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Top 10 Contributions on Agri and Aquaculture

Chapter 05
The Role of Agro-Inputs (Rhizobia, P and
K) and Critical Stages of Application for
Improved Soybean Yield and Biomass
Daniel Nyoki1* Prosper I Massawe2 Anna Baltazari3 and Patrick A
Ndakidemi4

1
Department of Economic Development, Regional Commissioner’s Of-
fice, Tanga, Tanzania
2
Department of Natural Resource Management, Tanzania Agricultural
Research Institute (TARI) - Selian Center, Tanzania
3
Plant Protection Division, Department of Research, Tropical Pesticides
Research Institute, Tanzania
4
School of Life Science and Bio-engineering, The Nelson Mandela African
Institution of Science and Technology, Tanzania

*Corresponding Author: Daniel Nyoki, Department of Economic Develop-

ment, Regional Commissioner’s Office, P.O Box 5095 Tanga, Tanzania

First Published October 14, 2019

Copyright: © 2019 Daniel Nyoki, et al.

This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons

Attribution 4.0 International License
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits
unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,
provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and
the source.

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 Top 10 Contributions on Agri and Aquaculture

Abstract
This chapter introduces important issues on soybean production
and the basis for improved yield, biomass and productivity. Important
issues that are discussed include symbiotic nitrogen fixation, fertilizer
requirements, water and climate requirements for soybean produc-
tion, critical stages of soybean development and yield and biomass
responses to fertilizer application. Optimum nutrients and water are
critical components for soybean production. Since the critical stages
of inputs requirement by soybean are identified, it is important to pay
attention in these stages of development so that farmers can improve
yield, biomass and productivity of soybean. During soybean produc-
tion, drought at some stages of crop development such as germina-
tion, flower setting and grain filling should be avoided as it can cause
a significant loss of the crops. Rhizobium inoculation contributed sig-
nificant amount of nitrogen through atmospheric nitrogen fixation
and contribute to crop development. Generally, yield and biomasses of
soybean can be increased with rhizobia inoculation and supplementa-
tion with P and K together with good agronomic practices. Therefore,
this package of production can be adopted by soybean farmers to in-
crease production. In the future, researches on high yielding varieties
which are drought tolerant and efficient in input use should be done
to increase production.

Keywords
Soil Fertility; Biological Nitrogen Fixation; Grain Yield; Biomass
Yield

Abbreviations
BNF-Biological Nitrogen Fixation; FAO-Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations; HI-Harvest Index; K-Potassium;
N-Nitrogen; NPK-Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium; P-Phospho-
rus; SOM-Soil Organic Matter

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Introduction
Soybean (Glycine max [L.] Merr.) is an important grain legume
native to eastern Asia, currently being grown in diverse parts of the
world [1]. The global interest on soybean has been growing day after
day leading to substantial increase in yield since 1961 [2]. The diverse
use of soybean is the reason for its increased interest in the world.
Soybean has been long used as a source of non-cholesterol protein
[3], cooking oils [4], soy drink [5] and animal feed [4]. It has been also
used worldwide in soil fertility programmes as it can add substantial
amount of nitrogen in the soil through biological nitrogen fixation
(BNF) when it forms symbiosis with nitrogen fixing bacteria [6,7].
From plant-microbes symbiosis, soybean can produce more than half
of its nitrogen requirement [8]. Based on data from Food and Agri-
culture Organisation of the United Nations (FAO), regardless of the
nutritional and Economical importance of soybean to human and
livestock, its production is still low in most parts (Middle, Western
and Eastern Africa) of Africa (Figure 1) [1,9]. Efforts have been made
by researchers to increase grain yield and biomass of soybean though
breeding of high yielding varieties, the use of good agronomic prac-
tices, control of pests and diseases, and the use of agro inputs such as
nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K) (NPK) from different
sources [1]. For increased yield, biomass, and productivity of soybean
it is necessary to know what could be the basis for their increase so
that we can use to improve production and make our life better.This
chapter highligts several issues such as symbiotic nitrogen fixation,
fertilizer and weather requirements as the basis for yield, biomass,
and productivity of soybean.

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 Top 10 Contributions on Agri and Aquaculture

Figure 1: Time series showing Soybean production in different zones of Africa (Adopt-
ed from Nyoki and Ndakidemi [1]

Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixation

Symbiotic nitrogen fixation is an important relationship between
nitrogen fixing bacteria and nodulating legume plant. This relation-
ship is necessary for development of sustainable agriculture where the
atmospheric N2 is converted to ammonia with the aid of nitrogenase
enzyme [10-12]. It is considered environmentally friendly process of
adding nitrogen to the soil for plant growth and development [13,14].
Therefore, the process present an economically attractive and ecologi-
cally sound mean of reducing external inputs and improving internal
resources [15]. Biological nitrogen fixation has been long used in ag-
riculture systems to improve legume production and sustain soil N
nutrition by adding substantial amount of nitrogen in the soil. Several
studies have indicated that legume crops such as cowpea, mungbean,
soybean, and groundnuts can fix and accumulate nitrogen ranging
from 75 to 350 kg ha-1 per year [14,16 – 18]. The highest N2 fixation
is reported to happen between the beginnings of pod when pods are
3/16 inch at one of the four uppermost nodes with a fully developed
leaf (R3) and the beginning of seed when seed is 1/8 inch long in the
pod at one of the four uppermost nodes on the main stem (R5) (Fig-
ure 3, Table 1) [19].

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Fertilizer Requirements
High yielding soybeans require large amounts of nitrogen (N),
phosphorus (P), potassium (K) and some micronutrients. A soybean
crop yielding 3000 kg/ha is able to extract 240 kg of nitrogen, 45 kg of
P2O5 and 100 kg of K2O/ha [20]. Although soybean requires consider-
ably less P than N or K [21], all are important for plant growth and de-
velopment. Nitrogen (N) is the most limiting nutrient for crop yields,
and nitrogen fertilizers is an expensive input in agriculture costing
more than US$45 billion per year globally [22]. For soybean and in-
deed other nitrogen fixing legumes, nitrogen requirements in the field
are met by either soil mineral nitrogen acquisition or symbiotic N2
fixation [23]. Nitrogen is highly needed for all enzymatic reactions in
a plant, also is a major part of the chlorophyll molecules and plays a
necessary role in photosynthesis and component of several vitamins,
formation of amino acids in a legume which is the building blocks
of protein [24]. Nitrogen is the key component of healthy growing
plants; all plants other than legumes should be fertilized by nitrog-
enous fertilizer. Legume plants particularly soybean are unique for
their ability to fix nitrogen from atmosphere by symbiotic relation-
ship with Rhizobium bacteria [25]. However, N deficiency in plants
are due to erosion, run off and leaching of nitrate in non-producing
soil horizon [26]. Some of the most common symptoms of nitrogen
deficiency in plants include the yellowing, dropping of leaves and
poor growth [27,28], and furthermore delaying flowering and fruit-
ing may also be present [27].
When the supply of nitrogen available from the soil and fertilizer
increases, the amount of nitrogen fixed by the soybean plant decreases
since uptake of N from soil solution require less energy than the nitro-
gen fixation process [9,29]. The application of combined nitrogen es-
pecially nitrate to soybean has been shown to strongly inhibit nodule
formation, growth and nitrogen fixation [30]. The N-fixing potential
of legumes is expected to be high when soil mineral N is low com-
pared to richer soil conditions [31]. Thus, in organic crop productions
prone to N deficiencies, the legumes might fix large amounts of N

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and enrich the soil-plant system. As soil organic matter (SOM) levels
increase in legume-based systems over time, the mineralization of N
from larger SOM pools may suppress BNF [31]. Most plants utilize ni-
trogen in its ionic forms ammonium (NH4+) and nitrate (NO3−) from
soil [32]. A soil, which is depleted and has low nitrogen, has been
found to have enhanced symbiotic N2 fixation [33]. From a physio-
logical perspective, this makes sense because the process of initiating
the symbiotic relationship with rhizobia is energy-demanding [33]. N
fixation appears to perfectly complement any fertilizer and soil N, it
is not advantageous to apply more N fertilizer than necessary; rather,
growers should leverage N fixation to the maximum, as this N source
is available at little or no cost.
Salvagiotti et al. [8] reported that soybean receives its N from
only 2 sources: N fixation and soil N (residual N and mineralization
of organic matter). Because N concentration in soybean seed is fairly
constant [34,35], N plant uptake from fixation and soil sources in-
creases proportionally to grain yield (Figure 2).

Figure 2: A generalized N budget for soybean [8]

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Average N fixed by soybean increases linearly with increasing

yield, but only a portion of the total N requirement is met through
N fixation (about 50% to 60% of total N requirements at yields of 50
bu/acre or less) as indicated in Figure 2 above. Also as soybean yields
continue to increase, N fixation and soil N mineralization reach ca-
pacity in many growing environments. Soybean requires a relatively
large amount of N [36]. Because a big portion of this can be supplied
by N fixation and soil mineralization [37], growing higher-yielding
soybean may not require another source of N (i.e. mineral N fertiliz-
ers). There is no clear proof from the scientific literature or evidence
from growers to predict the conditions leading to a soybean response
to fertilizer N. Some suggest that less fertile soils or those that miner-
alize less N (e.g. soils with low soil organic matter content) are good
candidates for producing a soybean response to N fertilizer [34]. Oth-
ers indicate that N fertilizer applied in the zone of N fixation (near the
surface in the root zone) will inhibit N fixation, and the benefit of the
additional N fertilizer is offset by less fixed N [38 – 40]. Timing of ap-
plication is also unclear; it was thought that applying fertilizer N at the
time of sowing was beneficial for early growth [41], some recommen-
dations are to apply N fertilizer during the early stage of the growing
season (before reproductive stages) [34], however, application of N
fertilizer at early stage of soybean growth can suppress the N2 fixation
[42], while others indicate to apply during pod fill when the plant’s
demands for N are greatest [43,44]. Based on these, scientists have
not yet been able to identify precisely when soybean will respond to
N fertilizer and when to apply it.
Phosphorus (P) is the second plant growth-limiting nutrient
despite being abundant in soils in both inorganic and organic forms
[45]. However, many soils throughout the world are phosphorus -de-
ficient because the free phosphorus concentration (the form available
to plants) even in fertile soils is generally not sufficient [22]. Root
improvement, stalk and stem vigor, flower and seed formation, crop
maturity and resistance to plant pests and diseases are the attributes
associated with phosphorus availability [46,47]. Phosphorus is need-

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ed in relatively large amounts by soybean and has been reported to

promote photosynthesis, leaf area, nodule number and nodule weight
[48]. Large amount of phosphorus applied as fertilizer enters into the
immobile pools through precipitation reaction with highly reactive
Aluminium (Al+) and Iron (Fe3+) in acidic, and Calcium (Ca2+) in cal-
careous or normal soils [22,49]. Microorganisms enhance the phos-
phorus availability to plants by mineralizing organic phosphorus in
soil and by solubilizing precipitated phosphates [50]. In soybean pro-
duction, phosphorus and inoculation with the appropriate Rhizobium
strains have quite prominent effects on nodulation, tolerate stresses,
growth and yield parameters [51]. In soybeans, the demand for phos-
phorus is greatest during pod and seed development where more than
60% of phosphorus ends up in the pods and seeds [51,52]. Studies
done in some parts of African countries shows that soybeans which is
not inoculated, need 24-39 kg P ha-1 so that maximum yields can be
attained [53,54]. Furthermore, legumes particularly soybean which
uses nitrogen through dinitrogen fixation require more P than those
using mineral nitrogen [55].
Potassium is another macronutrient involved in numerous func-
tions in the soybean plant such as enzyme activation, cation/anion
balance, stomatal movement, phloem loading, assimilate transloca-
tion, and turgor regulation [8]. Out of all the mineral nutrients, potas-
sium (K) plays a particularly critical role in plant growth and contrib-
utes greatly to the survival of plants that are under various biotic and
abiotic stresses [56]. Insufficient K in soybean causes a pale leaf color
which is particularly attractive to the soybean aphid. Ndakidemi et al.
[9] found that naturally colonizing populations of soybean aphids had
significantly higher peak abundance and rate of population increase
on K deficient soybean. Roy et al. [57] reported that the uptake rate of
K is highest during rapid vegetative growth and slows as seed forma-
tion begins. Uptake continues until two to three weeks before the seed
is mature and it can be depressed by poor soil condition including
compaction, excess moisture and poor aeration [57]. Therefore, rela-
tively large amounts of K are required for high yielding soybean [56].

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The rate of P loss is much less because most plant P is organic

and less soluble in water than K, which is found as a free cation in
plant tissue [58]. It has been also reported that P and K recycling of
soybean is rapid because most P and K are in the leaves, which drop
from the plant and quickly decompose on the moist soil [20]. Op-
portunities for increased yield with P and K fertilization are likely on
some soybean fields depending on soil test levels. For best results, P
and K should be applied when the chance of a yield increase is signifi-
cant and the expected yield increase is sufficient to pay for the applied
nutrients. The only way to accurately estimate the P and K supplying
power of a soil is with a series of properly collected soil tests over
years [59]. Understanding the soil test interpretation categories is an
important step in the process of determining P and K fertilization.
Efforts to increase soybean yield through foliar application of N,
P and K at late reproductive stages have been reported. Salvagotti et
al. [8] reported inconsistent performance, both positive and negative
yield responses, from 3-18-18 (N-P2O5-K2O) foliar fertilizer applica-
tions. Another study which involved exclusive application of N, NPK
and NPKMg showed that foliar spraying of nutrients during an early
pod filling stage was significantly better in terms of yield than spray-
ing at the early flowering stage [60].

Weather and Climate Requirements

Soybeans are usually grown in cool and temperate regions but
tropical climates can also produce soybeans [61]. This crop can grow
almost anywhere with a warm growing season, ample water, and sun-
light. The common weather parameters that influence soybean pro-
ductivity include the following

Solar Radiation
The soybean production potential and risk is controlled by pre-
vailing climatic conditions and genotypic performance. The basic
source for crop production is solar radiation which acts as an energy

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source for photosynthesis. Light quality also acts to influence plant

height and phenological development [62]. The light spectrum dura-
tion and quality besides the radiation intensity are determinants of
morphological and phenotypic responses striking in soybean, such
as plant height and induction of flowering [63]. The final yield of dry
matter from the plant depends on the solar radiation absorbed by the
leaves and the efficiency with which these convert radiant energy into
chemical energy through photosynthesis. Soybean is a qualitative
short-day plant and must receive a certain day length or less so that
developmental timing is optimal for the location [64]. This character-
istic gives soybean a longer developmental period under short days so
that it can accrue enough dry matter for optimal yield [65].

Temperature
Temperature influences growth and developmental timing in
soybean [66]. This occurs due to the effect of temperature on the
rate of metabolic reactions, the diffusion rate of gases through aque-
ous media and the solubility of nutrients in the plant [66]. Soybean
grows best at temperatures between 20 °C and 30 °C [67]. Greatest
number of pods per plant is obtained under mild temperature condi-
tions having a day/night temperature combination of 26/14 °C [68].
A temperature above 40 °C during the vegetative stage (emergence to
first flower) reduces growth and hastens flowering [66,67,69]. High
temperatures during the reproductive phase can cause reductions in
seed number and seed weight, thus reducing grain quality and yield
[67,70]. If the high temperature is associated with a drought, the loss-
es on grain production are even higher [65]. On the other hand, in the
cold region where the temperature is equal or below to 10 °C is not
properly to soybean cultivation, because in these places, the vegetative
growth and the development become small [66].

Water Availability
No water, no life. Water is an important element for the life of
nearly every living organism. Based on [66] “about 90% of the total

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soybean fresh weight (biomass) is water and water acts in all physi-
ological and biochemical processes in the plant, working as a solvent
carrying gases, minerals and other plant solutes and as a thermal
regulator to cool and maintain plant temperature”. In soybean devel-
opment, water requirement is critical in three periods namely: ger-
mination, emergence and flowering-grain filling. During germination
period, both excess and lack of water is unfavourable to crop estab-
lishment [66]. This was seen in a field trial conducted to evaluate the
effects of rhizobium inoculation and supplementation with P and K in
intercropping systems where there was excessive rainfall which lim-
ited the good uniformity of the plant population [71]. Soybean seeds
begin to germinate after absorbing approximately 50% of its weight in
water to ensure a good germination [66,72]. At this stage, the water
content in soil must not exceed 85% of the total maximum available,
or must not be less than 50% [66,72].
Drought stress is another serious risk in soybean production.
This problem is more pronounced in tropical and subtropical, semi-
arid and arid climates where evapotranspiration may cause a loss of
up to 8mm/day [66]. The necessity of water needs by soybean gradu-
ally increase with plant development, peaking at 7 to 8mm/day dur-
ing flowering through grain filling [72,73]. Drought stress on soybean
become serious and may have significant negative effect depending
on the growth and development stage of the crop. For example, if
drought occurs during the germination and emergence stages, the
crop is negatively affected by reduced plant stand. If drought hap-
pens in the flowering period it can cause flower abortion and prevents
anthesis while in the grain filling stage drought affects seed weight
[74]. The drought reduces the efficiency of the photosynthesis in
crops hence reducing crop yield and biomass formation. The exces-
sive amount of water in the soil is also harmful to yield by causing
water logging. When the soil is very wet results in low aeration which
reduces root growth, can cause nutritional deficiency as most mineral
elements are washed out of root zones. Yield and biomass of soybean
depend upon good climatic condition and any unfavourable climate

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exerts limiting effect on yield. Thus, proper management of the soy-

bean crop depends on climate information at the site of interest [66].

Stages of Soybean Development

Soybean development is a continous process which begins when
a soybean seed germinate and it ends when the soybean seed is ma-
tured ready for harvesting (Figure 3, Table 1) [72]. It is very important
to know the developmental stages of soybean in order to be able to
deal with any crop requirement at a specific stage. The soybean plant
is exposed to many factors that may encourage or retard its develop-
ment and productivity. Some of these factors are wind, rain, hail, and
frost. But soybean development and productivity are also influenced
by farmers through application of pesticides and fertilizers or by the
timing and methods of planting, cultivation, and other cultural prac-
tices [75].

Figure 3: Development stages of soybean [72].

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Table 1: Description of development stages of soybean.

Description of vegetative stages
Stage No Abbreviated stage Description
title
VE Emergence Cotyledons above the soil surface
VC Cotyledon Unifoliolate leaves unrolled sufficiently
so the leaf edges are not touching
V1 First-node Fully developed leaves at unifoliolate
nodes
V2 Second-node Fully developed trifoliolate leaf at node
above the unifoliolate nodes
V3 Third-node Three nodes on the main stem with fully
developed leaves beginning with the uni-
foliolate nodes.
V(n) Nth-node n number of nodes on the main stem with
fully developed leaves beginning with the
unifoliolate nodes. n can be any number
beginning with 1 for V1, first node stage.
Description of Reproductive stages
R1 Beginning bloom One open flower at any node of the main
stem
R2 Full bloom Open flower at one of the two uppermost
nodes on the main stem with a fully de-
veloped leaf
R3 Beginning pod Pod 5 mm (3/16 inch) long at one of the
four uppermost nodes on the main stem
with a fully developed leaf
R4 Full pod Pod 2 cm (3/4 inch) long at one of the
four uppermost nodes on the main stem
with a fully developed leaf
R5 Beginning seed Seed 3mm (118 inch) long in a pod at one
of the four uppermost nodes on the main
stem with a fully developed leaf
R6 Full seed Pod containing a green seed that fills the
pod cavity at one of the four uppermost
nodes on the main stem with a fully de-
veloped leaf
R7 Beginning maturity One normal pod on the main stem that
has reached its mature pod color.
R8 Full maturity Ninety-five percent of the pods that have
reached their mature pod color. Five to
ten days of drying weather are required
after R8 before the soybeans have less
than 15 percent moisture.
Source [75]

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Yield and Biomass Response to Fertilizers

Application
Fertilizer application is one of the main factor of yield, biomass
and productivity of soybean.
Amongst the essential nutrients, macro-nutrients such as nitro-
gen, phosphorus and potassium (NPK) play a fundamental role in
improving plant growth and yield [76,77]. Of these important major
elements, N can be supplied from biological nitrogen fixation and P
and K can be applied from different sources being organic of inorgan-
ic sources. Symbiotic N2 fixation supplies N for soybean and elimi-
nates or reduces the need for large nitrogenous fertilizer applications
requirements [78]. Studies have shown that application of these ferti-
lizers improved both yield and biomass of soybean over the control.
For example, [14] reported that inoculation of soybean with rhizo-
bia significantly increased nitrogen fixation with an increase of 63.76
and 55.19 (kg ha-1) in 2015 and 2016 respectively over un-inoculated
treatments (Table 2). The fixed nitrogen had significant effects and in-
creased parameters termed as biomass indicators such as plant height
(cm), stem girth (mm), number of branches and leaf area (cm2) when
compared with those under control (un-inoculated soybean) (Table
3-5). Other studies also have reported that there was significant in-
crease in growth parameters of leguminous plant following rhizobia
inoculation [14,79 – 84]. The increased growth parameters of soybean
are directly reflected to the biomass and therefore, we can conclude
that rhizobia inoculation fixes enough nitrogen which is the basis for
biomass of soybean. The increased growth parameters and biomass
of soybean are directly correlated to the increased yield of soybean.
Different studies have shown that inoculation of legume crops such as
soybean with rhizobium significantly increased grain yield and bio-
mass [1].

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Table 2: Effects of rhizobia inoculation on nitrogen fixation in soybean (N fixed kg/ha).

Treatments Season one (2015) Increase over the control Season two (2016) Increase over the
control
With 116.97±7.51a 63.76 156.66±7.29a 55.19
With out 53.21±3.25b – 101.47±5.50b –
ANOVA (F-statistics)
Rhizobia 71.78*** 46.11***

Means followed by dissimilar letter(s) in a column are significantly different from each other at p=0.05 according to Fischer least significance difference (LSD). Source: Extracted from [14].

Table 3: Effects of rhizobia inoculation on plant height of soybean crop.

Plant Height (cm) 2WAP Plant Height (cm) 4WAP Plant Height (cm) 6WAP
Treatments 2015 2016 2015 2016 2015 2016
Rhizobia
With 15.02±0.21a 16.25±0.21a 23.92±0.38a 27.11±0.46a 30.58±0.43a 36.38±0.59a
With out 12.52±0.21b 14.25±0.19b 19.41±0.28b 24.35±0.35b 23.88±0.30b 31.96±0.75b
ANOVA F-statistics
Rhiz 75.482*** 92.84*** 193.88*** 50.40*** 327.64*** 28.983***
Means followed by dissimilar letter(s) in a column are significantly different from each other at p=0.05 according to Fischer least significance difference (LSD). Source: Extracted from [85]

Table 4: Effects of rhizobia inoculation on stem girth, plant vigour and number of leaves per plant.

Treatments Stem Girth (mm) Plant Vigour Number of branches 4WAP

2015 2016 2015 2016 2015 2016
Rhizobia
With 6.14±0.10a 7.29±0.25a 1.65±0.10b 1.37±0.07b 5.02±0.16a 4.81±0.34a
With out 3.99±0.09b 6.19±0.24b 3.91±0.11a 3.25±0.12a 3.43±0.13b 4.13±0.09b
ANOVA ( F-statistics)
Rhiz 285.998*** 15.63*** 271.659* 210.37*** 72.58*** 4.01*
Means followed by dissimilar letter(s) in a column are significantly different from each other at p=0.05 according to Fischer least significance difference (LSD). Source: Extracted from [85]

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Table 5: Effects of rhizobia inoculation on leaf area of soybean.

LA
Rhizobia 2015 Increase 2016 Increase over the control
over the
control
With 304.61±7.41a 134.96 307.23±9.95a 54.31
With out 169.65±5.78b – 252.92±9.65b –
ANOVA ( F-statistics) 334.21*** 15.28***

Means followed by dissimilar letter(s) in a column are significantly different from each other at p=0.05 according to Fischer least significance difference (LSD). Source: Extracted
from [85]

Table 6: Effects of rhizobia inoculation and P and K fertilization on soybean yield attributes.

2015 Cropping season 2016 Cropping season

Biological Gran Yield/ HI Biological Yield kg/ Gran Yield/Ha (mt) HI
Yield Kg/plot Ha (mt) plot (9m2)
(9m2)
Rhizobia
With out 2.96±0.16b 1.24±0.06b 0.40±0.01a 2.76±0.22b 1.16±0.05b 0.42±0.02a
With 4.69±0.15a 1.84±0.05a 0.36±0.01b 3.92±0.15a 1.57±0.07a 0.39±0.01a
F Statistics 196.71*** 139.43*** 6.03** 26.92*** 53.80*** 2.61ns
Fertilizer (kg ha-1)
Control 2.32±0.22e 1.09±0.10e 0.36±0.02b 2.65±0.28b 0.82±0.06d 0.33±0.04d
20 K 2.96±0.26d 1.28±0.11d 0.36±0.02b 2.75±0.28b 1.04±0.07c 0.36±0.02cd
40 K 3.33±0.28d 1.34±0.11cd 0.37±0.02b 3.09±0.28ab 1.20±0.07bc 0.39±0.03cd
26 P 3.88±0.31c 1.52±0.11c 0.36±0.01b 3.77±0.40a 1.37±0.07b 0.37±0.03bcd
52 P 4.51±0.31b 1.71±0.11b 0.38±0.02b 3.47±0.34ab 1.62±0.08a 0.47±0.04a
20 K +26 P 4.97±0.33a 1.87±0.10ab 0.44±0.02a 3.81±0.38a 1.68±0.13a 0.42±0.03ab
40 K + 52 P 4.79±0.31ab 1.97±0.10a 0.40±0.02ab 3.85±0.53a 1.81±0.16a 0.48±0.03a
F Statistics 37.24*** 23.49*** 2.25* 3.02** 24.10*** 3.39**
Interactions
Rhiz*Fertili 1.11ns 0.78ns 0.53ns 2.044ns 0.40ns 2.29ns

Source: [1]

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Top 10 Contributions on Agri and Aquaculture

Apart from the significant effects of rhizobia inoculation on ni-

trogen fixation in soybean, P and K also significantly increased ni-
trogen fixation in soybean and also increased different growth pa-
rameters of soybean over the control [85]. From Table 6, it is clearly
shown that rhizobia inoculation had very high significant effect on
soybean grain yield where it produced 1.84 and 1.57 mt/ha over the
un-inoculated plots which produced 1.24 and 1.16 mt/ha for first
and second cropping seasons respectively. Biological nitrogen fixa-
tion also has been the basis for increased biomass/biological yield
of soybean since the inoculated soybean had high values of biologi-
cal yield relative to un-inoculated soybean [1]. The results of an ex-
periment done by [1] showed that rhizobia inoculation and P and K
fertilization significantly affected the harvest index (HI) of soybean.
Inoculated plots produced significantly lower (0.36±0.01) harvest in-
dex relative to un-inoculated plots (0.40±0.01). It was observed that
Phosphorus and potassium fertilization also significantly affected the
HI where the plots treated with 20 kg K+26 kg P recorded the high-
est HI (0.44±0.02) in 2015, and the doubled combined fertilizers (40
kg K+52 kg P) resulted in higher (0.48±0.03) harvest index over all
other treatments in 2016 cropping season. The lowest harvest index of
0.36±0.02 and 0.33±0.04 was recorded from the control plots in 2015
and 2016 cropping seasons respectively.

Conclusion and Future Prospective

Grain yield and biomss yield of soybean are very important to
our lives since soybean products are used by both human and do-
mesticated animals. We noted the most important and critical stages
of soybean development which needs attention in terms of nutrient
requirements or water requirements for high grain and biomass yield.
Soybean needs NPK for proper growth and development. In the ear-
ly stages of soybean development, nitrogen needs to be applied as a
starter before the crop starts to fix its own nitrogen. Water availability
is also important for the growth and productivity of soybean. Moder-
ate soil water is important as excessive water may cause lodging and

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 Top 10 Contributions on Agri and Aquaculture

wash out the nutrients thereby limiting the productivity of soybean.

But also drought at some stages of crop development such as germi-
nation, flower setting and grain filling can cause a significant loss of
the crops. Rhizobium inoculation can contribute a significant amount
of nitrogen through atmospheric nitrogen fixation and contribute to
crop development. Yield and biomasses of soybean can be increased
with rhizobia inoculation and supplementation with P and K together
with good agronomic practices. Therefore, researches on high yield-
ing varieties which are drought tolerance and efficient in input use are
important especially in this era of fast changing climate.

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