Abbreviations and acronyms

 1G: 1st generation.

 2G: 2nd generation.
 3G:3rd generation.
 4G:4th generation.
 AC: Alternate current.
 BGA: ball grid array.
 BSI: battery status indicator.
 CDMA: code division multiple access.
 CPU: central processing unit.
 DCT: digital core technology.
 DC: direct current.
 GSM: global system mobile communication.
 IMEI: international mobile equipment identity
 IC: integrated circuit.
 LED: light emitting diode
 PDA: personal digital assistant.
 PFO: power frequency oscillator.
 PCB: printed circuit board
 RAM: random access memory.
 RF: radio frequency.
 ROM: read only memory.
 RTC: real time clock.
 RX:  receive.
 SMD: surface mount device.
 TX: transmit.
 UEM: universal energy manager.
 VCO: voltage controlled oscillator.

XIV.ELECTRONICS DICTIONARY

What is Electronics?

Electronics is the branch of science that deals with the study of flow and control of electrons
(electricity) and the study of their behavior and effects in vacuums, gases, and semiconductors, and
with devices using such electrons. This control of electrons is accomplished by devices that resist,
carry, select, steer, switch, store, manipulate, and exploit the electron.
Electronics Dictionary

Here are the Most Commonly used Terms and their definition and meaning used in Electronics and
Electronics Engineering:

A (amp)

Ampere. Unit of Electric Current.

AC/DC

Alternating Current or Direct Current. Two types of Electric Current.

ADC

Analog-to-Digital Converter. An electronic integrated circuit or system used to convert analog

signals to digital signals or binary (1 and 0).

Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC)

AFT

Automatic fine tuning. An electronic circuit used to automatically keep a resonant circuit tuned to
the frequency of an incoming radio signal.

AFC

Automatic flow controller. Used in controlling the flow of gasses under pressure into a vacuum
system.

AGC

Automatic gain control. A type of circuit in an amplifier to maintain a suitable signal amplitude at
its output, despite variation of the signal amplitude at the input.
AM / FM

AM = Amplitude Modulation. AM technology works by modulating the amplitude of the signal

transmitted according to the information being sent, while the frequency remains constant.

FM = Frequency Modulation. FM technology works by encoding the information by varying the

frequency of the wave and the amplitude remains constant.

AMM

Analog Multimeter. An electronic measuring instrument to measure voltage, current, continuity,

resistance, DC Ampere, and test electronic components and circuits.

Analog Multimeter

antilog

Antilogarithm. The number of which a given number is the logarithm.

Ap

Power gain. Ratio of an output power to an input power.

Apc

Automatic phase control. A device that protects from over voltage and also does quality control.

Av

Voltage gain. Ratio of the signal amplitude or power at the output port to the amplitude or power at
the input port.

AVC

Automatic volume control. Automatically adjusts the volume of an audio signal to make the audio
signal better heard.

AWG
American wire gauge. Standardized American wire gauge system for the diameters of round, solid,
nonferrous, electrically conducting wire.

AC

Alternating current. Electric current that periodically reverses its direction many times a second.

A/D

Analog to digital. In electronics, an analog-to-digital converter is a system that converts an analog

signal into a digital signal.

AF

Audio frequency. A frequency in the range 20 hertz to 20 000 hertz.

AFC

Automatic frequency control. A circuit to automatically keep a resonant circuit tuned to the
frequency of an incoming radio signal.

Ah

Ampere hour. The amount of charge in a battery that will allow one ampere of current to flow for
one hour.

AM

Amplitude modulation. The modulation of a wave by varying its amplitude.

Ai

Current gain. The ratio of output current vs input current.

Flux density. The number of magnetic lines of flux that pass through a certain point on a surface.

BCD

Binary coded decimal. A number represented using the binary coded decimal system.

bfo

Beat frequency oscillator. A special oscillator used to create an audio frequency signal from Morse
code radiotelegraphy transmissions to make them audible.

BJT

Bipolar junction transistor. A type of transistor that uses both electrons and holes as charge carriers.
Bipolar Junction Transistor

BW

Bandwidth. In terms of computing, bandwidth is the maximum rate of data transfer across a given
path. In terms of electronics, bandwidth is a range of frequencies within a given band, in particular
that used for transmitting a signal.

Centi (10-2). A unit prefix in the metric system denoting a factor of one hundredth.

Capacitance or capacitor. A capacitor is a passive electronic component with two leads or legs or
terminals that stores electrical energy in an electric field.

Capacitor

CAD

Computer aided design. The process of creating a technical drawing with the use of computer
software.

CAM

Computer aided manufacturing. Using computer software and computer-controlled machinery to

automate a manufacturing process.

CB
Common base configuration. Configuration where the base terminal of a transistor is a common to
both the input and output signals.

CB

In Electronics Dictionary, CB is defined as Citizen’s band. A land mobile radio system.

CC

Common collector. Configuration where the collector terminal of a transistor is a common to both
the input and output signals.

CE

Common emitter. Configuration where the Emitter terminal of a transistor is a common to both the
input and output signals.

cmil

Circular mil. Unit of area equal to area of a circle with a diameter of one mil (1/1/000 inch).

CPU

Central processing unit. The main IC of a computer, tablet, smartphone or high-end electronic
gadgets, that does all the main data processing work.

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

C (Q)

Coulomb. The SI unit of electric charge.

CR cr

Junction diode. A semiconductor diode in which a PN-junction is formed by fusing N-type material
with a P-type material for doing rectification work. All solar cells are junction diodes.

CRO
Cathode ray Oscilloscope. An electronic test instrument to obtain waveform of different input
signals. Also called Oscillograph.

Cathode Ray Oscilloscope

CRT

Cathode ray tube. A high-vacuum tube that produces cathode rays phosphorescent screen, and is
used to display images on TV or Computer Screen.

Cathode Ray Tube

CT

Total capacitance. Total capacitance of all the capacitors connected in series or parallel.

cw

Continuous transmission.

Deci (10-1). A decimal unit prefix in the metric system denoting a factor of one tenth.

D/A or D-A

Digital to Analog. In electronics, a digital-to-analog converter converts a digital signal into an

analog signal.
Digital to Analog Converter

DC

Direct current. Electric current flowing only in one direction.

DIP

Dual in-line package. A rectangular electronic component with parallel pins on both sides. These
packages can be soldered directly to the PCB or inserted in a socket.

Dual in-line Package

DMM

Digital Multimeter. A test and measurement tool with a digital display to measure electrical values
like voltage (volts), current (amps) and resistance (ohms).
Digital Multimeter

DPDT

Double pole double throw. A special switch with 2 inputs and 4 outputs.

DTL

Diode transistor logic. Digital circuits where logic gates use both diodes and transistors.

DVM

Digital voltmeter. An instrument used to measure electrical potential difference between two points
in an electric circuit.

E DC or Erms

Difference in potential. The amount of work done in carrying a unit charge from one point to
another in an electric field.

Instantaneous difference in potential.

ECG

Electrocardiogram. A test to check functioning of heart by measuring the electrical activity of the
heart in the form of impulse or wave.

ECL

Emitter coupled logic. A high-speed integrated circuit bipolar transistor logic family.
EHF

Extremely high frequency. Radio frequencies in the electromagnetic spectrum from 30 to 300
gigahertz (GHz).

EHV

Extra high voltage. Voltage of 230 kV and above.

ELF

Extremely low frequency. Radio waves with frequencies from 3 to 30 Hz.

EMF

Electromotive force. Electrical action produced by a non-electrical source.

EMI

Electromagnetic interference. Disturbance caused by an external source that affects an electrical

circuit by electromagnetic induction, electrostatic coupling, or conduction.

EW

Electronic warfare. Using electromagnetic spectrum to affect enemy spectrum in a warfare.

FET

Field effect transistor. An electronic component that uses an electric field to control the flow of
current.

FET – Field effect transistor

FF

Flip Flop. A two-state device to store binary data.

fil
Filament. A conducting wire with a high melting point used in an electric bulb or thermionic valve.

FM

Frequency modulation. Encoding of information in a carrier wave by varying the instantaneous

frequency of the wave.

fr

Frequency at resonance. The tendency of a system to oscillate at maximum amplitude at certain

frequencies.

fsk

frequency-shift keying. A digital modulation technique in which the frequency of the carrier signal
varies according to the digital signal changes.

FSD

Full scale deflection. The full range of motion of an analog needle of an analog meter, or a
galvanometer.

Gravitational force. Force that attracts any two objects with mass.

Conductance. Ease at which electric charge to flow in a certain conductor or circuit.

Giga (109 ). A unit prefix in the metric system denoting a factor of a billion.

Henry. SI unit of electrical inductance.

Magnetic field intensity. Ratio of the MMF needed to create a certain Flux Density within a
particular material per unit length of that material.

Magnetizing flux. The number of magnetic field lines passing through a surface.

h
hecto (102 ). A decimal unit prefix in the metric system denoting a factor of one hundred.

Hybrid. Combination of two or more different elements and having characteristics of both or all.

HF

High frequency. Radio frequency between 3 to 30 megahertz (MHz)

hp

Horsepower. A unit of measurement of power, or the rate at which work is done. 1 hp = 746 watts.

Hz

Hertz. A unit of frequency of one cycle per second.

Current. The rate of flow of electric charge past a point.

Instantaneous current. The amount of charge passing through through a conductor at a time.

IB

DC Base current. Base current of bipolar NPN transistor.

IC

DC Collector current. Collector current of bipolar NPN transistor.

IC

Integrated circuit. Assembly of active and passive electronic components in a single chip to perform
multiple tasks.
Integrated Circuit )IC)

Ie

Total emitter current of a bipolar NPN transistor.

Ieff

Effective current. The value of AC Current that would give the same amount of heat / energy as that
of DC Current at the same time interval.

IF

Intermediate frequency. The frequency to which a radio signal is converted during heterodyne
reception.

Imax

Maximum current.

Imin

Minimum current

I/O

Input/output

IR

Infrared. A type of radiant energy invisible to human eyes but can be sensed as heat.

IR

Resistor current.

IS

Secondary current.
IT

Total current

JFET

Junction field effect transistor. Simplest type of semiconductor transistor with three terminals
widely used in electronically controlled switches, voltage-controlled resistors and amplifiers.

Junction Field Effect Transistor (JFET)

Coefficient of coupling.

Kilo (103 ). In Electronics Dictionary, Kilo is defined as a decimal unit prefix in the metric system
denoting multiplication by one thousand.

kHz

Kilohertz. a measurement of frequency equivalent to 1,000 cycles per second.

kV

Kilovolt. 1000 volts ( 103 ).

kVA

Kilovoltampere. 1kVA = 1000VA. A unit of power in an electric circuit equal to 1000 volt-
amperes.

kW

Kilowatt. 1kW – 1000 Watts. A Unit of Electric Power equal to 1000 Watts.

kWh.
Kilowatt-hour. A a unit of energy where one kilowatt (1 kW) of power utilized for one hour (1 h) of
time.

Coil, inductance. In electronics, a coil or inductor is a conductive wire carrying electricity wound
around a core made of a magnetic material, like iron to produce a magnetic field or inductance.

Different Types of Coil or Inductor

LC

Inductance-capacitance.

Inductance is the ratio between the induced voltage and the rate of change of the current.

Capacitance is the capability of an element to store electric charge per unit voltage.

LCD

Liquid crystal display. A form of visual display with a layer of a liquid crystal used in electronic
devices as display.

LCD (Liquid Crystal Display)

L-C-R

Inductance-capacitance-resistance.
Inductance is the ratio between the induced voltage and the rate of change of the current.

Capacitance is the capability of an element to store electric charge per unit voltage.

Resistance is the measure of the opposition to current flow in an electrical circuit measure in ohms
(Ω)

LDR

Light-dependent resistor. An LDR or photoresistor is an electronic component with variable

resistance that changes with intensity of light falling on it.

LDR (Photoresistor)

LED

Light emitting diode. A semiconductor light source that emits light when current flows through it.

LED (Light Emitting Diode)

LF

In Electronics Dictionary, LF = Low frequency. Radio frequencies (RF) in the range of 30 kilohertz
(kHz) to 300 kHz.

LM
In Electronics Dictionary, LM = Mutual inductance. The property of an electric circuit which
permits mutual induction.

LNA

Low noise amplifier. An amplifier that amplifies a very low-power signal without much degradation
of its signal-to-noise ratio.

LO

Local oscillator. In electronics, it is used with a mixer to change the frequency of a signal.

LSI

Large scale integration. Technology used to manufacture powerful microchips or integrated circuits
(IC) in small sizes.

LT

Total inductance. The sum of the individual inductors connected in series or parallel.

Mega (106 ). A unit prefix in metric systems of units denoting a factor of one million.

Mutual conductance. The electrical characteristic relating the current through the output of a device
to the voltage across the input of a device.

MI

Mutual inductance. Property of a coil due to oppose the change of current in the neighboring coil.

Milli (10-3 ). A unit prefix in the metric system denoting a factor of one thousandth.

mA

Milliampere. A measure for small electric currents i.e. one thousandth of an ampere.

mag

Magnetron. A high-powered vacuum tube that works as a self-excited microwave oscillator.

MF

Medium frequency. Frequency in the range of 300 kHz and 3 MHz.

MH

Millihenry. A unit of inductance equal to one thousandth of a henry.

MHz

Megahertz. A unit of frequency equal to one million hertz.

mmf

Magnetomotive force. Magnetic potential or property of a substance that rise magnetic field.

mW

Milliwatt. A unit of power equal to one thousandth of a watt.

MOS

Metal oxide semiconductor device. Transistors with three layers – a metal conductor, an insulating
silicon layer, and a semiconductor silicon layer.

MOSFET

Metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor. A semiconductor device widely used in electronic
devices for switching and amplifying electronic signals.

MOSFET

MPU

Microprocessor unit. A computer processor unit on a single integrated circuit (IC) that performs
major data processing work.

MSI
Medium scale integrated circuit. Integrated Circuit (IC) with hundreds of transistors embedded in
one single chipset.

mV

Millivolt. One thousandth of a volt.

Number of turns in an inductor.

Revolutions per minute.

Nano (10-9). A unit prefix meaning one billionth.

Negative (-).

NA

Nanoampere. An SI unit of electrical current equal to 10 -9 amperes.

NC

Normally closed.

NC

No – connection.

NEG, neg

Negative (-)

NF

Nanofarad. An SI unit of electrical capacitance equal to 10 -9 farads

nH

Nanohenry. A unit of electrical inductance equal to 10-9 henries.

nm

Nanometer (10-9). One thousand-millionth of a meter.

NO

Normally open.

NPN.

Negative-positive-negative. Transistors with three-terminal that can function as am amplifier or

switch.

Ns

Nanosecond. An SI unit of time equal to one thousand-millionth of a second or 10 -9 seconds.

NW

Nanowatt. A unit of power equal to one billionth of a watt. or 10 -9 Watts.

OP AMP

Operational amplifier. An amplifier with high gain and high input impedance used in electronic
circuits to perform mathematical calculations on an input voltage.

Pico (10-12).

Power.

Instantaneous power. P=VI where P = Power, V = Instantaneous Voltage and I = Current.

Positive / Peak.

PA

Public address or power amplifier.

PA

Picoampere. An SI unit of current equal to 10-12 amperes.

PAL
Programmable Array Logic. A type of Programmable Logic Device used to perform a particular
logical function.

PAM, pam

Pulse amplitude modulation. A Type of analog pulse / signal modulation where the information is
encoded in the amplitude of a series of signal pulses.

Pap

Apparent power. The product of the rms values of voltage and current and measured in kVA or
MVA.

Pav

Average power. Average work done or Energy transferred per unit time.

PCB

Printed circuit board. A Substrate with conductive copper electronic circuit to support electronic
components and provide conductive pathway.

PCB – Printed Circuit Board

PCM, pcm

Pulse-code modulation. A pulse modulation technique in which the amplitude of an analogue signal
is converted to a binary value represented as a series of pulses.

PDM

Pulse-duration modulation. A modulation technique for encoding the amplitude of a signal right
into a pulse width or duration of another signal, usually a carrier signal, for transmission.

PF

Picofarad. A unit of capacitance equal to one trillionth (10 -12) of a farad.

PLD
Programmable Logic Device. An electronic device used to build reconfigurable digital circuits.

PLL

Phase locked loop. A control system to generate an output signal whose phase is related to the phase
of an input signal.

PM

Phase modulation, also Permanent magnet.

PNP

Positive-negative-positive. A transistor in which an n-type terminal is sandwiched between two p-

type terminals.

POT, pot

Potentiometer. An instrument to measure electromotive force.

P-P

Peak to peak. Measured between the greatest peaks of a periodically varying quantity.

PPM

Pulse-position modulation. A form of signal modulation in which M message bits are encoded by
transmitting a single pulse in one of possible required time shifts.

PRF

Pulse repetition frequency. The number of pulses of a repeating signal in a specific time unit,
measured in pulses per second.

PRT

Pulse repetition time. The time between the beginning of one pulse and the start of the next pulse.

Pw

Pulse width. Measurement of pulse transmission time in microseconds.

PWM, pwm

Pulse width modulation. Technique to control analog circuits with digital output of a
microprocessor.

Charge, also quality.

q

Instantaneous charge. Instantaneous current is the amount of charge passing through through a
conductor at a given time.

Potentiometer.

1. An instrument to measure electromotive force.

2. A variable resistor with a third adjustable terminal.

Resistance. The opposition of a resistor to the flow of electric current.

RAM

Random access memory. A type of volatile data storage used in computers, tablets, smartphone and
other similar electronic devices. All information stored in RAM is lost when the computer or the
device is turned off.

RC

Resistance-capacitance, also Radio controlled.

Rcvr

Receiver.

Rect

Rectifier. An electrical device that converts AC current into DC current by allowing current to flow
through it only in one direction.

Ref

Reference.

Rf / RF

Radio frequencies. Frequencies in the range 104 to 1011 or 1012 Hz, suitable for use in
telecommunications.

RFI

Radio frequency interference. Disturbance in the radio frequency spectrum, generated by an

external source that affects an electrical circuit by electromagnetic induction, electrostatic coupling,
or conduction.
RL

Load resistor. A pure resistive load that dissipates power as stated by Ohm’s Law.

RLC

Resistance-capacitance-inductance.

RMS, rms

Root mean square. The effective voltage or current of an AC wave.

ROM

Read only memory. A type of non-volatile data storage used in computers, tablets, smartphone and
other similar electronic devices. Information stored in ROM is NOT lost when the computer or the
device is turned off.

Rpm

Revolutions per minute.

SCR

Silicon controlled rectifier. A four-layer solid-state current-controlling device.

SHF

Super high frequency. Radio frequencies (RF) in the range between 3 and 30 gigahertz (GHz).

SIP

Single in-line package. An IC package with just one row of connection pins.

SIP = Single in-line package

SNR

Signal-to-noise ratio. A measure to compare the level of a desired signal to the level of background
noise.
SPDT

Single pole double throw. A switch with single input but can connect to and switch between 2
outputs.

SSB

Single sideband. A type of modulation for information transmission such as an audio signal, by
radio waves.

SW

Short wave. Radio wave of frequency between 3 to 30 MHz and wavelength between about 10 and
100 m.

SWR

Standing-wave ratio. A measure of impedance matching of loads to the characteristic impedance of

a transmission line or waveguide.

SYNC, sync

Synchronous. In electronics, a Synchronous circuit is a self-timed digital circuit.

Tera (1012). A unit prefix in the metric system.

Torque. Force that cause rotation.

Transformer. A device to reduce or increase the voltage of an alternating current (AC).

Time in seconds.

TC

Time constant, also temperature coefficient.

TE

Transverse electric. A mode whose electric field vector is normal to the direction of propagation.

Temp

Temperature.
THz

Terahertz (1012). A unit of measurement of frequency.

TM

Transverse magnetic. An electromagnetic wave in which the magnetic field vector is perpendicular
to the direction of propagation.

TR

Transmit-receive.

TTL

Transistor-transistor logic.

TWT

Travelling wave tube.

TV

Television.

UHF

Ultra high frequency. A radio frequency in the range 300 to 3,000 MHz.

UHV

Ultra high voltage. Voltage in the range of 52 kV and 300 kV.

UJT

Unijunction transistor. A Transistor with only one junction that acts exclusively as an electrically
controlled switch.

UV

Ultraviolet. Radiation with wavelength shorter than that of the violet end of the visible spectrum but
longer than that of X-rays.

Vacuum tube. A near-vacuum sealed glass tube which allows free passage of electric current.

V, v

Volt. The SI unit of electric potential or electromotive force.

v

Instantaneous voltage. The value of an AC voltage at a particular time.

VA

Volt ampere. The unit for apparent power in an electrical circuit.

Vav

Voltage (average value).

VBE

DC voltage base to emitter.

Vc

Capacitive voltage.

VCE

DC voltage collector to emitter.

VCO

Voltage controlled oscillator. An electronic oscillator whose oscillation frequency is controlled by

input voltage.

VHF

Very high frequency. Radio frequency in the range of 30 to 300 megahertz

VIn

Input voltage.

VL

Inductive voltage.

VLF

Very low frequency. Radio frequencies in the range of 3 to 30 kilohertz.

Vm, Vmax

Maximum voltage.
VOM

Volt ohm milliammeter. An instrument to measure current on more than one scale.

Vout

Output voltage.

Vp

Primary voltage.

VS

Source voltage.

VSWR

Voltage standing wave ratio. The ratio of the maximum to minimum voltage on a loss-less line.

VT

Total voltage.

Watt. The SI Unit of Power.

XC

Capacitive reactance. The internal resistance of the capacitance to the AC.

XL

Inductive reactance. The opposition to a changing current flow.

Admittance. A measure of how easily a circuit or device allows current to flow.

Impedance. Opposition to the flow of AC Electric Current by electronic component or circuit.

Zin

Input impedance.

Zo
Output impedance.

Zp

Primary impedance.

Zs

Secondary impedance.

ZT

Total impedance

Conclusion:

If you found this Electronics Dictionary Useful, Please share with others. You are also Free to Add
your own Terms and Meaning (that I may have missed) to this Electronics Dictionary.
Transistor basics (BJTs),(FETs)

 Post author:brainelectronic20
 Post published:November 13, 2020
 Post category:Blogs
 Post comments:0 Comments
Introduction Transistor basics (BJTs),(FETs)

This topic talk about the transistor (BJTs),(FETs) is a semiconductor device, Transistor is
short for transfer resistor. Since transistors are,  three-terminal devices, one electrode must
remain common to both the input and the output.

Basically, they are similar to 2 diodes back to back. There are 3 contacts made to a 
transistor; the base (B), emitter (E), and collector (C).

Transistors fall into two main categories.

 bipolar junction transistors (BJTs)

 field-effect transistors (FETs)

this semiconductor using material (silicon or germanium), their field of application

(e.g. general-purpose, switching, high-frequency, etc.) 

BJT ( Bipolar junction transistors)

Bipolar junction transistors generally comprise NPN or PNP junctions of either silicon (Si)
or germanium (Ge) material.
that are easy to find such as the 2N2222 (NPN), 2N3904 (NPN), and 2N3906 (PNP).

that so each junction within the transistor, whether it be collector-base or base-emitter,

constitutes a P–N junction.

NPN and PNP transistors that the base–emitter junction is forward

biased and the collector–base junction is reverse biased.
The only difference between NPN and PNP as far as their schematic symbols go is the
direction of the arrow on the emitter lead. For NPN the emitter arrow points away from the
base or body of the transistor for PNP the emitter arrow points toward the base or body of
the transistor.

Classification Typical applications

Transistors designed specifically for audio and low-frequency linear applications

Low-frequency
(below 100 kHz)

Transistors designed specifically for radio and wide band linear applications (100
High-frequency
kHz and above)

Transistors that operate at significant power levels (such devices are often sub-
Power divided into
audio and radio frequency types)

Switching Transistors designed for switching applications (including power switching)

Transistors that have low-noise characteristics and which are intended primarily
Low-noise for the
amplification of low-amplitude signals

High-voltage Transistors designed specifically to handle high voltages

Transistors that operate at medium power and voltage levels and which are often
Driver used to
precede a final (power) stage which operates at an appreciable power level
First transistor 70years ago

Transistor Properties and Rules

Rule 1: The collector voltage must always be greater than the emitter by approximately
0.2V.

Rule 2: The base-emitter and base-collector circuits in a transistor act like diodes.

”The base-emitter diode is forward biase and conducting when the transistor is operating. ”
The collector-base diode is reversed biased and not conducting.

Rule 3: Transistors all have maximum current and voltage ratings.

Rule 4: Now comes the fun part, as long as the collector voltage is

greater than the emitter voltage and we don’t exceed any of the voltage

maximums then the transistor “action” will occur.

Note: Transistor base/collector current relationship.

IC = hFE*IB = *IB

Transistor base-emitter voltage relationship.

VB = VE + 0.6V

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Current gain

The current gain offered by a transistor is a measure of its effectiveness as an amplifying

device.

The most commonly quoted parameter is that which relates to common-emitter mode.

The common-emitter current gain is given by:

where h
FE is the hybrid parameter which represents large signal (d.c.) forward current gain, IC is
the collector current and IB is the base
current.
Transistor basics (BJTs),(FETs) next page continue field-effect transistors…
What is the diode? and it why using

 Post author:brainelectronic20
 Post published:November 8, 2020
 Post category:Blogs / Uncategorized
 Post comments:5 Comments

What is the diode?

When a junction is forming between N-type and P-type semiconductor materials, the
resulting,  device is called a diode.

it allows the current to flow easily in one direction but severely restricts, current from
flowing in the opposite direction. 

Diode characteristics
An ideal diode would pass an infinite current in one direction and no current at all in the
other direction.

in addition, the diode would start to conduct current when the smallest of were present.

in practice, a small leakage current will flow in the reverse direction.

this leakage current is usually a very small fraction of the current that flows in the forward
direction.

if the p-type semiconductor material is made positive relative to the N-type material by an
amount greater than its forward threshold voltage.

(about 0.6 V if the material is silicon and 0.2V if the material is germanium), the diode will
freely pass current.
if, on the other hand, the p-type material is made negative relative to the N-type material,
the maximum (breakdown) voltage that the device can withstand.

note that the diode will be destroying the reverse breakdown voltage is jump.

DIODE TYEPS

Signal Diodes
  Also known as switching diodes and high – speed diodes, their small size provides a low
junction capacitance, enabling fast response times. they’re not designed to withstand high
current.
 signal diodes traditionally were package with axial leads for through-hole installation (like
traditional – styles resistor). although this format still exists.

Rectifier Diodes
  Physically larger than signal diodes, and capable of handling higher currents. Their higher
junction capacitance makes them unsuitable for fast switching.
 Rectifier diodes often have axial leads, although different package formats are using where
higher currents involve, and may include a heat sink, or may have provision for being
attached to a heat sink.
 There are no generally agreed maximum or minimum ratings to distinguish signal diodes
from rectifier diodes.

Zener Diode
 A Zener diode generally behaves very similarly to a signal or rectifier diode, except that its
breakdown voltage is lower.
 The Zener is intending to be reverse-biased; that is, conventional current is applied
through it “in the wrong direction” compared with conventional diodes.
 As the current increases, the dynamic resistance of the Zener diode decreases.
Transient Voltage Suppressor (TVS)

 A form of Zener diode designed to protect sensitive devices from transient voltage spikes
by clamping them—in other words, diverting the energy to the ground.
 A TVS can absorb as much as 30,000 volts from a lightning strike or static discharge.
 Typically the Zener diode is incorporate a network of other diodes in a surface-mount
integrated circuit chip.
 Zener diodes can also be using circuits to handle electrostatic discharge (ESD), which can
occur when a person unknowingly accumulates an electrostatic potential and then
grounds it by touching an electronic device.

Schottky Diode
  This type has a low junction capacitance, enabling faster switching than comparable
generic silicon diodes.
 It also imposes a lower forward voltage drop, which can be desirable in low-voltage
applications, and allows less power dissipation when a is necessary to control current flow.
 The Schottky diode fabricate a semiconductor-to-metal junction and tends to be slightly
more expensive than generic silicon diodes with similar voltage and current specifications.

Varactor Diode

 Also known as a varicap, this type of diode has variable capacitance controlled by reverse
voltage.
 While other diodes may exhibit this same phenomenon, the varactor is specifically
designed to exploit it at very high frequencies.

 The voltage expands or contracts the depletion region in the junction between the P and N
regions, which can be thought of as analogous to moving the plates of a capacitor nearer
together or farther apart.
 Because the capacitance of a varactor has a low maximum of about 100pF, its uses are
limited.

 It is using extensively in RF applications where it’s voltage-controlled variable capacitance

provides a uniquely useful way to control the frequency of an oscillator circuit.

 In almost all radio, cellular, and wireless receivers, a varactorcontrols a phase-locked loop
oscillator. In ham radio receivers, it can be use adjust the tuning of a filter that tracks an
incoming radiofrequency.
  A varactor is always reverse-biased below its breakdown voltage so that there is no direct
conduction.

 The voltage that controls a varactor must be absolutely free from random fluctuations that
would affect its resonant frequency.

Tunnel Diode, Gunn Diode, PIN

 Mostly used in very high frequency or microwave applications, where ordinary diodes are
unacceptable because they have insufficiently high switching speeds.

Diode Array
  Two or more diodes may be encapsulate in a single DIP or (more commonly) surface-
mount integrated circuit chip.
 The internal configuration and the pinouts of the chip will vary from one device to
another.
 Diode arrays maybe use for termination of data lines to reduce reflection noise.

Bridge Rectifier

 Although this is a diode array, it is commonly indexed in parts catalogs under the term
bridge rectifier.
 numerous through-hole versions are available with ratings as high as 25A, some designed
for single-phase input while others process three-phase AC.
 Screw-terminal components can rectify more than 1,000 volts at 1,000
 mainly used AC to DC conversion this diode using.
  Major mobile Hardware Faults
 Power source 12V – 5V
 Variable-Gain Audio Power Amplifier
 8051 microcontroller pin configuration
 8051 Microcontroller introduction

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Soldering Techniques

 Post author:brainelectronic20
  Post published:October 18, 2020
 Post category:Blogs / Uncategorized
 Post comments:0 Comments

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Soldering iron and Accessories

01. Temperature controlled iron.

 A soldering iron with electronic temperature control is highly recommended.

 If irons without temperature control can reach temperatures that are high enough to
irreversibly damage the tips.
 A higher wattage iron result in a faster temperature recovery time between soldering
operations 40W, 60W
Non – temperature controlled iron

 A low wattage (10W to 25W) pencil-type not gun -type can be used not recommended.

Modified, non temperature control

 A 10W to 40W pencil-type iron can be operated from a to limit the wattage and is a
reasonable substitute for a temperature controlled iron.

sponge

A sponge is required for keeping tips

clean for best heat transfer

soldering flux

1. Flux is used to prepare the surface of the conductors prior to soldering.

2. flux removes oxidation from the conductor and maintains an oxide-free surface to
elevated temperature during the soldering process.
3. the most common flux used in hand soldering of electronic components is rosin, a
combination of mild organic acids extracted from pine trees.
Solder

 Rosin core 60/40 sn/pb and 63/37 sn/pb solder are the most common types used for
electronic assembly. (0.2 – 0.5 dia is recommended )
Inductors

 Post author:brainelectronic20
 Post published:October 26, 2020
 Post category:Blogs / Uncategorized
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Inductors provide us with a means of storing electrical energy in the form of a

magnetic field.
Typical applications include chokes, filters and (in conjunction with one or more
capacitors)
frequency-selective circuits. The electrical characteristics of an inductor are
determined by
a number of factors including the material of the core (if any), the number of turns
and the physical
dimensions of the coil. Fig. 2.35 shows the construction of a typical toroidal inductor
wound
on a ferrite (high permeability) core. In practice every coil comprises both inductance
(L) and a small resistance (R). The circuit of Fig. 2.36 shows these as two discrete
components.
In reality the inductance and the resistance (we often refer to this as a loss resistance
because
it’s something that we don’t actually want) are
 Figure 2.36 A practical coil contains inductance
and a small amount of series loss resistance both distributed throughout the component  but it
is convenient to treat the inductance and

resistance as separate components in the analysis

of the circuit.

To understand what happens when a changing current flows through an inductor,

take a look at
the circuit shown in Fig. 2.37(a). If the switch is left open, no current will flow and no
magnetic
flux will be produced by the inductor. If the switch is closed, as shown in Fig. 2.37(b),
current will
begin to flow as energy is taken from the supply in order to establish the magnetic
field. However,
the change in magnetic flux resulting from the appearance of current creates a voltage
(an
induced e.m.f.) across the coil which opposes the applied e.m.f. from the battery.

The induced e.m.f. results from the changing flux and it effectively prevents an
instantaneous
rise in current in the circuit. Instead, the current increases slowly to a maximum at a
rate which
depends upon the ratio of inductance (L) to resistance (R) present in the circuit. After
a while,
a steady state condition will be reached in which the voltage across the inductor will
have decayed
to zero and the current will have reached a maximum value determined by the ratio of
V to R
(i.e. Ohm’s Law). This is shown in Fig. 2.37(c). If, after this steady-state condition has
been
achieved, the switch is opened, as shown in 
 Figure 2.37 Flux and e.m.f. generated when a changing current is

applied to an inducto Figure 2.37 Flux and e.m.f. generated

when a charging current is applied to an inductor

Fig. 2.37 (d), the magnetic field will suddenly collapse and the energy will be returned
to the
circuit in the form of an induced back e.m.f. which will appear across the coil as the
field collapses.
For large values of magnetic flux and inductance this back e.m.f. can be extremely
large!
 Inductance

Inductance is the property of a coil which gives rise to the opposition to a change in
the value of
current flowing in it. Any change in the current applied to a coil/inductor will result in
an induced
voltage appearing across it. The unit of inductance is the henry (H) and a coil is said
to have an
inductance of 1 H if a voltage of 1 V is induced across it when a current changing at
the rate of
1 A/s is flowing in it.

The voltage induced across the terminals of an inductor will thus be proportional to
the product
of the inductance (L) and the rate of change of applied current. Hence:

e = –L × (rate of change of current)

Note that the minus sign indicates the polarity of the voltage, i.e. opposition to the
change.
The rate of change of current is often represented by the expression di/dt where di
represents a
very small change in current and dt represents the corresponding small change in
time. Using
mathematical notation to write this we arrive at:

You might like to compare this with the similar

relationship that we obtained for the current
flowing in a capacitor.

Example 2.27
A current increases at a uniform rate from 2 A to 6 A in a period of 250 ms. If this
current is applied
to an inductor of 600 mH, determine the voltage induced.

Solution

Now the induced voltage will be given by:

e = –L × (rate of change of current)
 Energy storage

he energy stored in an inductor is proportional to the product of the inductance and

the square of
the current flowing in it. Thus:
W=½LI2
where W is the energy (in joules), L is the capacitance (in henries) and I is the current
flowing in the inductor (in amperes).

Example 2.28
An inductor of 20 mH is required to store 2.5 J
of energy. Determine the current that must be
applied.

Solution
The foregoing formula can be re-arranged to make
I the subject as follows.

Inductance and physical

dimensions

The inductance of an inductor depends upon the physical dimensions of the inductor
(e.g. the
length and diameter of the winding), the number of turns and the permeability of the
material of the
core. The inductance of an inductor is given by:
where L is the inductance (in henries), μ0 is the permeability of free space, μr is the
relative
permeability of the magnetic core, l is the mean length of the core (in metres) and A is
the cross-sectional area of the core (in square metres)

Example 2.29
An inductor of 100 mH is required. If a closed magnetic core of length 20 cm, cross-
sectional
area 15 cm2 and relative permeability 500 is available, determine the number of turns
required.

Solution
First we must re-arrange the formula

Inductor specifications

Inductor specifications normally include the value of inductance (expressed in henries,

millihenries
or microhenries), the current rating (i.e. the maximum current which can be
continuously
applied to the inductor under a given set of conditions), and the accuracy or tolerance
(quoted
as the maximum permissible percentage deviation from the marked value). Other
considerations
may include the temperature coefficient of the inductance (usually expressed in parts
per
million, p.p.m., per unit temperature change), the stability of the inductor, the d.c.
resistance
of the coil windings (ideally zero), the Q-factor (quality factor) of the coil and the
recommended
working frequency range. Table 2.6 summarizes the properties of four common types
of inductor.
Some typical small inductors are shown in Fig. 2.38. These have values of inductance
ranging
from 15 μH to 1 mH.

Inductor markings

As with capacitors, the vast majority of inductors use written markings to indicate
values, working
current and tolerance. Some small inductors are marked with coloured stripes to
indicate their
value and tolerance (in which case the standard colour values are used and inductance
is normally
expressed in microhenries) 
Variable inductors
A ferrite-cored inductor can be made variable by moving its core in or out of the
former onto which
the coil is wound. Many small inductors have threaded ferrite cores to make this
possible (see
Fig. 2.43). Such inductors are often used in radio
and high-frequency applications where precise
tuning is required.

Figure 2.43 An adjustable ferrite-cored inductor

Surface-mounted components
(SMCs)

Surface-mounting technology (SMT) is now widely used in the manufacture of printed

circuit boards
(PCBs) for electronic equipment. SMT allows circuits to be assembled in a much
smaller space
than would be possible using components with conventional wire leads and pins that
are mounted
using through-hole techniques. It is also possible to mix the two technologies, i.e. some
throughhole mounting of components and some SMCs present on the same circuit
board. The following
combinations are possible:  SMCs on both sides of a printed circuit board
 SMC on one side of the board and conventional through-hole components (THCs)
on the other  A mixture of SMCs and THCs on both sides of
the printed circuit board. SMCs are supplied in packages that are designed
for mounting directly on the surface of a PCB. To provide electrical contact with the
PCB, some
SMCs have contact pads on their surface. Other devices have contacts which extend
beyond
the outline of the package itself but which terminate on the surface of the PCB rather
than
making contact through a hole (as is the case with a conventional THC). In general,
passive
components (such as resistors, capacitors and inductors) are configured leadless for
surface
mounting, while active devices (such as transistors and integrated circuits) are
available in
both surface mountable types as well as lead and leadless terminations suitable for
making direct
contact to the pads on the surface of a PCB. Most SMCs have a flat rectangular shape
rather
than the cylindrical shape that we associate with conventional wire leaded
components. During
manufacture of a PCB, the various SMCs are attached using re-flow soldering paste
(and in
some cases adhesives) which consists of particles of solder and flux together with
binder, solvents
and additives. They need to have good ‘tack’ in order to hold the components in place
and
remove oxides without leaving obstinate residues. The component attachment (i.e.
soldering!)
process is completed using one of several techniques including convection ovens in
which
the PCB is passed, using a conveyor belt, through a convection oven which has
separate zones
for preheating, flowing and cooling, and infrared re-flow in which infra-red lamps are
used to
provide the source of heat. SMCs are generally too small to be marked with
colour codes. Instead, values may be marked using three digits. For example, the first
two digits
marked on a resistor normally specify the first two digits of the value while the third
digit gives the
number of zeros that should be added. 
Types of capacitors

 Post author:brainelectronic20
 Post published:November 19, 2020
 Post category:Blogs
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(Types of capacitors) There are many capacitor types, which usually refers to the
material used for the electrodes, dielectric, and the packing or selling.

Disk ceramic capacitor

Disk ceramic consists of two metallic plates separated by a ceramic dielectric, whose area
and spacing determine the capacitance.

they’re main with temperature (high-temperature coefficient ), except for the ”NP0”
varieties that are temperature stable. These caps are low cost and suitable for many
applications.

these caps are the most common use for general purpose circuits, but non-NP0 should be
avoid in frequency determining circuits.
Monolithic ceramic capacitor

Alternating layer of electrodes and ceramic dielectric allow higher capacitance in

physically smaller packages.
their characteristics are very similar to disk ceramics. they are encapsulate in epoxy to
withstand insertion, soldering, and solvent cleaning by the automatic PCB assembly
machines.

Polyester film capacitor

polyester films use layers of metal and polyester dielectric to make a small packages at low
voltages.

these have become the stand caps for DC applications.

the ”rolled” film layers cause high dissipation and capacitance vs.

temperature problems, and should be use carefully in high frequency or high current
applications.

Polypropelene films capacitors

polypropelene films use layers of metal and polypropelene dielectric film virtually identical
to polyester film caps.

the polypropelene, however, is a dielectric

offering a higher breakdown voltage applications, such as switching power

supplies.

they also have low factor and good capacitance stability making them a

good choice for high-frequency applications, including oscillators and other

frequency sensitive circuits.the main disadvantage are a slightly higher

cost, and large physical size over other film dielectric capacitors.

Silver mica capacitor

This is a types of capacitor know as metalize film capacitor, in that the electrodes are metal

deposited by a sputtering process onto the dielectric film.

silver mica’s use a mica film dielectric with a thin layer of deposited silver forming the
electrodes.

these are very stable capacitor for high-frequency circuits and the preferre choice for VFO
and oscillator circuits.

the main disadvantage are their higher cost, low operating voltage, and

sometimes hard to find from hobby vendors.

Types of capacitors

Electrolytic capacitors

Aluminum electrolytics are the most

common, inexpensive electrolytic available

from all hobby vendors.

they are made similar to the polyester films,

using aluminum foil electrodes and a

dielectric material rolled into layers to increases the effective plate area to

from high capacitances in small packages. the aluminum foil is ” wetted”

with a chemical agent to assist in conduction and increases the dielectric

properties when a DC voltage. this wetting agent can dry out after

long periods of no use, or exceeding the rate voltage, casuing a breakdown

of the dielectric and component failure. this is why electroytics are often

found short in older equipment that has not been power up. these inexpensive aluminum
electrolytic caps are

suitable in all QRP application.

Tantalum capacitor

tantalum’s are the most unusual process that

yields a high reliable electrolytic with a log life.

tantalum pentoxide power is mix with a

manganese dioxide electrolyte and formed into

a ”pellet,” forming both the dielectric and the positive electrode plate.

graphite or silver plating forms the negative plate.

this ”pellet” forms a very small package. both wet and dry electrolytes are

use and call wet or dry tantalum. the disadvantage are higher cost due to

the complicate manufacturing process, and ensuring you never reverse the

polarity. A small positive voltage on the negative terminal can fuse the ”pellet”.Types of
capacitors
 T
ypes of capacitors
How activate New Iphone?

 Post author:brainelectronic20
 Post published:April 23, 2020
 Post category:Tech News / Uncategorized
 Post comments:0 Comments

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Activate & register a new iphone

Just got an iPhone? we guide you through the process of settings up your device and registration it
to your apple id follow the steps
Step 01

01.first switch on your iphone will be presented screen >> Tap and hold the slider and
swipe it unlock your phone.

step 02

02. You’ll be presented with a list different language >> select your language.
step 03

03. select your country or region .

step 04

04. the next part of the process is dedicated to your device’s location service >> this
allows apps to use data indicating your location
step 05

05. your iphone relies on a Wi-Fi network to be able to connect to the internet and fuel
a wealth of different service.

step 06

06. you’re given three options in the next step >> select the set up as New iphone.
step 07

07. next step select >> create a free Apple ID.

( you have already have apple id select >> sign in your apple ID).

step 08

08.After signing , you presented screen terms and conditions . it is important read
through accept.
step 09

09. Apple’s iCloud first cane with ios 5 and it allows you to back up data from your
iphone to your iphone to your own free cloud storage space.

step 10

10.if you lose your iPhone, it can be quite worrying. find my iPhone will help you to
locate it. activate this service to sync the location of your device with your iCloud.
step 11

11. Face time lets people speak face-to-face via the camera, while iMessage provides
free messaging between apple devices. enter your email address or phone number to
use them.

step 12

12. Enter a four – digit passcode to secure your iphone and prevent others using it.
you ‘ll need to enter the code every time you unlock your device, through newer
iphone can use your fingerprint.
step 13

13. Apple-like to keep track of how its products are preforming, so this screen allows
you to send diagnostic data straight to apple. you wont notice any of this, but it’ s still
up to you.
more details watching video below
What is the diode? and it why using

 Post author:brainelectronic20
 Post published:November 8, 2020
 Post category:Blogs / Uncategorized
 Post comments:5 Comments

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what is the diode?

When a junction is forming between N-type and P-type semiconductor materials, the
resulting,  device is called a diode.

it allows the current to flow easily in one direction but severely restricts, current from
flowing in the opposite direction. 

Diode characteristics

An ideal diode would pass an infinite current in one direction and no current at all in
the other direction.

in addition, the diode would start to conduct current when the smallest of were
present.

in practice, a small leakage current will flow in the reverse direction.

this leakage current is usually a very small fraction of the current that flows in the
forward direction.
if the p-type semiconductor material is made positive relative to the N-type material
by an amount greater than its forward threshold voltage.

(about 0.6 V if the material is silicon and 0.2V if the material is germanium), the diode
will freely pass current.
if, on the other hand, the p-type material is made negative relative to the N-type
material, the maximum (breakdown) voltage that the device can withstand.

note that the diode will be destroying the reverse breakdown voltage is jump.

DIODE TYEPS

Signal Diodes
  Also known as switching diodes and high – speed diodes, their small size provides a low
junction capacitance, enabling fast response times. they’re not designed to withstand
high current.
 signal diodes traditionally were package with axial leads for through-hole installation
(like traditional – styles resistor). although this format still exists.

Rectifier Diodes
  Physically larger than signal diodes, and capable of handling higher currents. Their
higher junction capacitance makes them unsuitable for fast switching.
 Rectifier diodes often have axial leads, although different package formats are using
where higher currents involve, and may include a heat sink, or may have provision for
being attached to a heat sink.
 There are no generally agreed maximum or minimum ratings to distinguish signal diodes
from rectifier diodes.

Zener Diode
 A Zener diode generally behaves very similarly to a signal or rectifier diode, except that
its breakdown voltage is lower.
 The Zener is intending to be reverse-biased; that is, conventional current is applied
through it “in the wrong direction” compared with conventional diodes.
 As the current increases, the dynamic resistance of the Zener diode decreases.
Transient Voltage Suppressor (TVS)

 A form of Zener diode designed to protect sensitive devices from transient voltage
spikes by clamping them—in other words, diverting the energy to the ground.
 A TVS can absorb as much as 30,000 volts from a lightning strike or static discharge.
 Typically the Zener diode is incorporate a network of other diodes in a surface-mount
integrated circuit chip.
 Zener diodes can also be using circuits to handle electrostatic discharge (ESD), which can
occur when a person unknowingly accumulates an electrostatic potential and then
grounds it by touching an electronic device.

Schottky Diode
  This type has a low junction capacitance, enabling faster switching than comparable
generic silicon diodes.
 It also imposes a lower forward voltage drop, which can be desirable in low-voltage
applications, and allows less power dissipation when a is necessary to control current
flow.
 The Schottky diode fabricate a semiconductor-to-metal junction and tends to be slightly
more expensive than generic silicon diodes with similar voltage and current
specifications.

Varactor Diode

 Also known as a varicap, this type of diode has variable capacitance controlled by
reverse voltage.
 While other diodes may exhibit this same phenomenon, the varactor is specifically
designed to exploit it at very high frequencies.

 The voltage expands or contracts the depletion region in the junction between the P and
N regions, which can be thought of as analogous to moving the plates of a capacitor
nearer together or farther apart.
 Because the capacitance of a varactor has a low maximum of about 100pF, its uses are
limited.

 It is using extensively in RF applications where it’s voltage-controlled variable

capacitance provides a uniquely useful way to control the frequency of an oscillator
circuit.
  In almost all radio, cellular, and wireless receivers, a varactorcontrols a phase-locked
loop oscillator. In ham radio receivers, it can be use adjust the tuning of a filter that
tracks an incoming radiofrequency.
 A varactor is always reverse-biased below its breakdown voltage so that there is no
direct conduction.

 The voltage that controls a varactor must be absolutely free from random fluctuations
that would affect its resonant frequency.

Tunnel Diode, Gunn Diode, PIN

 Mostly used in very high frequency or microwave applications, where ordinary diodes
are unacceptable because they have insufficiently high switching speeds.

Diode Array
  Two or more diodes may be encapsulate in a single DIP or (more commonly) surface-
mount integrated circuit chip.
 The internal configuration and the pinouts of the chip will vary from one device to
another.
 Diode arrays maybe use for termination of data lines to reduce reflection noise.

Bridge Rectifier

 Although this is a diode array, it is commonly indexed in parts catalogs under the term
bridge rectifier.
 numerous through-hole versions are available with ratings as high as 25A, some
designed for single-phase input while others process three-phase AC.
 Screw-terminal components can rectify more than 1,000 volts at 1,000
 mainly used AC to DC conversion this diode using.
 Major mobile Hardware Faults
 Power source 12V – 5V
 Variable-Gain Audio Power Amplifier
 8051 microcontroller pin configuration
 8051 Microcontroller introduction
RESISTOR

 Post author:brainelectronic20
 Post published:April 25, 2020
 Post category:Blogs / Uncategorized
 Post comments:4 Comments

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  A resistor is a device that reduces the current flow.
 The resistor has the tendency of the conductor to limit electron flow.
 The only circuits that come near to zero resistance become superconductors.
 Resistor measured in ohms, the greek capital omega (Ω) is the symbol for denoting
ohms.

Resistance, current, voltage, power most use important formula.

( V=IR) resistor symbol’s

IN SERIES CIRCUIT

 A series circuit is a circuit in which resistors are arranged in a chain.

 The current has only one path to take.
 the current is the same through each resistor.
 for resistor in series the total effective resistance is the sum of the value: R= R1+R2

IN PARALLEL CIRCUIT

 A Parallel circuit is a circuit in which the resistor is arranged with their heads connected
together, and their tails connected together.
 The current in a parallel circuit breaks up, with some flowing along each parallel branch
and re-combining when the branches meet again.
 The voltage across each resistor in parallell is the same.

Parallel circuit formula

Resistor types

There are two basic types of resistors.

 Linear resistors.
 Non Linear Resistors.
Linear resistor

Generally, there are two types of resistors which have linear properties.

 Fixed resistors
 Variable resistors

Types of Fixed resistor

Carbon composition resistors

Wire wound resistor

Thin Film resistors (carbon,metal)

Thick Film resistor (metal oxide, cermet, fusible

Types of variable resistors
potentiometers

Rheostats resistor

Trimmers
Non linear resistor
Thermister

Varisters (VDR)

Light dependent resistor (LDR)

Resistor are used:

 For current control and limiting.

 To change electrical energy in the form of heat energy.
 As a shunt in ampere meters.
 As a multiplier in a voltmeter.
 To control temperature.
 To control voltage drop.
 for protection purposes, eg- fusible resistor.
 In laboratories.
 in home electrical appliances.
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