GASEOUS EXCHANGE/RESPIRATORY SYSTEM.

Respiration involves the taking of oxygen for production

of energy. Respiration could be:
 EXTERNAL i.e. gaseous exchange or
 INTERNAL/CELLULAR RESPIRATION i.e. breaking
down of food to release energy needed by the cells.
GASEOUS EXCHANGE: This is the taking in of oxygen
and giving out of carbon-dioxide and water vapour. It
occurs with the use of special structures
CHARACTERISTICS OF RESPIRATORY SURFACES.
i. They have large surface area for easy diffusion of
gases
ii. They are richly supplied with blood capillaries.
iii. They are moist.
iv. They are covered with thin membrane.
v. They are usually in direct contact with capillaries.
RESPIRATORY SYSTEMS IN AQUATIC ORGANISMS
Respiratory medium of aquatic organism is water.
Oxygen is more readily dissolved in fresh water than in
salt water.
i. Body surface of microscopic aquatic organisms like
amoeba, paramecium etc. Absorb oxygen dissolved
in water by diffusion while carbondioxide diffuse
 out through the same body surface. This diffusion is
aided by the large surface area to volume ratio of
the unicellular organism and the very short distance
the gases pass through.
ii. Gills in fishes e.g. Tilapia, Tadpole, crayfish etc. The
respiratory system of the fish is composed of the mouth,
the gills and gill cover (operculum).
MECHANISM OF BREATHING/GASEOUS EXCHANGE IN FISH
 Operculum is closed, mouth is opened
 Floor of mouth is lowered, causing the volume of the
mouth to increase and mouth pressure lowered
 Water flows from outside into the mouth
 Mouth is closed; the floor of the mouth is raised, causing
an increase in the pressure of the mouth.
 Oxygen diffuses into the blood capillaries of the
filaments and carbon-dioxide diffuses out from the blood
into the water.
 Operculum opens, water with carbon-dioxide rush out.
 Gill rakers sift out particles in water to prevent them
from reaching the gill filaments.
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM IN AMPHIBIANS e.g. toad, frog
The adult toad/frog carries out gaseous exchange in three
ways which are
a.Through moist skin (cutaneous respiration)
 b.Through the mouth (Buccal respiration)
c. Through the lungs (pulmonary respiration)

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM IN INSECTS, CENTIPEDES

In insects, gaseous exchange occurs through the tracheal
system. Tracheal system is made of spiracles, trachea and
tracheoles. Spiracles are openings on each abdominal
segment; there is a pair of spiracle on each abdominal
segment. Spiracles lead to tubes called trachea and trachea
to tracheoles. Tracheoles to body tissues.
THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM IN MAMMALS (e.g. humans)
Respiratory organs in mammals include trachea (wind pipe),
bronchi, bronchioles, lungs, ribs, sternum, nostrils and
intercostal muscles, larynx, pharynx and diaphragm. The
trachea branches into two bronchi (singular-bronchus). Each
bronchus branches into bronchioles inside the lungs. The
bronchioles lead into numerous air sacs called alveoli.
Gaseous exchange mechanism
Gaseous exchange by inhalation/inspiration/breathing and
exhalation/expiration/breathing out
INHALATION /INSPIRATION
 Air rich in oxygen rushes into the lungs.
 Diaphragm contracts, becomes flattened out.
 External intercostal muscles contract.
  Rib cage moves up and stretches outward.
 Volume of the thoracic cavity increases.
 Lungs expand (increases in volume).
 Air pressure in the lungs decreases.
MECHANISM OF EXHALATION/EXPIRATION
 Air rich in carbon-dioxide rushes out.
 Diaphragm relaxes, forms its normal dome shape
 Internal Intercostal muscles contract
 Ribs move downward and inwards
 Volume of the thoracic cavity reduces
 Lungs contract
 Pressure of air inside the lungs increases
 Air flows out from the lungs through the nostrils into the
atmosphere
N.B: During expiration, the air inside the lungs is never
completely exhaled. The air left in the lungs is called residual
air while that which is exchanged with each breath is called
tidal air.
GASEOUS EXCHANGE IN PLANTS
Plants do not have any special respiratory organs. Oxygen
diffuses in and carbon-dioxide diffuses out through opening
called stomata in leaves or lenticels on their stems.
MECHANISM OF OPENING AND CLOSING OF STOMATA IN
PLANTS
Guard cells – the only cell of the epidermis that has
chloroplast manufactures sugar through photosynthesis. The
sugar in the guard cell is in solution and causes water to
move into the guard cells from the neighbouring cells by
osmosis. The guard cell becomes turgid and the stomata
open.
Excessive loss of water/evaporation due to high temperature
causes guard cells to lose its turgidity. Likewise, loss of turgor
and darkness cause guard cells flaccidity. The flaccidity
causes stomata to close. When sugar present in guard cells
are used up or converted to starch, the surrounding
epidermal cells become hypertonic to the fluid in the guard
cells. Guard cells thus lose water by exosmosis, and become
shrunk. Then the stomata pore is closed.
When the guard cells are turgid (stomata open) gases e.g.
oxygen, CO2, etc., diffuse through the stomata into the
intercellular air spaces inside the leaf from where the gases
reach the cells of the leaf. During the day, the stomata opens
and closes at night.
Gaseous exchange and photosynthesis occur simultaneously
during the day. Oxygen is taken in and carbon-dioxide is
released during the respiration. CO2 produced may be used
for photosynthesis while O2 is released.
In bright sunlight, with an adequate supply of water, rate of
photosynthesis exceeds that of respiration, there is therefore
net production of oxygen. In dim light, the rate of
photosynthesis is slow. A compensation point is reached
when the amount of O2 produced by photosynthesis matches
that used for respiration.
N.B: Lenticels do not open and close like stomata. They
remain open all the time.