of your natural defenses.
 THE INFLAMMATORY RESPONSE 

• (inflammation) occurs when tissues are injured by bacteria, trauma,

toxins, heat, or any other cause. The damaged cells release chemicals
including histamine, bradykinin, and prostaglandins. These chemicals
cause blood vessels to leak fluid into the tissues, causing swelling
 THIRD LINE OF DEFENSE

• The third line defense aims at eliminating specific pathogens that have been encountered
by the immune system previously (adaptive or acquired immune response).
• Instead of being restricted to the site of infection, the adaptive immune response occurs
throughout the body.
• The adaptive immune system mainly involves two types of white blood cells
(lymphocytes) .
• B lymphocytes (B cells)
• T lymphocytes (T cells)
• B cells are involved in antibody-mediated immune responses (humoral immunity).
• T cells are involved in cell-mediated immune responses.
• In antibody-mediated immunity, B cells are activated when they encounter a ‘known’
antigen. Activated B cells then engulf and digest the antigen, which is followed by a
representation of MHC (major histocompatibility complex) -bound antigenic fragments
on the B cell surface.
• The combination of antigen- MHC further activates helper T cells, which in turn secrete
cytokines (interleukins) to trigger the growth and maturation of antigen-presenting B
cells into antibody-producing B cells (plasma cells).
• Antibodies produced by the plasma cells are secreted into the bloodstream where they
execute their functions in different ways.
• The antigen-antibody complex can initiate a series of signaling events to activate
complement proteins, which in turn kills pathogens by rupturing their cell membrane.
Complement proteins also trigger an inflammatory response, leading to the accumulation
of white blood cells at the infection site.
There are three Mechanism by which antibodies inhibit infection
• Neutralization – Antibodies prevent a virus or toxic protein from binding their target.
• Opsonization – A pathogen tagged by antibodies is consumed by a macrophage or
neutrophil.
• Complement Activation – Antibodies attached to the surface of pathogen cell activate the
complement system.
There are five types of Antibodies in humans that function in various circumstances.
• IgA ( immunoglobulin alpha ) – found in mucosal areas such as gut , respiratory tract ,
and urogenital tract , and prevents colonization by pathogens.
• IgD ( immunoglobulin delta ) – functions mainly as an antigen receptor on B cells that
have not been exposed to antigens.
• IgE ( immunoglobulin epsilon ) – binds to allergens and triggers histamine release from
mast cells and basophils , and is involved in allergy.
• IgG ( immunoglobulin gamma ) – provides majority of antibody – based immunity
against invading pathogens .
• IgM ( immunoglobulin mu ) – expressed on the surface of B cells ( monomer ) and in a
secreted from ( pentamer ) .
CELL – MEDIATED IMMUNE RESPONSE

• In cell-mediated immunity, T cells are activated when they encounter antigen-presenting

cells, such as B cells or dendritic cells.
• Activated T cells then secrete cytokines that further trigger the production and
maturation of T cells.
• T cells that mature into cytotoxic or killer T cells mainly destroy pathogen-infected cells,
damaged cells, and cancer cells by rupturing the cell membrane. Whereas, T cells that
mature into helper T cells facilitate B cells to execute antibody-mediated immune
responses.
Some T cells that mature into regulatory T cells help cease the immune response and
maintain the immune system homeostasis when the threat is eliminated.
• Also, some T cells that mature into memory T cells remember the pathogen and initiate
an immediate response when the body encounters the same pathogen for the second time.