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Wire Rope Users Manual AISI
Wire Rope Users Manual AISI
USERS MANUAL
,-
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$2.50
The publication of the material contained herein is not intended' as a warranty on the
part of American Iron and Steel Institute-or that of any person named herein-that
these data are suitable for any general or particular use, or of freedom from infringement
of any patent or patents. Any use of these data or suggested practices can only be
made with the understanding that American Iron and Steel Institute makes no warranty
of any kind respecting such use and the user assumes all liability arising therefrom.
1. INTRODUCTION / 5
2. BASIC COMPONENTS / 7
3. WIRE ROPE IDENTIFICATION AND CONSTRUCTION / 9
4. HA'NDLINGWIREROPE /17
Receiving, Inspection and Storage /17
Wire Rope Installation / 18
Unreeling & Uncoiling / 19
Seizing Wire Rope / 22
Cutting Wire Rope / 24
End Attachments / 25
Efficiency ofEnd Attachments /25
Socketing/ 28
Wire Rope Clips / 29
How to Apply Clips / 29
Wedge Sockets / 33
Drums-Grooved / 34
Drums-Plain (Smooth) / 35
Drums-Multiple Layers / 36
5. OPERAnON AND MAINTENANCE OF WIRE ROPE / 37
Sheaves & Drums / 37
Bending Rope Over Sheaves & Drums / 39
Inspection of Sheaves and Drums / 42
The "X-Chart"-Abrasion Resistance vs. Bending-Fatigue Resistance / 44
Breaking in aNew Wire Rope /·45
Wire Rope and Operations Inspection / 45
Strength Loss of Rope Over Sheaves or Stationary Pins / 47
Fleet Angle / 48
Factors Affecting the Selection of Wire Rope / 49
Guideline to Inspections and Reports / 52
Field Lubrication / 68
Wire Rope Efficiency Over Sheaves. /70·
. 6. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES /73.
Elastic Properties of Wire Rope / 73
Design Factors / 76
Breaking Strengths / 77 _
APPENDIX A O"rdering Storing and Unreeling Wire Rope / 97
APPENDIXB A Glossary of Wire Rope Terms /99
APPENDIX C Wire Rope Fittings / 109
APPENDIXD Socketing / 120
APPENDIXE . Shipping Reel Capacity / 125
APPENDIX F Weights of Materials / 126
CONTENTS IN ALPHABETICAL ORDER /128
3
Acknowledgements
Tabular data and accompanying reference drawings for wire rope clips were
provided by The Crosby Group. All other illustrations used throughout were
.furnished by member companies of the Committee of Wire Rope Producers
(AISI). Drawings were prepared especially for this publication and are based
wholly or in part on graphic material that originally appeared in literature issued
separately by various member companies of the Committee.
Numericaland factual data, not otherwise credited, were obtained from
·r. published and unpublished sources supplied by the Committee (AIS!) and by the
Wire Rope Technical Board (WRTB).
4
1 Introduction
ma-chine: an assemblage of parts . .. that transmit forces, motion, and energy one
to another in some predetermined manner and to some desired end . ..
-Webster's Third New International Dictionary
5
Ii.
choice.' In the filial analysis, responsibility for design and use decisions rest with
the user. .
The selection of equipment or components is frequently influenced by the
special demands of an industry. An equipment manufacturer may, for reasons of
space, econom.y, etc., feeic0111pelled to depart from suggested procedures
given in these pages. It is important to remember that such variations from
recommended practices should be regarded as potential dangers. However, when
such circumstances are unavoidable they demand compensating efforts on the
part of the user. These "extras" should include (but not necessarily be limited to)
more frequent and more thorough inspections by skilled, specifically trained
personnel. Additionally, these circumstances may demand the keeping of special
lubrication and mainteriaricerecords, and the issuance of special warnings
regarding removal and replacement criteria.
\.
2 Basic Components
Wire rope consists of three essential components. These, while fewin number',
vary in both complexity and configuration so as to produce ropes for specific
purposes or char~cteristics.Basically, these three components of a standard wire
rope design are: 1) wires that form the strand, 2) a core, and 3) the multi-wire
strands laid helically around the core (Fig. 1).
Wire, for rope, is made in several materials and types; these include steel,
iron, stainless steel, monel, and bronze. By far, the most widely used material
is high-carbon steel. This is available in a variety of grades each of which has
properties related to the basic curve for steel rope wire. (Wire rope manufacturers
select the wire type that is most appropriate for requirements of the finished
product.)
"iron"type wire is actuaEy :i j,jh'-carbon steel and has fairly limited use
except for older elevator installations. However, when iron is used for other than
elevator application, it is most frequently galvanized.
Steel wire strengths are appropriate to the particular grade of the wire rope in
which they are used. These grades of wire rope are traction steel, mild plow steel,
plow steel, improved plow steel, and extra improved plow steel. (While steel grade
(STRAND names originated at the earliest stages of wire rope devt"lorment, they ~";1Ve been
retained and serve as indicators of the strength of a particular size and grade of
!;.;,. rope). The strength of plow steel forms the basis for calculating the strength of all
steel rope wires, and the tensile strength of any grade is not constant, but varies
with the diameter-being highest for the smallest wires.
The most common finish for steel wire is "bright" or uncoated. Steel wires
may also be galvanized (zinc coated). "Drawn galvanized" wire has the same
strength as bright wire, but wire "galvanized at finished size" is usually 10%
lower in strength. In some special applications, tinned wire is used. but it should
be noted that tin provides no sacrificial (cathodic) protection for the steel
as does zinc.
Listed in order of frequency of use, stainless steel ropes are made of AISI
Types 302/304, 316, and 305. Contrary to general belief, hard-drawn stainless
Type 302/304 is magnetic. Type 316 is less magnetic and Type 305 has a
permeability low enough to qualify as non-magnetic.
Monel Metal wire is usually Type 400 and conforms to Federal
Specification QQ-N-281.
Bronze wire is usually Type A Phosphor Bronze (CDA#510) although
other bronzes are sometimes specified.
The core is the intrinsic foundation of wire rope; and is made of materials
that will provide proper support for the strands under normal bending and
loading conditions. Core materials include fibers (hard vegetable or synthetic) or
steel. The steel core consists either of stranded wires or of another independent
wire rope. The three most commonly used core designations are: fiber core
(FC), independent wire rope core (lWRC). and strand core (WSC) (Fig. 2).
Catalog descriptions of the various available ropes include these abbreviations
to identify the type of core.
Strands are made up of two or more wires, laid in one of many specific
Figure 1. The three basic components of a geometric arrangements. or in a combination of steel wires with some other
typical wire rope. materials such as natural or synthetic fibers. Although it is conceivable that a
7
strand can be made up of any number of wires, or that a rope can have any number
of strands, in the United States the majority of wire ropes are designed with six
strands. Major U.S. strand classifications are 7-, 19-,37-,61-,91-, and 127-wire.
Despite their numerical characteriiations, it should be noted that the
classifications do not necessarily refer "to the actual wire count in each strand.
In standard manufacturing practice, rope constructions do not necessarily have
the specific wire counts given by their respective classifications. The following
section, WIRE ROPE IDENTIFICATION," provides a complete description
of the construction of each classification.
To summarize: a wire rope consists, in most cases, of three components:
wires, strands, and a core (Fig. 2). To these may be added what may be
considered a fourth component: the wire rope's lubricant-a factor vital to the
satisfactory performance of most operating ropes.
8
3 Wire Rope Identification and Construction
Wire rope is identified not only by its component parts, but also by it~ construction,
Le., by the way the wires have been laid to form strands, and by the way the
strands have been laid around the core.
In Figure 3, drawings "a" and "c" show strands as normally laid into the
rope to the right-in a fashion similar to the threading in a right-hand bolt.
Conversely, the "left lay" rope strands (drawings "b" and "d") are laid in the
opposite direction.
Again in Figure 3, the first two drawings ("a" and "b") show regular lay
ropes. Following these are the types known as lang lay ropes. Note that the wires
in regular lay ropes appear to line up with the axis of the rope; in lang lay rope
the wires form an angle with the axis of the rope. This difference in appearance is
a result of variations in manufacturing techniques: regular lay rope's are
made so that the direction of thewire lay in the strand is opposite to the direction
of the strand lay in the rope; lang lay ropes ("c" and "d") are made with both
strand lay and rope lay in the same direction. Finally, the type "e" called
alternate lay consists of alternating regular and lang lay strands.
,-
Fi!!llre 3. A comparison of typical wire rope Jays: a) right rl'gular ray, b) Il'ft rl'glliar ray,
c) right lang lay, d) Il'ftlang lay, e) right altanCltl' lay.
9
. Of all wire rope types in current use, right regular lay is found in the widest
range of applications. Many applications related to excavation, construction
or mining, require lang lay rope. Currently, left lay rope is used less frequently.
In any case, where left lay and/or lang lay are required, the manufacturer/supplier
must be so informed before ordering. As for alternate lay ropes, these
are used for special applications.
Circumstances that favor the use of lang lay ropes derive from two unique
advantages over regular lay ropes. Lang lay ropes: 1) are more resistant to
bending fatigue, and 2) have a greater wearing surface per wire across the crown
of the strand. The total wearing surface area of the rope is, for practical purposes,
the same for both regular and lang lay ropes-with the same geometric
construction and depth of wear-the eventual wear on the equipment and the
service life of the rope favors laI1glay construction on applications where
fatigue or abrasion are controlling factors.
To illustrate this point, Figure 4 compares a regular lay with a lang lay rope,
each of which has been worn to the same amount of reduction in their
respective diameters.
Hence, it is not the total of the rope's worn surface area that governs the
life span of rope and equipment. It is, rather, the inherent characteristics of
properly used lang lay ropes that gives them a significant advantage in resistance
to both abrasion and fatigue.
However, lang lay ropes have some disadvantages. They are more
susceptible to damage resulting from: handling abuses, bending' over extremely
small sheaves, pinching in undersize sheave grooves, crushing when improperly
wound on drums, and they are subject to excessive rotation. In fact, this latter
tendency for the rope and the strands to unwind in the same direction, requires that
lang lay ropes should be secured at both ends to prevent unlaying or spinning out.
Preforming is a wire rope manufacturing process wherein the strands and
their wires are shaped-during fabrication-to the spiral form that they will
ultimately assume in the finished rope or strand.
As previously noted,wire rope strands are made up of a number of wires.
I
I
I
I
A-· _-BI
:\1
REGULAR LAY
Figure 4. A comparison of wear characteristics hetween l(//IR lay and r{'Rular lay rdpes. The line a-b indicates the rope axis.
10
The wire' arrangeme'nt in the strands will determine the rope's functional
characteristics, i.e., its capacity to Dleet the operatjng conditions to which it wilI
be subjected. There are many basic'design constructions around which
standard wire ropes are built; some of these are shown in Figure 5.
Four typical strand cross-sections, designed around the Warrington, Seale
and Filler Wire basic constructions are shown in Figure 6.
Wire ropes are identified by a nomenclature that is referenced to: 1) the
number of strands in the rope, 2) the number (nominal or exact) and
arrangement of wires in each strand, and 3) a descriptive word or letter indicating
the type of construction. i.e., geometric arrangement of wires (Fig. 7).
Under the earlier section BASIC COMPONENTS, mention was made
concerning the manner in which wire rope constructions are grouped or classified.
The most widely used classifications are listed and described in Table 1.
At this point, it may be useful to discuss wire rope nomenclature in
somewhat greater detail. It is a subject that may easily generate some
misunderstanding. The reason for this stems from the practice of referring to
rope either by class or by its specific construction.
Ropes are classified both by the number of strands and the nurriber of wires
in each strand, e.g., 6x7, 6x 19, 6x3 7,8x J 9, J 9x7, etc. However, these are'nominal
classifications that mayor may not represent the actual construction: For example,
the 6x19 class commonly includes constructions such as 6x21 filler wire, 6,,25 filler
wire,and 6x26 Warrington Seale. Despite the fact that none of these have, 19
wires, they are designated as being in the 6x 19 classification.
Hence, a supplier receiving an order for 6x 19 rope may assume this to be a
class reference and is legally justified in furnishing any construction within this
category. But, if the job should require the special characteristics of 6x25 W, and
a 6x19 Seale (Fig. 5) is supplied in its stead, a shorter service life can be expected.
To avoid such misunderstanding, the safest procedure is to order a specific
construction if such geometry is essential for the intended purpose, or to order
, both by class and construction, e.g., 6x 19 (6x26 Warrington Seale).
Identifying wire rope in class groups facilitates selection on the basis of
strength, weight/ft. and price since aU ropes within a class have the same nominal
strength, weight/ft and price. As for other functional ,characteristics, these can
be obtained by referencing the specific construction within the class.
Only three wire ropes in the 6x 19 classification actually have 19 wires:
6x19 2 operation, 6x19 Seale, and6x19 Warrington. All the rest have different
counts. There is a greater proportion of 37-wire constructions in the 6x37 class
but these are infrequently produced. The more commonly available 6x37
'constructions include: 6x31 Seale. 6x31 Warrington Seale (WS). 6x36 WS,
6x4l Seale FiUerWire (SFW), 6x41. WS, 6x43 FW, '6x46 WS, etc,-none of
which contains 37 wires.
While a strand's interior has some significance. its important characteristics
relate to the number and, in consequence, the size of the outer wires. This is
discussed in somewhat greater detail in the section titled FACTORS AFFECTING
THE SELECTION OFWIRE ROPE (p. 49).
11
Wire rope nomenclature also defines: length, size (Le., diam.), type, direction
of lay, grade of rope, type of core. and whether it is preformed (p/f) or
non-preformed (np/f). If the direction and type of lay are omitted from the
rope description, it is presumed to be. a right regular lay. In addition, if no mention
is made as to preforming, this will be presumed as a requirement .for preforming.
On the other hand, an order for elevator rope requires an explicit statement
since p/f and np/f ropes are used extensively.
An example of a complete description would appear thus:
600 ft %" 6x25 FW Left lang lay
Improved plow IWRC
(Rope described above would be made PREFORMED.)
.....,. .
......,.
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ft••• ,
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. -" j
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6125 FW
Figure 5. Basic constructions around which standard wire ropes are built.
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6.21 SEALE WITH 6.31 WARRINGTON
WITH IWRC SEALE WITH IWRC
12
TABLE I' WIRE ROPE CLASSIFICATIONS
Based on the Nominal Number of Wires in Each Strand
'.-'
Classification Description
/
\.~:'
13
5119 MARLINE CLAD 6142 TILLER ROPE
Figure 8. Three special purpose constructions that suggest wire rope's inherent
design potential.
...'.
14
Figure 9. Cross-sections of some commonly
used wire rope constructions.
6 x7 CLASSIFICATION
. .
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.
6,25B FLATIENED STRAND 6xl9 SEALE WITH IWRC
. :...
TRIANGULAR CENTER WIRE.
... ........
•••••
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6 x 19 CLASSIFICATION
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6,31 FI.LLER WIRE • 6,3i WARRINGTON SEALE 6,36 FILLER WIRE
WITH'IWRC
.•.......
WITH IWRC WITH IWRC
. .... ......•'..•.
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6,41 SEALE FILLER
WIRE WITH IWRC
.~ ~
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6,46 SEALE FILLER
WIRE WITH IWRC
~
6:x37 CLASSIFICATION
"Also manufactured as 6x27H and 6x25B.
""Also manufactured as 6x27V.
15
The mostwidely used constructions forelevatoTT9pe are.6x25 FW, ...•.. .•..
8xI9 Seale, and 8x25 FW. But,on occasion, anumber of other constructions , . ! ; ,I
are
" .1~,
used. In any case, these ropes differ significantly from one another in their wear
and fatigue characteristics, thus they should not be inter-changed indiscriminately.
There are, in fact, some applications~such as governor rope-where the ropes
may not 'be interchanged either in grade or construction without re-qualification.
A special construction (6x42) is still used from time to time a~ a hand rope
to control the elevator, and small diameter ropes (of 7x 19 construction) are
used as control ropes for operating floor selection equipment.
From reel to reel, there are slight yet significant differences in the elastic
properties of wire rope. Because of such possible variations, it is strongly
suggested that all rope for a given elevator be obtained from a single reel.
Recognizing the need for such precaution, many codes and purchasing
specifications make this a standard requirement.
As noted, it is beyond the scope of this publication to discuss, in depth, design
and selection considerations for elevator rope. Information concerning sheave
diameters, design factors (ratio of nominal strength to working load), groove
contours, etc. can be found in the ANSI Code Al 7.1.
To obtain current data and sound technical guidance on elevator rope or
any other special requirements, a reputable wire rope manufacture~ should
be consulted.
.. .. • !. .•.\,.
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8119 SEALE WITH
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W
8 I Z5 FILLER WIRE
W ':e
b ....
."...
1817 ROTATION RESISTANT
l:iji"eO..:::
-O:!:-
19>7 ROTATION RESISTANT
IWRC WITH IWRC Willi FIBER CORE WITH WIRE STRANO CORE
8119 CLASSIFICATION I~J7 a 1917 CLASSIFICATIONS
Figure 10. Cross-sections of wire ropes designed for specific functions. Note that the two
rotation-resistant constructions are identical except for the core--one of which is wire strand
and the other fiber. The wire strand core increases the number of strands.from 18 to 19.
16
4 Handling Wire Rope
17
WIRE ROPE INSTALLATION
CHECKING THE DIAMETER
It is most important to check the diameter of the delivered rope before installation.:
This is to make certain that the rope diameter meets the specified requirements
for the given machine or equipment. With an undersize diameter rope, stresses
will be higher than designed for and the probability of breaking the rope will
be increased; an oversize diameter rope will wear out prematurely. This happens
because of abuse to the rope caused by pinching in the grooves of the sheave
and drum.
In checking, however, the "true" rope diameter must be measured. And this
is defined as the diameter of the circumscribing circle, i.e., its largest cross-sectional
dimension. To insure accuracy this measurement should be made with a wire
rope caliper using the correct method (b) shown in Fig. 11. For measuring
ropes with an odd number of outer strands, special techniques must be employed.
Design specifications for wire rope are such that the diameter is slightly larger
than the nominal size, accqrdingto the allowable tolerances shown in Table 3.
TABLE 3
OVERSIZE LIMITS OF WIRE ROPE DIAMETERS*
I
Nominal Rope Diameter Allowable Limits i.
."
.-~/
"TRUE" DIAMETER
,1~.'.1i
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\
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.~~
·"81
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:.:;:-.:~m /
---
A
B. CORRECT C. INCORRECT
Figure 1I. How to measure (or caliper) a wire rope correctly. Since the "true" diameter (a)
lies within the circumscribed circle, always measure the larger dimension (b).
18
UNREELING AND UNCOILING
Wire rope is shipped in cut lengths, either in coils or un reels. Great care should
be taken when the rope is removed from the shipping package since it can
be permanently damaged by improper unreeling or uncoiling. Looping the rope
over the head of the reel or pulling the rope off a coil while it is lying on the
ground, will create loops in the line. Pulling on a loop will, at the very least,
produce imbalance in the rope and may result in open or closed kinks (Fig. 12).
Once a rope is kinked, the damage is permanent. To correct this condition, the
kink must be cut out, and the shortened pieces used for some other purpose.
Figure 12. Improper handling will help create open (a) or closed (b) kinks. The open kink
will open the rope lay; the closed kink will close it. The starlin!! loop Cc): do not allow the rope
to form a small loop. If. however. a loop forms and is removed at the point shown, a kink will
be avoided. The kink Cd): here the looped rope has been put under tension, the kink has
formed, the rope is permanently damaged and is of little value.
19
Unwinding wire rope from its reel also requires careful and proper procedure.
There a.re three methods to perform this step correctly:
1) The reel is mounted on a shaft supported by two jacks or a roller payoff
(Fig. 13). Since the reel is free to rotate, the rope is pulled from the reel by
"a workman, holding the rope end and walking away from the reel as it unwinds.
PREFERRED
A braking device should be employed so that the rope is kept taut and the
reel is restrained from over-running the rope. This is necessary particularly
with powered de~reeling equipment.
REEL 2) Another method involves mounting the reel on an unreeling stand (Fig. 14).
~
It is then unwound in the same manner as described above (I). In this case,
however, greater care must be exercised to keep the rope under tension
sufficient to prevent the accumulation of slack-a condition that will cause
the rope to drop below the lower reel head.
3) In another accepted method, the end of the rope is held while the reel itself
ALLOWABLE- IF NOT CLOSE COUPLEO is rolled along the ground. With this procedure the rope will payoff properly;
however, the end being held will travel in the direction the reel is being rolled.
Figure 15. Winding wire rope from reel As the difference between the diameter of the reel head and the diameter of
to drum. the wound rope increases, the speed of travel will increase.
Fi~ute i3. The wire rope teeI is mounted ona Shaft supported by jacks. This permits the reel Figure 14. A vertical unreeling stand.
to rotate freely. and the rope can be unwound either manually or by a powered mechanism.
20
When re~reeling wire rope from a horizontally supported reel to a drum, it is
preferable for the rope to travel from the top of the reel to the top of the
drum; or, from the bottom of the reel to the bottom of the drum (Fig. 15).
Re-reeling in this manner will avoid putting a reverse bend into the rope
as it is being installed. If a rope is installed so that a reverse bend is induced,
it may cause the rope to become livelier and, consequently, harder to handle.
When unwinding wire rope from a coil, there are two suggested methods for
carrying out this procedure in a proper manner:
a
1) One method involves placing the coil on vertical unreeling stand.
The stand consists of a base with a fixed vertical shaft. On this shaft there
is a "swift," consisting of a plate with inclined pins positioned so that the coil
may be placed over them. The \vhole swift and coil then rotate as the rope
is pulled off. This method is particularly effective when the rope is to be
wound on a drum.
2 ) The most common as well as the easiest uncoiling method is merely to hold
one end of the rope while rolling the coil along the ground like a hoop (Fig. 16).
Figures 17 and 18 show unreeling and uncoiling methods that are most
likely to provide kinks. Such improper procedures should be strenuously avoided
in order to prevent the occurrence of loops. These loops, when pulled taut, will
inevitably result in kinks. No matter how a kink develops, it will damage strands
and wires, and the kinked section must be cut out. Proper and carefiirliandIing
will keep the wire rope free from kinks.
21
(
"
TABLE 4 SEIZING
Suggested Diameters
.
and Lengths::... .. :;".
*The diameter of seizing wire for elevator ropes is generally smaller than indicated in this
table. The wire rope manufacturer should be consulted for recommended,sizes.
23
.J
NONPREFORMED
~1111111111111~
BEFORE CUTTING
~Il
AFTER CUTTING
~,IIIIlIIIIIII~
PREFORMED I
~11111111111111~1111111l111111~
BEFORE CUTTING I
~11111111111111E1 ~1111111111111~
AFTER CUTTING
Figure 20. Seizings, either on non-preformed or preformed wire rope, are applied
before cutting.
24
END ATTACHMENTS
For a number ofapplications-si.J~h as tight openings in drums. or other
complicated reeving systems-there, may be a need for making special end
preparations. Wh'en these are required, there are about four basic designs (and
combinations) to choose from (Fig. 21 ) .
Becket loops are used when another rope is needed to pull the new rope into
place. The rope end must be fastened to the mechanism so that force and motion
. are transferred efficiently. End fittings thus become items of great importance
for transferring these forces. Each basic type of end fitting has its own individual
characteristics. Thus, one type will usually fit the needs of a given installation
better than the others (Fig. 22).
A B c o
Figure 21. Beckets. or end preparations. are used on wire rope ends when another rope is
needed to puJl the operating rope into place. Four commonly used beckets are illustrated.
-""
f<
Z:::.:;
25
:§:d>~~~",,-,;,,~~'-,.~~~,=-~
WIRE ROPE SOCKET· SPELTER OR RESIN ATTACHMENT'
~-~~--=-~~
MECHANICAL SPLICE- LOOP OR THIMBLE ATTACHMENT
WEDGE SOCKET,
©llllllllllllllmlmlllllllmnm~~
LOOP OR THIMBLE SPLICE- HAND TUCKED
Figure 22. End fittings. or attachments. are available in many designs. some of which were
developed for particular applications. The six shown are among the most commonly used.
26
"~,,, .' ....... "'-",
~-., .-~"--'~~---,~-~-~ ..
. Efficiency
Method of Attachment Rope with IWRC* Rope with FC**
Wedge Sockets***
(Depending on Design) 75% to 90% 75% to 90%
Clips***
(Number of clips varies with size of rope) 80% 80%
27
SOCKETING
Impropetly attached wire rop'e te;:rminals lead to serious-possibly unsafe-
conditicms. To perform 'properly"alI wire rope elements must be held securely
by the terminal. If this is not accomplished. the strands will "loaf on the job"
and there is every likelihood that a strand will become "high". A high strand
condition is illustrated in Figure42. In the case shown. selective abrasive
wear of the loose strand will necessitate early removal of the rope.
Poured Sockets-SpeIter or Resin
When preparing a wire rope for socketing. it is of extreme importance to follow
recommended procedures. (See Appendix D: SOCKETING PROCEDURES.)
Procedures other than those stipulated here. may develop the required strength
but this cannot be pre-determined without destructive tests. It is far safer-
and ultimately less costly-to follow well-established practices.
There are many ways to go wrong in socketing procedures. Some of the
more common pitfalls that should be guarded against include:
I ) Turning back the strands-inward or outward-before the "broom" is
inserted into the socket;
2) Turning back the strands and seizing them to the body of the rope;
3) Turning back the strands and tucking them into the body of the rope;
4) Tying a knot in the rope;
5) Driving nails, spikes, bolts, and similar objects into the socket after the rope
is in, so as to "jam" it tight; this is particularly dangerous-and ruinous.
To avoid these and many other dangeroLls practices, play it safe by following
correct' procedures.
Figure 2';, The correCI way 10 attach U-bolts is shown at the top: the "U" section is in contact
with the rope's dead end.
29
\,
TABLE 6*
1~ .75 3.88 2.00 2.00 1.91 1.25 2.81 3.59 6 34 225 310
1~ .88 4.25 2.13 2.31 2.19 1.44 3.13 4.13 6 37 360 460
1% .88 4.63 1.31 2.38 2.31 1.44 3.13 4.19 7 44 360 520
1~ .88 4.94 2.38 2.59 '2..53 1.44 3.41 4.44 7 48 360 590
10/8 1.00 5.31 2.63 2.75 2.66 1.63 3.63 4.75 7 51 430 730
1% 1.13 5.75 2.75 3.06 2.94 1.81 3.81 5.28 7 53 590 980
2 1.25 6.44 3.00 3.38 3.28 2.00 4.44 5.88 8 71 750 1340
2 1,4 1.25 7.13 3.19 3.88 . 3.94 2.00 4.56 6.38 8 73 750 1570
2 Ih 1.25 7.69 3.44 4.13 4.44 2.00 4.69 6.63 9 84 750 1790
2% 1.25 8:31 '3.56 4.38 4:88 2,00 5.00 6.88 10 100 750 2200
3 1.50 9.19 3.88 4.75 5.34 2.38 5.3i 7.63 10 106 1200 3200
30
FIST GRIP CLIPS (Table 7, on following page)
RECOMMENDED METHOD OF APPLYING FIST GRIP CLIPS
1) Turn back the specified amount of rope from the thimble. Apply the first clip
one base width from the dead end of the wire rope. Tighten nuts evenly to
recommended torque.
2) Apply the next clip as near the loop as possible. Turn on nuts firmly but do
not tighten.
3) Space additional clips if required equally between the first two. Turn on nuts-
take up rope slack-tighten all nuts evenly on all Clips to recommended torque.
4) NOTICEl Apply the initial load and retighten nuts to the recommended torque.
Rope will stretch and shrink in diameter when loads are applied. Inspect
periodically and retighten.
A termination made in accordance with the above instructions, and using
the number of clips shown has an approximate 80% efficiency rating. This rating
is based upon the catalog breaking strength of wire rope. If a pulley is used in
place of a thimble for turning back the rope, add one additional clip.
The number of clips shown is based upon using right regular Or lahg lay
wire rope, 6 x 19 class or 6 x 37 class, fibre core or IWRC, IPS or EIPS. If Seale
construction or similar large outer wire type construction in the 6 x 19 class
is to be used for sizes 1 inch and larger, add one additional clip.
The number of clips shown also applies to right regular lay wire rope,
8 x 19 class, fibre core, IPS, sizes IIh inch and smaIIer; and right re'gular lay wire
rope, 18 x 7 class, fibre core, IPS or EIPS, sizes 1 1/2 and smaIIer.
For other classes of wire rClpe not mentioned above, it may be necessary ,
to add additional clips to the number shown.
If a greater number of clips are used than shown in the table, the amount
of rope turnback should be increased proportionately. ABOVE BASED ON
USE OF FIST GRIP CLIPS ON NEW WIRE ROPE.
1MPORTA NT: Failure to make a termination in accordance with
aforementioned instructions, or failure to periodically check and retighten to the
recommended torque, will cause a reduction in efficiency rating.
31
, ,.
t- A .~ T .. L
rET 1
,- ~M~-L
TABLE 7*
~0-14 .25 1.25 .34 .94 .38 .50 1.28 .22 1.63 .69 1.47 2 4 30 21 \
~l
I
,44
0/10
%
.31
.38
1.34
1.59 .50
1.06
1.06
.38
,44
.63
.75
1.47
1.81
.19
.25
1.94
2.38
.69
.75
1.56
1.88
2
2
5
5~
30
45
26
37 '"
~6 .50 1.88 .56 1.25 .50 1.00 2.19 .28 2.75 .88 2.19 2 6112 65 60
~ .50 1.88 .56 1.25 .. .50 1.00 2.19 .28 2.75 .88 2.19 3 11 65 60
%0 .63 2.28 .69 1.50 .63 1.25 2.69 .28 3.50 1.06 2.63 3 12% 130 110
% .63 2.28 .69 1.50 .63 1.25 2.69 .28 3.50 1.06 2.63 3 13~ 130 110
% .75 2.69 .88 1.81 .75 1.50 2.94 .31 3.75 1.25 3.06 3 16 225 140
'Va .88 2.97 .97 2.13 .75 1.75 3.31 .38 4.13 1.25 3.14 4 26 225 220
1 1.00 3.06 1.19 2.25 .75 2.00 3.72 ,41 4.63 1.25 3.53 5 37 225 270
Bis 1.13 3.44 1.28 2.38 .88 ·2.25 4.19 ,44 5.25 1.44 3.91 5 41 360 300
114 1.25 3.56 1.34 2.50 .88 2.50 4.25 .50 5.25 1.44 4.03 6 55 360 410
1% 1.50 4.13 1.56 3.00 1.00 3.00 5.56 .56 7.00 1.63 4.66' 6 62 500 680
1Y.z 1.50 4.13 1.56 3.00 1.00 3.00 5.56 .56 7.00 1.63 4.66 6 66 500 680
32
WEDGE SOCKETS
One of the more popular end attachments for wire rope is the wedge socket.
For field, or on the job attachment, It is easily instaIJed and quickly dismantled.
The procedure is simple: '
1) Inspect the wedge and socket; all rough edges or burrs, that might damage the
rope, should be removed.
2) If the end of the rope is welded, the welded end should be cut off. This will
allow the distortions of the rope strands, caused by the sharp bend around the
wedge, to adjust themselves at the end of the line. If the weld is not cut off, the
distortions will be forced up the working line. This may result in the
development of high strands and wavy rope.
3) Place the socket in an upright position and. bring the rope around in a large,
easy to handle, loop. Care must be taken to make certain that the live-Ioaded-
side of the rope is in line with the ears (Fig. 25).
4) The dead end of the rope should extend from the socket for a distance
approximately nine times the rope diameter. The wedge is now placed in the
socket, and a wire rope clip is placed around the dead end by clamping a
short, extra piece of rope to the tail. (Do not clamp to the live part.) The V-bolt
should bear against the tail; the saddle of the clip should bear against the short
extra piece. i'
5) Secure the ears of the socket to a sturdy support and carefully take a strain on
the live side of the rope. Pull the wedge and rope into position.. with tension
sufficiently tight to hold them in place.
6).After final pin connections are made, increase the loads gradually until the
wedge is properly seated. Avoid sudden shock loads.
The foregoing is the recommended procedure. If variations are made to
suit special conditions, they should be carefully evaluated beforehand.
~ LIVE END---....
33
DRUMS-GROOVED
Drums are the means by which power is transmitted to the rope and thence to the
object to be moved. For the wire rope. to pick up this power efficiently and to
transmit it properly to the working end, installation must be carefully controlled.
If the drurn is grooved, the winding conditions should be closely supervised
to assure adherence to the following recommended procedures:
1) the end of the rope must be secured to the drum by such means as will
give the end attachment at least as much strength as is specified by the
equipment manufacturer.
2) Adequate tension must be maintained on the rope while it is being wound
so that the winding proceeds under continuous tension.
3) The rope must follow the groove.
4) There should be at least three dead turns remaining on the drum when the rope
is unwound during normal operation. Two dead turns are a mandatory
requirement in many codes and standards.
If the wire rope is carelessly wound and, as a result, jumps the grooves,
it will be crushed and cut where it crosses from one groove to the other. Another,
almost unavoidable problem is created at the drum flange; as the rope climbs
to a second layer there is further crushing and the wires receive excessive abrasion.
Riser and filler strips may help remedy this condition.
\.
34
DRUMS-PLAIN (SMOOTH)
Installation of a wire rope on a pl~in (smooth) face drum requires a great
deal of care. The starting position s1.?ould be at the drum end so that each tum
of the rope will wind tightly against the preceding turn (Fig. 26). Here too,
close supervision should be maintained all during installation. This will help make
. certain that:
1) the rope is properly attached to the drum,
2) appropriate tension on the rope is maintained as it is wound on the drum,
3) each turn is guided as close to the preceding turn as possible, so that there
are no gaps between turns,
4) and that there are at least two dead turns on the drum when the rope is fully
unwound during normal operating cycles.
Loose and uneven winding on a plain- (smooth-) faced drum, can and
usually does create excessive wear, crushing and distortion of the rope. The results
of such abuse are lower operating performance, and a reduction in the rope's
effective strength. Also, for an operation that is sensitive in terms of moving
and spotting a load, the operator will encounter control difficulties a~ the rope will
pile up, puU into the pile and faU"from the pile to the drum surface;: The .
ensuing shock can break or otherwise damage the rope.
L- -R L- -R
-H-----
UNDERWIND LEFT TO RIGHT LEFT LAY OVERWIND RIGHT TO LEFT LEFT LAY
USE LEFT LAY ROPE UNDERWOUND USE LEFT LAY ROPE OVERWOUND
I I
L- -R L-- -R
OVERWIND LEFT TO RIGHT RIGHT LAY UNDERWIND RIGHT TO LEFT R1GHT LAY
USE RIGHT LAY ROPE OVERWOUND USE RIGHT LAY ROPE UNDERWOUND
Fj~re 26. By holding the right or left hand with index finger extended. palm up or palm
down, the proper procedure for installing lefT- and righT-lay rope on a smooth drum can be
easily determined.
35
The proper direction of winding the first layer on a smooth drum can be
determined by standing behind the drum and looking along the path the rope
travels, and then following one oLthe procedures illustrated in Figure 26.
The diagrams show: the correct relationship that should be maintained between
the direction of lay of the rope (right or left), the direction of rotation of the
drum (overwind or underwind), winding from left to right or right to left.
DRUMS-MULTIPLE LAYERS
Many installations are designed with requirements for winding more than one layer
L- -R
of wire rope on a drum. Winding multiple layers presents some further problems.
The first layer should wind in a smooth, tight helix which, if the drum is
grooved, is already established. The grooves allow the operator to work off the
face of the drum, and permit the minimum number of dead turns.
A smooth drum presents an additional problem, initially, as the wire rope
must be wound in such a manner that the first layer will be smooth and uniform and
will provide a firm foundation for the layers of rope that will be wound over it.
CROSS OVER The first layer of rope on the smooth drum should be wound with tension sufficient
to assure a close helix--each turn being wound as close as possible to the
Figure 27. After the first layer is wound preceding turn-and most, if not all, of the entire layer being used as dead turns.
on a drum. the point at which the rope winds The first layer then acts as a helical groove which will guide the successive
back for each turn is called the cross-over. layers. Unlike wire ropes operating on groove drums, the first layer should not '"
be unwound from a smooth-faced drum with multiple layers.
After the rope has wound completely across the face of the drum (either
smooth or grooved), it is forced up to a second layer at the flange. The' rope then
winds back across the drum in the opposite direction, lying in the depression
between the turns of the rope on the first layer. Advancing across the drum on
the second layer, the rope, following the "grooves"'formed by the rope on the first
layer, actually winds back one turn in each revolution of the drum. The rope
must then cross two rope "grooves" in order to advance acrOss the drum for
each turn. The point at which this occurs is known as the cross-over.
Cross-over is unavoidable on the second, and all succeeding layers. Figure 27
illustrates the winding of a rope on the second layer from left to right, and
from right to left-the direction is shown by the arrows.
At these cross-over points, the rope is subjected to severe abrasion and
crushing as it is pushed over the two rope "grooves" and rides across the crown of
the first rope layer. The scrubbing of the rope, as this is happening, can
easily be heard.
There is, however, a special drum grooving available that will greatly
minimize the damage that can occur atcross-over points.
Severe abrasion can also be reduced by applying the rule for the correct rdpe
lay (right- or left-lay) to the second layer rather than to the first layer. It is for
thiS reason that the first layer of a smdoth drum should be wound tight and
used as dead turns.
36
5 Operation and Maintenance of Wire Rope
37
TABLES
MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE RADIAL BEARING PRESSURES OF ROPES'ON
, >',OJ
Flattened
Regular Lay Rope, psi Lang Lay Rope, psi Strand
Lang Lay,
Material 6x7 6 x 19 6x37 8 x 19 6x7 6 x 19 6 x 37 psi Remarks
On end grain of
Wood 150 250 300 350 165 275 330 400
beech, hickory, gum.
Based on minimum
Cast tron 300 480 585 680 350 550 660 800
Brinell hardness of 125.
38
Values for the allowable unit radial pressures given in Table 8 are intended
solely as a user's guide. And use of these figures does not guarantee prevention
of any trouble. Further, the values should not be taken as restrictive with regard to
other or new materials. There are, for example, certain elastomers in current
use that are apparently providing excellent service, but since there is insufficient
data to support specific recommendations, such products are not mentioned.
39
.. )
TABLE 9 ,
RECOMMENDED SHEAVE AND DRUM RATIOS
Suggested Minimum
Construction D/d* ratio D/d* ratio
6x 7 72 42
19 x 7 or 18 x 7 51 34
6 x 19 Seale 51 34
6x25B 45 30
6x27H 45 30
6x30G 45 30
6 x 21 filler wire 45 30
6 x 25 filler wire· 39 26
6 x 31 Warrington Seale 39 26
6 x 36 Warrington Seale 35 23
8 x 19 Seale 41 27
8 x 25 filler wire 32 21
6 x 41 Warrington Seale 32 21
6 x 42 Tiller 21 14 I
\",
40
TABLE 10
RELATIVE BENDING LIFE F~CTORS
Rope Rope
Construction Factor Construction Factor
w50
I I
i • / !
Q.. I i , /
o
a:
I i !
w
> 40
I i/ !
!i
...J
/1 i
Figure 28. This service life curve only takes
W
a: 30 i '/ I
i
applicability can be illustrated by the 20 /1 !
following example: A rope working with i V I !
41
(
\
B c
GROOVE
Figure 30. Th.ese sheave-groove cross- GAGE
sections represent 3 wire rope seating
conditions: A. a new rope in a new groove;
B. a new rope in a worn groo"e; and C. a
worn rope in a worn groove. (See also Figs;
29 and 31.) Figure 31. 11Iustrating the various dimensions of a s~~ave. and the lise of a.~roove gage.
42
TABLE 11
MINIMUM SHEAVE- AND DRUM-GROOVE DlMENSIONS*
~""~"
43
THE "X·CHART"-ABRASION RESISTANCE
VS. BENDING·FATIGUE RESISTANCE
While there is a possibility, there is little likelihood that an application can be
found for which there is a precisely suitable wire rope--one that can satisfy
every indicated requirement.
As with all engineering design probll::ms, feasible solutions demand
compromise to some degree. At times, it becomes necessary to settle for less than
optimum resistance to abrasion in order to obtain maximum flexibility; the
latter being a more important requirement for the given job. A typical example of
this kind of trade-off would be in selecting a highly flexible rope on an overhead
crane. Conversely, in a haulage installation, a rope with greater resistance to
abrasion would be chosen despite the fact that such ropes are markedly
less flexible.
Two compelling factors that govern most decisions as to the selection of a
wire rope are: abrasion resistance, and resistance to bending fatigue. Striking
a proper balance with respect to these two important characteristics demands
judgment of a very high order. A graphic presentation of just such comparison of
qualities between the most widely used rope constructions and others is given
by means of the X-chart (Fig. 32).
Referring to this chart when selecting a rope, the mid-point (at the X)
comes closest to an even balance between abrasion resistance and resistance to
bending fatigue. Reading up or down along either leg of the X, the inverse
relationship becomes more apparent as one quality increases and the other
decreases.
o 6 611.7
z <~
<1 ~ e,"
0:: 9 _U',>- "tv_ 611.195
~~
1--
(f) «.,,'V'
0::10 0~ 611.2\ FW
U'/U'
~'"
W
a. ~1-
~12 0 . e,,0 FLATTENED
0:: ~ /: t<;-'V' STRAND
3:12
o s- 'V'<Q
6x25 FW
oW
'00 ~11
0
i/i,12 :,,0 -~1'. 6x31 WS
I-- <v G'
::::>
014 ~(j ~,>- 6x36 WS
,,'V' /Q
~
o e,.(:J v~
Fijture 32. The wire rope inuusth' refers to . 0:: 16 «-0 ~Q
this as the X-chl/rl. It servesto illustr:ite the W
OJ
,,~ ~~ 611.41 SFVJ
inverse relationship hetween ahrasion
:2 'V'''' <7r
resistance :md resistance to henuing fatigue in
a representative numher of the most widely
0::::>
v<V ~U',>-
lIszJ ....·ire ropes. Z 18 6x49SWS
44
:~
45
If the fleet angle (Fig. 34) is large, it may be necessary to accept a smaller
arc of contact at the throat; 1300 for exa.mple instead of 150 0. This is done
to avoid scrubbing the rope on the flange of the sheave.
As previously noted, the groove size is evaluated on the basis of how the
gage leaf fits the groove. Daylight under the gage is not tolerable when using the
worn groove gage. If a full over-size gage is used, some daylight may be acceptable,
but this really must be judged by relating the measurement to the actual size
of the rope.
For new rope, extra caution should be observed as to its fit in the groove.
Characteristically, ropes become smaller in diameter immediately after being
placed in service. As a result, they would operate satisfactorily in a "worn"
groove~ cine that was gaged OK by the "worn" groove gage. Nonetheless, in some
cases, a rope may not "pull down," and if this happens, abnormal wear may occur.
It is important to remember that a tight groove not only pinches and
damages the rope but that the pinching prevents the necessary adjustment of
the wires and strands. On the other hand, a groove that is too large will not
provide sufficient support; in this case, the rope will flatten and thereby restrict
the free sliding action cif the wires and strands.
The size of the groove is not the only critical item to be examined closely.
The condition of the groove is also an important factor of concern. Is it smooth or ".\
imprinted? If the groove is imprinted then it must be re-machined or, if it is
imprinted too deeply, it means that sheave, roller or drum must be replaced.
If replacement is indicated, a larger sheave or drum should be installed if
possible, or a harder material should be specified for the replacement.
Groove examination should also concern itself with how the groove is wearing.
If it is worn off-center, thereby forcing the rope to undercut or to rub against
the flange, it then becomes necessary to correct the alignment of the reeving
system, and to specify a harder material.
When checking the grooves, the bearings of the sheaves and rollers should
also be examined. They should turn easily. If not, each bearing must be properly
lubricated. "Wobble" in the sheave-from broken or worn bearings-is not
acceptable. Bad bearings will set up vibrations in the wire rope that can cause
rapid deterioration unless the condition is remedied. Bad bearings also increase
the force on the rope that is needed to move a given load, since friction
forces will be greatly increased.
Sheaves with broken flanges may allow the rope to jump from the sheave
and become fouled in the machinery. When this happens, the rope is cut;
curled, and the crowns of the wires in the strands are burred. There is ample
evidence to support then.lle that shea.ves with broken flanges must be
replaced immediately.
:: '
A sheave or'drumwitha flat spot can induce a "Whip" into the line. This
\vhip. or wave. travels until it is stopped by the end terminal, at which point the rope
may bend severely. This condition helps to accelerate the fatigue breakage
of wires. Sometimes the reeving is such that the whip or wave is arrested by a
sheave. or the drum itself. In these circumstances. the whipping will cause
wire breaks along the crowns of the strands. Obviously, sheaves or drums that
exCite vibrations of this sort, must b~ repaired or replaced.
46
In addition to the items listed above. inspection should also focus on any and
all conditions that could cause wear and eventual damage to the wire rope.
For example, plain-face (smooth) drums can develop grooves or rope
impressions that will prevent the rope from winding properly. Imprinting is
. greatest at the pickup point when the machine is accelerating. If this happens,
the surface should be repaired by machining or replaced. The winding should be
checked to make sure that the rope is winding "thread wound" (Fig. 27).
Excessive wear in grooved drums should be checked for variations either
in the depth or pitch of the grooves. This condition is particularly critical
when double drums are used because a differential force will be set up that can
break the drum and shear the shaft.
No matter what type of drum is in use, excessive drum wear will usually result
in rapid rope deterioration, This condition will accelerate rapidly when winding
in multiple layers.
EFFICIENCY OF WIRE ROPE WHEN BENT OVER SHEAVES OR PINS OF VARIOUS SIZES
50
I I I. I
60 I ! I i I
I
I i I I I
!!
~
I i
13z 70 I I I
, I I i i
w
U
i\J I
I
I
I
I I ! ! i I
I i I
~
~ 60
I 1\..1 I I I·. ! i,. I ,! I
:
i
I
II I 1
i
I ! N.. II I I
I i i
,
1 j
i I I I I
,
! ~
: I
: i
I I [ ; ! I
I
I I , I I
Figure 33. Derived from standard test data.
90
! I
I
I
i I I
I I
1! ~ I ;
,
! !
this curve relates rope strength efficiency to , I
i i i I I I
47
FLEET ANGLE
The achievement of even windirigorta smooth faced drum is closely related
to the ma.gnitude ofthe D/ d ratio, the speed of rotation, load on the rope, and the
FIXED
fleet angle. Of all these factors,the one that exerts perhaps the greatest
SHEAVE influence on winding characteristics. is the fleet angle.
The schematic drawing (Fig. 34) shows an installation where the wire
rope runs from a fixed sheave. over a floating sheave. and then on to the surface
II of a smooth drum. The fleet angle (Fig. 34) may be defined as the included
1'\ angle between two lines; one line drawn through the middle of the fixed sheave
/1\
I , \\
and the drum-and perpendicular to the axis of the drum and a second line drawn
from the flange of the drum to the base of the groove in the sheave.
I \ (The drum flange represents the farthest position to which the rope can travel
I \
I \ across the drum.) There are left and right fleet angles. measured to the left
,--r ~ FLOATING
or right of the center line of the sheave, respectively.
I "",---SHEAVE
-1 r-- It is necessary to restrict the fleet angle on installations where wire rope
I \
I \ passes over the lead or fixed sheave and onto a drum. For optimum efficiency
I \ and service characteristics. the angle here should not exceed 1 1/2 ° for a smooth
I \
I \ drum, nor 2 ° for a grooved drum. Fleet angles larger than these suggested
I \ limits can cause such problems as bad winding on smooth drums, and the rope
I \ rubbing against the flanges of the sheave grooves. Larger angles also create
,I
I
\
\
\
situations where there is excessive crushing and abrasion of the rope on the drum. "-., / 1
I \ Conversely, small fleet angles-less than lh o-should also be avoided since
I \ too small an angle will cause the rope to pile up.
I \
I \
I 1/20MIN IlZoMiN \
11i(2°MAX IIIZOMAX \
1 \ .
,.... f1 "" 0; ~...,
I LEFT RIGHT \
I FLEET FLEET \
I ANGLE ANGLE \
49
very least, the recommended minimum diameter (Table 9). As for the rope,
there is one governing overall rule: the greater the number of wires in each
strand, the greater the resistance of the rope to bending fatigue.
The subject of metal fatigue is covered by a large and extensive body of
literature. It is not the intent of this publication to discuss, even in broad
terms, the theoretical concepts of the phenomenon. It will simply be noted
here that the concept of fatigue as a cause of metal "crystallization" is
incorrect since all metals are at all times crystalline in structure. The crystalline
appearancein many fractures is not indicative of "crystallization."
3) Resistance to vibrational fatigue
Vibration, from whatever source, sends shock waves through the rope. These
waves are a form of energy that must be absorbed at some point. This point
may appear at various places-'-the end attachment, the tangent where the rope
contacts the sheave, or at any other place where the waves are arrested and
the energy absorbed.
In the normal operation of a machine or hoist, wire ropes develop a
Wave action that can be observed either as a low frequency or as a sharp, high
frequency cycle. A good example of this is found in shaft hoists. When the
cage is just starting up, the rope has a very slow swing within the shaft. But,
by the time the cage reaches the top of the shaft, the initially low frequency
has become a high frequency vibration. The result is eventual breakage of the
wires at the attachment of the cage.
Another type of vibrational fatigue is found in operations where there is
cyclic loading. Such loadings would be found, for example, in the boom
suspension systems of draglines. Here, the energy is absorbed at the end
fittings of the pendants or at the tangent point where the rope contacts the
sheave. In this case, the "vibration" is torsional as well as transverse.
4) Resistance to abrasion
Abrasion is one of the most common destructive conditions to which wire rope
is exposed. It will occur whenever a rope either rubs against or is dragged
through any soil or other material. It happens whenever a rope passes around
a sheave or drum. And, it takes place within the rope itself whenever it is
loaded or bent. Abrasive action weakens the rope simply by removing metal
from both inside and outside wires.
When excessive wear is encountered in an operation, the problem
usually stems from faulty sheave alignment, incorrect groove diameters, an
inappropriate fleet angle, or improper drum winding. There may, however, be
other causes. If, on investigation, none of these common conditions are
found to be causative factors. the solution may lie in changing to a more
suitable rope construction. In making such a change, it is helpful to
remember that larger oliter wires alld lang-lay ropes are more abrasion resistant
than regular-lay ropes. (See p.lO for limitations of lang-lay ropes,)
5) Resistance to crushing
Rope can be crushed I ) by its own pressure against a sheave. 2) from
improperly sized grooves. and 3) from overwinding on a drum.
The pressure of rope against a sheave is determined by the sheave
diameter and the load. The pressure of rope to a drum is influenced in great
50
measure by"the support of the groove; smooth drums have a more adverse
"effect than those that are groov~d.
Overwinding is also a cause of wear even when the winding is done in an
ordeiIy (thread-winding) manner. Irregular or scramble winding is an
even greater cause of damage.
Obviously, in each of these cases, reducing the load will ease the condition.
If, however, this is not feasible, offending sheaves should be replaced with
sheaves that have larger tread diameters. Unsuitable drums and/ or winding
conditions should be corrected. Otherwise, the rope will have to be replaced
by one with a construction better designed to resist the abuse.
If the original rope has a fiber core, the replacement should have a steel
core because a steel core rope will provide greater physical support. And
here it is well to remember that regular-lay ropes are better able to resist
crushing than lang-lay ropes.
6) Reserve strength
The reserve strength of a wire rope is defined as the combined strength of all the
wires it contains, except those in the outside layer of the strands. . -.
The foHowing listing (Table 12) gives the percent of reserve strength for
6- or 8-strand wire rope relative to the number of outside wires ineach strand:
TABLE12
Number Percent
of of
Outside Reserve
Wires Strength
3' o
4 5
5 13
6 18
7 22
8 27,
9· 32
10 36
12 43
14 49
16 54
18 58
51
-'",
. ,J
. .. ~,'
52
2) Rope stretch
All ropes will stretch when loads are initially applied. For an extended
discussion of stretch, see pp. 73 and following.
As rope deteriorates from wear, fatigue, etc. (excluding accidental
damage), continued application ofa load of constant magnitude will produce
varying amounts of rope stretch. A "stretch" curve plotted for stretch vs.
time (Fig. 35) displays three discrete phases:
Phase I. Initial stretch, during the early (beginning) period of rope service,
caused by the rope adjustments to operating conditions (constructional stretch) .
Phase 2. Following break-in, there is a long period-the greatest part of
the rope's service life-during which a slight increase in stretch takes place
over an extended time. This results from normal wear, fatigue, etc.
On the plotted curve-stretch vs. time-this portion would almost be a
horizontal straight line inclined slightly upward from its initial level.
Phase 3. Thereafter, the stretch begins to increase at a quicker rate. This means
that the rope is reaching the point of rapid deterioration; a re~;ult of
prolonged subjection to abrasive wear, fatigue, etc. This secoridupturn of
the curve is a warning indicating that the rope should soon be removed.
I
I
II w
a::
I I 3-
::l: ,
I ,
I
~
f-~
I
a: I I "'-
Z
:;:
.... I I
::l:
U
....
'-.Vl
..J
I
I
I g-
a:: i..~ g:-
W NORMAL LljE STRETCH·
I I I
to
w
Q.
o f-t;;
f-e
u
::>
a:
I
I I
I
I
I
'j
a::
.... 0zU
o 1
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11-,
Vl I I 1 ~-
.... I
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::>
z ;5-
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I I
J I I
I
/ I
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I
I
I
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I
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I
UNITS OF ROPE LIFE
Figure 35. This curve is plotted to show the relationship of wire rope stretch to the various
stages of a rope's life.
53
3) Reduction in rope diameter ,
Any marked reduction in rope diamete~ indicates degradation. Such reduction
may be attributed to:
excessive external abrasion
internal or external corrosion
loosening or tightening of rope lay
inner wire breakage
rope stretch
ironing or milking of strands
In the past, whether or not a rope was allowed to remain in service
depended to a great extent on the rope's diameter at the time of inspection.
Currently this practice has undergone significant modification.
Previously, a decrease in the rope's diameter was compared with published
standards of minimum diameters. The amount of change in diameter is,
of course, useful in assessing a rope's condition. But, comparing this figure
with a fixed set of values is, for the most part, useless. These long-accepted
minima are not, in themselves, of any serious significance since they do
not take into account such factors as: 1) variations in compressibility between
IWRC and Fiber Core; 2) differences in the amount of reduction in
"j
diameter from abrasive wear, or from core compression, or a combination
of both; and 3) the actual original diameter of the rope rather than its
nominal value.
As a matter of fact, all ropes will show a significant reduction in diameter
when a load is applied. Therefore, a rope manufactured close to its nominal
size may, when it is subjected to loading, undergo a greater reduction
in diameter than that stipulated in the minimum diameter table. Yet, u~der
these circumstances, the rope would be declared unsafe although it may,
in actuality, be safe.
As an example of the possible error at the other extreme, we can take the
case of a rope manufactured near the upper limits of allowable size. If the
diameter has reached a reduction to nominal or slightly below that, the tables
would show this rope to be safe: But it should, perhaps, be removed.
Today, evaluations of the rope diameter are first predicated on a
comparison bf the original diameter-when new and subjected to a known
load-with the current reading under like circumstances. Periodically,
throughout the life of the rope, the actual diameter should be recorded when
the rope is under equivalent loading and in the same operating section.
This procedure, if followed carefully, reveals a common rope characteristic:
after an initial reduction, the diameter soon stabilizes. Later, there will be
.a continuous, albeit small, decrease in diameter throughout its life.
Core deterioration, when it occurs, is revealed by a more rapid
reduction in diameter and when observed it is time for removal.
Deciding whether or not a rope is safe is not always a simple matter.
A number of different but interrelated conditions must be evaluated. It would be
54
dangerously unwise for an inspector to declare a rope safe for continued
service simply because its diameter had not reached the minimum arbitrarily
established in a table if, at the same time, other observations lead to an
opposite conclusion.
Because criteria for removal are varied, and because diameter, in itself,
is a vague criterion, the table of minimum diameters has been deliberately
omitted from this manual.
4) Corrosion
Corrosion, while difficult to evaluate, is a more serious cause of degradation
than abrasion. Usually, it signifies a lack of lubrication. Corrosion will
often occur internally before there is any visible external evidence on the rope
surface. Pitting of wires is a cause for immediate rope removal. Not only
does it attack the metal wires. but it also prevents the rope's component parts
from moving smoothly as it is flexed. Usually, a slight discoloration because
of rusting merely indicates a need for lubrication.
Severe rusting, on the other hand, leads to premature fatigue failures in
the wires necessitating the rop~'s immediate removal from service. When a
rope shows more than one wire failure adjacent to a terminal fitting,,it should
be removed immediately. To retard corrosive deterioration, the rope
should be kept well lubricated. In situations where extreme corrosive action
can occur, it may be necessary to use galvanized wire rope.
5) Kinks
Kinks are permanent distortions caused by loops drawn too tightly.:Ropes
with kinks must be removed from service.
6) "Bird Caging"
Bird caging results from torsional imbalance that comes about because of
mistreatments such as sudden stops, the rope being pulled through tight
sheaves, or wound on too small a drum. This is cause for rope replacement
unless the affected portion can be removed.
7) Localized Conditions
Particular attention must be paid to wear at the equalizing sheaves.
During normal operations this wear is not visible. Excessive vibration, or whip
can cause abrasion and/ or fatigue. Drum cross-over and flange point
areas must be carefully evaluated. All end fittings. including splices, should
be examined for worn or broken wires, loose or damaged strands,
cracked fittings, worn or distorted thimbles and tucks of strands.
8) Heat Damage
After a fire, or the presence of elevated temperatures, there may be metal
discoloration. or an apparent loss of internal lubrication; fiber core ropes are
particularly vulnerable. Under these circumstances the rope should
be replaced.
9) Protruding Core
If. for any cause. the rope core protrudes from an opening between the
strands the rope is unfit for service.
55
10) Damaged End Attachments
Cracked, bent, or broken end fittings must be eliminated. The cause should
be sought out and corrected. In the case of bent hooks, the throat openings
-measured at the narrowest'point-should not exceed 15 % over normal
nor should twisting be greater than 10°.
11) Peening
Continuous pounding is one of the causes of peening. The rope strikes
against an object such as some'structural part of the machine, or it beats
against a roller, or it hits itself. Often, this can be avoided by placing protectors
between the rope and the object it is striking. Another common cause
of peening is continuous passage-under high tension-over a sheave or
drum. Where peening action cannot be controlled, it is necessary to
have more frequent inspections and to be ready for earlier rope replacement.
Figure 36 shows the external appearance of two ropes, one of which
has been abraded and the other peened. Also shown are the cross-section of
both wires in these conditions.
abrasion peening
Figure 36. These plan views and cros~ sections show the effects of abrasion and peening on
wire rope. Note that a crack has formed as a result of heavy peening.
56
12) Scrubbing
Scrubbing refers to the displacement of wires and strands as a result of rubbing
around or against an object. This, in turn, causes wear and displacement of
wires and strands along one side of the rope. Corrective measures should
be taken as soon as this condition is observed.
13) Fatigue Failure
Wires that break with square ends and show little surface wear, have usually
failed as a result of fatigue. Such failures can occur on the crown of the
strands, or in the valleys between the strands where adjacent strand contact
exists. In almost all cases, these failures are related to bending stresses
or vibration.
If diameter of the sheaves, rollers or drum cannot be increased, a more
flexible rope should be used. But, if the rope in use is already of maximum
flexibility, the only remaining course that wiil help prolong its service life is to
move the rope through the system by cutting off the dead end. By moving
the rope through the system, the fatigued sections are moved to less fatiguing
areas of the reeving. This technique is most frequently used in rotary drilling.
14) Broken Wires
The number of broken wires on the outside of a wire rope are 1) an index
of its general condition:, and 2) whetheror not it must be considered
for replacement. Frequent inspection will help determine the elapsed time
between breaks. Ropes should be replaced as soon as the wire breakage
. reaches the numbers given in Table 13. Such action must be taken without;,;,
regard to the type of fracture.
On occasion, a single wire will break shortly after installation.
However, if no other wires break at that time, there is no need for concern.
On the other hand, should more wires break, the cause should be
carefully investigated.
. _On any installation, valley breaks-i.e., where the wire ruptures between
strands-should be given serious attention. When two or more such
conditions are found, the rope should be replaced immediately.
It is well to remember that once broken wires appear-,-in a normal
rope operating under normal conditions-a good many more will show up
within a relatively short period. Attempting to squeeze the last measure
of service from a rope beyond the allowable number of broken wires
(Table 13), will create an intolerably hazardous situation. _
A diagnostic guide to some of the most prevalent rope abuses is given in
Table 14, On the following pages these abuses are illustrated and described.
57
TABLE 13 WHEN TO REPLACE WIRE ROPE-BASED ON NUMBER QF BROKEN WIRES
Not
B30.2 Overhead & Gantry Cranes 12 4
Specified
B30.6 Derricks 6 3 3 2
Not Not
AlO.S 'Material Hoists 6*
Specified Specified
Fi~te 37. A wire that has broken under a tensile load in excess of itsstrength. is recognized
by the "cup and cone" configuration at the fracture point (A). The necking down of the wire at
point of failure shows that failure occurred while the wire retained its ductility. A fatigue
break is usually characterized by squared-off ends perpendicular to the wire either straight
across or Z-shaped (B & C).
58
TABLE 14 DIAGNOSTIC GUIDE TO COMMON WIRE ROPE ABUSES
Fatigue Wire break is transverse--either straight across Check for rope bent around too small. a radius;
or Z shape. Broken ends will appear grainy. vibration or whipping; wobbly sheaves; rollers too
small; reverse bends; bent shafts; tight grooves;
corrosion; small drums & sheaves; incorrect rope
construction; improper installation; poor end
attachments. All running rope if left in service
long enough will eventually fail by fatigue.
Tension Wire break reveals predominantly cup and Check for overloads; sticky, grabby clutches;
cone fracture with some 45 0 shear breaks. jerky cortditions; loose bearing on drum; fast
starts, fast stops, broken sheave flange; wrong
rope size & grade; poor end attachments.
Check for too great a strain on rope after factors
of deterioration have weakened it.
Abrasion Wire break mainly displays outer wires Checkfor change in rope or sheave size; change
worn smooth to knife edge thinness. Wire in load; overburden change; frozen or stuck
broken by abrasion in combination with sheaves; soft rollers, sheaves or drums; excessive·
another factor will show a combination break. fleet angle; misalignment of sheaves; kinks; . «.
Cut or Gouged Wire ends are pinched down, mashed and/or Check on all the above conditions for mechimical
or Rough Wire cut in a rough diagonal shear-like manner. abuse, or either abnormal or accidental forces
during installation.
Torsion or Wire ends show evidence of Check on all the above conditions for mechanical
Twisting twist and/or cork-screw effect. abuse, or either abnormal or accidental forces
during installation.
Mashing Wires are flattened and spread at broken ends. Check on all the above conditions for mechanical
abuse, or either abnormal or accidental forces
during installation.
Corrosion Wire surfaces are pitted with break showing Indicates improper lubrication or storage.
evidence either of fatigue tension or abrasion.
59
I
Figure 38. An example of interstrand and core-to-strand nicking. A strand (upper member) \.
has been removed from the rope (lower member) to show the equivalent lines of nicking where
strands are in contact with one another, as well as with the core.
,.,.,....... ,,-
Fi~~re 39. A cork-screll'('d rope: the condition Came about asa result of the rope being pulled .-,"
around an ohject having a small diameter.
60
/
Figure 40. When a reel has been damaged in transit, it is a safe assumption that irreparable
damage has b.een.dane to the rOj?e.
Figure 41. Wire rope abuses during shipment create serious problems. One of the more
,"
common causes is improper fastening of rope end to reel. e.g., nailing Ihro/lgh the rope end.
~-
These photos show two acc('prab!(' methods: A) one end of a wire "noose" holds the rope.
and the other end is secured to the reel: and B) the rope end is held in place by a l-bolt or
V-bolt that is fixed to the reel.
61
Figure 42. An example of "high strand". The excessive wear of a single strand is caused by improper
socketing.
..
.
Figure 43. This rope was damaged by being rolled over some sharp object.
Figure 44. These damages were the result of bad drum winding.
62
Figure 45. This effect of drum crushing is evidence of bad winding conditions.
63
Figure 48. An occurrence that is called a popped core.
~---~
64
'.
,,
Figure S1. A very bad condition (spiralling) brought about when the rope jumped from
the sheave.
65
Figure 52. This is the appearance of a typical tension break; a result of overloading.
A -\
\ )
B
Figure 53. A) Serious wear resulting from excessive bending. and B) localized wear brought
about by poor cut-off practice.
Figure 54. This is an illustration of a seriolls condition where the rope slides over or
against itself.
Fi~re 55. An illustration of \'Olley type fatigue breaks. Flexing the rope exposes broken
wires hidden in valleys between strands.
66
ROPE INSPECTION SUMMARY
Any wire rope that has broken wires, deformed strands, variations in diameter, or
any change from its normal appearance, must be considered for replacement.
It is always better to replace a rope when there is any doubt concerning its
condition or its ability to perform the required task. The cost of wire rope
replacement is quite insignificant when considered in terms of human injuries,
the cost of down time, or the cost of replacing broken structures.
Wire rope inspection includes examination of basic items such as:
1) Rope diameter reduction
2) Rope lay
3) External wear
4) Internal wear
5) Peening
6) Scrubbing
7) Corrosion
8) Broken wires
Some sections of rope can break up without any prior warning. Already
discussed in some detail as to cause and effect, sections where this occurs are
ordinarily found at the end fittings, and at the point where the rope enters or
leaves the sheave groove of boom hoists, suspension systems, or other semi-
operational systems. Because of the "working" that takes place: at these sections,
no appreciable wear or crown breaks will appear. Under such an operation,
the core fails thereby allowing the strands to notch adjacent strands.;However,
when this happens, valley breaks will appear. As soon as the first vaHey break
is detected, the rope should be removed immediately.
If preventive maintenance, previously described, is diligently
performed, the rope life will be prolonged and the operation will be safer.
Cutting off a given length of rope at the end attachment before the core
deteriOI:ates and valley breaks appear, effectively eliminates these sections
as a source of danger.
EQUIPMENT INSPECTION
Any undetected fault on a sheave, roller, or drum-be it of relatively major or
minor significance-can cause a rope to wear out many times faster than the wear
resulting from normal operations. As a positive means of minimizing abuses
and other-than-normal wear, the procedures here set forth should be adhered to.
Every observation and measurement should be carefully recorded and kept in
some suitable and accessible file.
1) Give close examination to the method by which the rope is attached both to the
drum and to the load. Make certain that the proper means of attachment
is applied correctly, and that any safety devices in use are in satisfactory
working order.
0'
r'"
~~.
67
2) Carefully check the groove and working surface of every sheave, roller, and
drum, to determine whether each (groove and surface) is as near to the
~orrect diameter and contour as circumstances will permit, and whether all
surfaces that are in contact with the rope are smooth and free of corrugations
or other abrasive defects.
3) Check sheaves and rollers to determine whether each turns freely, and whether
they are properly aligned with the travel ofthe rope. All bearings must be
in good operating condition and furnish adequate support to the sheaves and
rollers. Sheaves that are permitted to wobble will create additional forces
that accelerate the deterioration rate of the rope.
4) If starter, filler, and riser strips on drums are used, check their condition and
location. shouid these be worn, improperly located or badly designed, they
will cause poor winding, dog legs, and other line damage.
5) Wherever possible, follow the path that the rope will follow through a complete
operating cycle. Be on the lookout for spots on the equipment that have
been worn bright or cut into by the rope as it moves through the system.
Ordinarily, excessive abrasive wear on the rope can be eliminated at these
points by means of some type of protector or roller.
FIELD LUBRICATION
During fabrication, ropes receive lubrication; the kind and amount depending
on the rope's size, type, and anticipated use. This in-process treatment will provide
the finished rope with ample protection for a reasonable time if it is stored
under proper conditions. But, when the rope is put into service, the initial
lubrication may be less than needed for the full useful life of the rope. Because of
this possibility, periodic applications of a suitable rope lubricant are necessary.
Following, are the important characteristics of a good wire rope lubricant:
1) It should be free from acids and alkalis,
2) It should have sufficient adhesive strength to remain on the ropes,
3) It should be of a viscosity capable of penetrating the interstices between
wires and strands,
4) It should not be soluble in the medium surrounding it under the actual
operating conditions,
5) It should have a high film strength, and
6) It should resist oxidation.
68
Before applying lubrication, accumulations of dirt or other abrasive material
should be removed from the rope., Cleaning is accomplished with a stiff wire
.brush and solvent, and compressed,air or live steam. Immediately after it is
cleaned, the rope should be lubricated. When it is normal for the rope to operate
in dirt, rock or other abrasive material, the lubricant should be selected with
great care to make certain that it will penetrate and, at the same time, will not pick
up any of the material through which the rope must be dragged.
As a general rule, the most efficient and most economical means to do field
lubrication/protection is by using some method or system that continuously
applies the lubricant while the rope is in operation. Many techniques are used;
these include the continuous bath, dripping, pouring, swabbing, painting, or
where circumstances dictate, automatic systems can be used to apply lubricants
either by a drip or pressure spray method (Fig. 56).
I
PAINTING
CONTINUOUS BATH
POURING
SWABBING
DRIPPING SPRAY NOZZLE
,..
Fi~re 56. Lubricant application methods in general use today include continuous bath,
dripping, pouring, swabbing, painting, and spraying. The arrows indicate the direction in which
the rope is moving.
69
.-'." ..
, .,~
A. ONE· PART LINE B. TWO·PART LINE C. THREE· PART LINE D. FOUR· PART UNE E. FNE-PART LINE
Figure 57;' Commonly, used single- and multiple-sheave blocks (tackles). Static loading on the
rope is: A) equal to, B)Y.2of. C)V., of. D) l,4 of. and E) lis of the supported load.
70
Moreover, if this system has ball or roller bearings in the sheaves~ the lead
line load will increase to 1651 lb when the load starts to move. On the other
hand, if the sheaves have plain bearings such as bronze bushings, the lead line load
will increase to 1851 lb.
In an 8-part system with plain bearings, the lead line load jumps from
750 lb to 10861b-an increase of 45%! Derricks often use 8 or more parts in the
boom support system. The schematic diagram (Fig. 58) shows 4-part reeving.
This system has the same number of sheaves as there are parts of line.
The following procedure presumes this condition throughout. Provision
for extra lead sheaves are given at the end of this discussion.
To calculate the lead-line load, the combined load of the container, contents
N=4 _and lifting attachments is multiplied by the lead line factor as follows:
5=4 Lead line load = lead-line factor x load
Figure 58. Schematic representation of a
four-part reeving system. N= the number of
parts of line supporting the load (W), and
=
S the number of rotating sheaves.
TABLE 15 LEAD-LINE FACTORS*
1 .917 .962
2 .568 .530
3 .395 .360
4 .309 .275
5 .257 .225
6 .223 .191
7 .199 .167
8 .181 .148
9 .167 .135
10 .156 .123
11 .147 .114
12 .140 .106
13 .133 .100
14 .128 .095
15 _.124 .090
*In using this table. the user should note that it is based on
the as:umption that the number of parts of line (N) is equal to
the number of sheaves (5). When S exceeds N, refer to the text.
71
. 'Fig: 59showsasimilar4-part system with an additional lead-in sheave;
EXTRA In such cases, for each additiorial sheave the tabulated value is multiplied by 1.09
SHEAVE
for plain bearings, or L04 for ariti-frictio)1 bearings. r .
Example: What is the lead-line factor for a plain bearing tackle block system
of 5 parts of line and two extra lead-in sheaves? The tabulated value is .257.
Since there are two additional sheaves, the computation is:
.257 x 1.09 x 1.09= .305
What is the lead-line load on this system 'Yhen the load is 5000 Ibs?
5000 x .305 - 1525 lb
It should be emphasized that the."dead-end" also may "see" this
augmented load.
N'4
5'5 Systems in which both rope ends are attached to a drum such as may be founa
in overhead cranes are not within the planned scope of this manual. It is
Figure 59. Schematic representation of a suggested, therefore, that information on such systems be obtained directly
4-part reeving system with an extra (idler) from a wire rope manufacturer.
sheave.
72
6 Physical Properties
ELASTIC PROPERTIES OF WIRE ROPE
Wire rope, an elastic member, derives its normal stretch characteristics from two
sources:
1) the inherent elasticity of its metal components, and
2) the compaction process ofits wires, strands and core.
There is, moreover, a third source of elongation-under-Ioad: the rope's
tendency to rotate and its associated lengthenings of the lay. This rather complex
process has potentially dangerous consequences and must be avoided. A discussion
~f elongation brought about by rotation is not included here since it is not
within the scope of this publication.
Constructional stretch occurs when the rope's elements are compressed,
or pulled together, as the load is applied. The result is a slight decrease in
diameter and increase in length. This may be likened to the familiar effect known
as the "Chinese Finger Trap." As would be expected, ropes that have more
compressible cores (e.g., fiber cores) than IWRC or strand core ropes (e.g., 7 x 19
aircraft cable) will exhibit greater constructional stretch.
Usually, constructional stretch in IWRC or strand core ropes becomes
permanent after several loadings leaving the rope with very little resiliency or
recovery. However, fiber core ropes if lightly loaded (elevator ropes) may
retain some degree of resiliency throughout most of their service life.
The rope's construction, particularly its type of core and the. number of
strands, will have a significant effect on constructional stretch. For example,
an 8-strand rope has a core diameter averaging 22 % greater than that of a
6-strand rope. The 8-strand rope's constructional stretch is about 50% greater.
As to the effect of core type, a 6-strand rope with IWRC has about half (50%)
of the constructional stretch of a 6-strand fiber core rope.
The load range will also influence the overall stretch. When constructional
stretch just about reaches a maximum at 20% loading, the elastic portion will
remain almost straight-line up to around 65 % .
Total stretch, therefore, as a percent of length is greater from 0 to 20%
than from 20 to 65 % because constructional stretch contributes very little
above 20% ..
To gain some idea of the amount of constructional stretch that may be
expected, the following brief tabulation shows some of the percentages:
*Depends on loading.
73
Despite the fact that stretchcannofbe calculated precisely, the following
formula will provide a close approximati~n sufficient for most situations.
Ch· . I . h (ft) . 'Change i~-load (lb) x Length (ft)
ange 10 engt = Area (inches:!) x Modulus of Elasticity
It should be noted that this formula does not take rotation into account.
Example: What approximate elongation per foot may be expected in a
~ "-6 x 41 Warrington Seale Construction IPS IWRC if the load changes
from 20% to 30% of its nominal strength?
=
Change in load Nominal strength x (.3 -.2) = 23,000 x (.3 -.2)
= 23,000 x.l = 2300lb
Modulus of Elasticity (from Table 15) = 14,000,000
Area (from Table 16) -.4902 x (lIz)2 = .1225
Change in length = 2300 xI _ 0013 ft
.1225 x 14,000,000 - .
Note: A 100 ft piece would stretch 100 times this figure or .13 ft (1.61 inches).
Tables 16 and 17 provide approximate modulus of elasticity and metallic
area for a number of rope classifications and diameters.
74
TABLE 17
APPROXIMATE METALLIC AREAS OF VARIOUS CONSTRUCTIONS
Based on 1.03 diameter. If marked by an asterisk (*), area is based on exact
nominal diameter.
Fiber
Construction Centerless Core IWRC
1x2 .3927
1 x 3* .5075
1 x 7* .5930
1 x 19* .5827 ""~
3 x 7* .3708
6 x 19 S .4035 .4698
6x19W .4156 .4819
6x21 FW .4115 .4778
6x21 S .4107 .4770
6x2415/9 .3292
6x31 S
6 x 31 WS .4144 .4807
6x33 FW .4232 .4895
6x 36 WS .4185 .4848
6x3718/19W .3925 .4588
7x 19W .5051
8x7 .3427 .4740
8x 1912/7 .3325 .4638
8x 19 S .3588 .4715
NOTE: Values given are based on 3% 8x 19W .3659 .4972
oversize because this is a common
design "target." But, this figure 8x25FW .3675 .4988
often varies and is not to be 18 X 7 .4215
considered a standard. Wire sizes
19 X 7 .4526
in specific constructions alw vary,
6 X 3 X 19 .1220
.'..'
.; ~
~~
thus the given values are approxi-
mate. They are, however, within 7x7x7 .3425
the range of accuracy of the entire 7 X 7 X 19 .3614
method that is, in itself, approximate.
75
Where it is necessary to have precise data on elastic.characteristics, aload vs.
elongation test must be performed on a representative sample of the rope
under consideration.
For certain applications, ropes may be pre-stretched in order to remove
some of the constructional stretch. Frequently, this treatment is used on structural
members such as bridge rope and strand. In some cases, pre-stretching is
applied to operating ropes where elongation may present problems, e.g., elevator
and skip hoist ropes.
While a pre-stretching technique has value, some of the benefit is lost in
reeling and handling.
DESIGN FACTORS
Earlier, in this publication, the design factor was defined as the ratio of the
nominal breaking strength of a wire rope to the total load it is expected to carry.
Hence, the design factor that is selected plays an important part in determining
the rope's service life. Excessive loading, whether continuous or sporadic,
will greatly impair its serviceability. Usual1y, the choice of a certain wire rope size
and grade will be based on static loading and, under static conditions, it is
sufficient for its task. However, where a machine is working and dynamic loads
. are added to the static load, it is quite possible to exceed the material's elastic limit.
As was noted in the earlier discussion, a "common" design factor is 5.
Figure 60, the Wire Rope Relative Service Life Curve, shows how the service life is
reduced as operating loads are increased. A change in the design factor from
5 to 3 decreases its life expectancy index from 100 to 60-a drop of 40%!
170
160
I
150
I
140
I ~
130 I i I ~
'"
!!: 120
i ~
..J
tjllO
i ; ./y
~ 100 ~---~---~-------~
; ... ,. /1
./
'" 90
en
'"...~80 ~ !
~ 70 /" i
'"
"'60
1/ I
! ./I
50
40
30
, /'
!
I
I
20
/ :
10
/ ! I
oV , , I I I I
I 2 4 5 6 7 e 9
OESIGNFACTOR
Figure 60. This graph is called the Rrltllil'c' S",l'ic(' Lifc' CUrI'c'. Ii relates the service life to
operating loads, A design factor of 5 is chosen mqs\ frequently,
7(>
BREAKING STRENGmS
The breaking strength is the ultimate load registered on a wire rope sample
during a tension test. '~;.:
The nominalstrengths given (Tables 18 through 36), have been
calculated by a standardized, industry-accepted procedure, and manufacturers
design wire rope to these strengths. When making design calculations, it should be
noted that the given figures are the static strengths. All discussion of strength
is predicated on the assumption of there being a gradually applied load less than
1" /minute. Designers should base their calculations on these strengths.
A minimum acceptance strength, 21/z % lower than the published nominal
breaking strengths, was established as the industry tolerance. It serves to offset
testing variables that occur during the actual physical test of a wire rope sample.
This tolerance is used in the basic wire rope governmental specifications.
Wire rope testirig, whether it is performed for the purpose of determining
grade or for adherence to specifications, requires the sample to be tested to
meet certain standards: For example: the sample's length must not be less than
. 3 ft (0.91 m) between sockets for ropes with diameters of from ys,jnch
(3.2 mm) through 3 inches (77 mm); on ropes with larger (over 3 inches)
diameters, the clear length must be at least 20 times the rope diameter. The test
is considered valid only if failure oCcurs 2 inches (51 mm) Or morefrom
either of the·sockets, or from the holding mechanism.
77
,j."
TABLE19 NOMINAL STREN:GTHS OF WIRE ROPE
6 x 7 Classification/Bright (Uncri~!ed), IWRC
,
i
""-..:.;;;/
79
\
"r
80
--~-- -~-- - ---~~
--~ -- ----------------
Nominal Approximate
Diameter Mass Nominal Strength*
metric metric
inches mm lb/ft kg/m tons tonnes tons tonnes
~l
TABLE 22 NOMINAL STRENGTHS.OF WIRE ROPE
6 x 37 Classification/Bright (Uncoated), Fiber Core
Nominal Strength*
~:!
TABLE 23 NOMINAL STRENGTHS OF WIRE ROPE
6 x 37 Classification/Bright (Unc'Oated), IWRC
Nominal Strength*
Improved Extra Imp.
Nominal Approximate Plow Steel Plow Steel
Diameter Mass
metric metric
inches mm lb/ft kg/m tons tonnes tons t6nnes
1;4 6.5 0.12 0.17 2.94 2.67 3.4 3.08
'316 8 0.18 0.27 4.58 4.16 5.27 4.78
% 9.5 0.26 0.39 6.56 5.95 7.55 6.85
~6 11.5 0.35 0.52 8.89 8.07 10.2 9.25
Ih 13 '"
0.46 0.68 11.5 10.4 13.3 12.1
%6 14.5 0.59 0.,88 14.5 13.2 16.8 15.2
% 16 0 ..72 1.07 17.9 16.2 20.6 18.7
% 19 1.04 1.55 25.6 23.2 29.4 26.7
~ 22 1.42 2.11 34.6 31.4 39.5 ..- 35.9
1 26 1.85 2.75 44.9 40.7 51.7 . 46.9
11;8 29 2.34 3.48 56.5 51.3 65.0 59.0
11;4 32 2.89 4.30 69.4 63.0 79.9 72.5
1% 35 3.50 5.21 83.5 75.7 96.0 87.1
Ph 38 4.16 6.19 98.9 89.7 114 1'03
1% 42 4.88 7.26 115 104 132 120
1% 45 5.67 8.44 133 121 153 139
1~ 48 6.5 9.67 152 138 174 158
2 51 7.39 11.0 172 156 198 ]80
2% 54 8.35 12.4 192 ]74 221 200
21;4 57 9.36 13.9 215 195 247 224
2% ' 61 10.4 15.5 239 217 274 249
2%, 64 ] 1.6 17.3 262 238 302 274
2% 67 12.8 19.0 288 26] 331 300
2% 70 14.0 20.8 314 285 361 327
2% 74 15.3 22.8 341 309 392 356
3 77 16.6 24.7 370 336 425 386
3% ' 80 18.0 26.8 399 362 458 415
31;4 83 19.5 29.0 429 389 492 446
3% 86 21.0 31.3 459 416 529 480
3 1h 90 22.7 33.8 491 445 564 512
3%' 96 24.3 36.2 523 458 602 528
3% 103 26.0 38.7 557 505 641 581
*To convert to Kilonewtons (kN). mUltiply tons (nominal
, .- . breaking strength) by 8.896: 1 Ib =
4.448 newtons (N) .
~.~
\z.:.7i
S3
TABLE 24 NOMINAL STRENGTHS OF WIRE ROPE
6 x 61 Classification/Bright (Uncoated)", Fiber Core
•.t·"
Nominal Strength*
.- (
'3% 96 23.6 35.1 511 464
4 103 26;9 40.0 577 523
4% 109 '. 30.3 45.1 646 586
·41/.2 115 34.0 50.6 719 652
Nominal Strength*
,..
')1;
87
.- ;l . ~
.J~,
, ~i/ .
"
TABLE 2S NOMINAL STRENGTHS OF -.,""
WIRE ROPE
" i~ 6x30, 6x 30G, 6 x25B,& 6 x27H Flattened Strand/Fiber Core
Nominal Strength*
\
" .. 1% 35 3.40 5.06 85.5 77.6
1~ 38 4.05 6.03 101 91.6
1% 42 4.75 7.07 118 107
, i% 45 551 ' 8.20 136 123
,I,;..
TABLE 30 NOMINAL STRENGTHS OF WIRE ROPE
-.1.)i,'· -8 x 19 Clas~ification/Bright(Uricoafedj;Fiber Core
Nominal Strength
90
· TABLE 31 NOMINAL STRENGTHS OF WIRE ROPE
8·x19 Classification/Bright (Un~'oated), IWRC
91
92
93
..... ,
.' ~
Nominal Strength **
94
TABLE 35 NOMINAL STREN~THS OF WIRE ROPE
6 X 12 Construction/Galvanized,'Fiber Core~:
Nominal Strength**
95
TABLE 36 NOMINAL STRENGTHS OF WIRE ROPE
6 x 24 Construction/Gaivanb;ed, Fiber Core':'
Nominal Strength**
': "
'{:::;'
97
C. Unreeling
Wire rope must always be handled wit~~ care. This is particularly important
when tee Is or coils are 'receh/ed' moved'about, unreeled or uncoiled.
Reels or coils should never be dropped. When this happens, the rope may
s'hift and cause the reel to collapse and thus the rope itself may be damaged.
Removing rope from a collapsed reel may often result in rope damage.
Coiled rope, if dropped on the edge of the coil, can sustain a permanent bend.
Coils and reels should only be rolled on relatively smooth, hard surfaces.
Rolling through loose dirt, standing water, or across sharp, hard objects, or
over uneven surfaces can cause deformations or harm the lubricant protection.
Careful handling beforeinstaIlation and proper maintenance procedures
afterward will ensure the longest possible service life for wire rope.
Improper handling can prove quite costly for the user, yet, for the
most part, abuse is easily avoidable.
Appendix B
A GLOSSARY OF ABRASION Frictional surface wear on BECKET LOOP A loop of small rope or
WIRE ROPE TERMS the wires of a wire rope. strand fastened to the end of a large
wire rope. Its function is to facilitate wire
ACCELERATION STRESS The~,
rope installation.
additional stress that is imposed on a
wire rope as a result of an increase in the BACK-STAY Wire rope or strand guy
load velocity. (See DECELERATION· used to support a boom or mast; or that
STRESS). section of a main cable, as on a suspension
bridge, cableway, etc., leading from
AGGREGATE AREA See AREA,
the tower to the anchorage.
METALLIC.
BENDING STRESS Stress that is
AGGREGATE BREAKING
imposed on the wires of a wire rope by a
STRENGTH The breaking strength
bending or curving action.
derived by totalling the individual
breaking strengths of the elements of the BICABLE A term usually applied to a
strand or rope. This strength does not wire rope aerial tramway that has a fixed
give recognition to the reduction in cable or strand to support the load, as
strength resulting from the angularity of well as a traction or haul rope that moves
the elements in the rope nor other factors the load about the system.
which may affect efficiency.
BIRDCAGE A colloquialism
AIRCRAFT CABLES Strands, cords descriptive of the appearance of a wire
and wire ropes made of special-strength rope forced into compression. The outer
wire, designed primarily for use in various strands form a "cage" and, at times,
aircraft industry applications. displace the core.
ALBERTS LAY See LAY, TYPES. BLOCK A term applied to a wire rope
pulley enclosed in side plates and fitted
ALTERNATE LAY See LAY, TYPES.
with some attachment such as a hook or
AREA, METALLIC Sum of the cross- shackle.
sectional areas of all the wires either in
BOOM HOIST LINE Wire rope that
a wire rope or in a strand.
operates the boom hoist of derricks,
BAIL a) V-shaped member of a bucket, cranes, draglines, shovels, etc.
or b) V-shaped portion of a socket or
BOOM PENDANTS A non-operating
other fitting used on wire rope.
rope or strand with terminations to
BAILING LINE In well drilling, it is support the boom.
the wire rope that operates the bailer that
BREAKING STRENGTH
removes water and drill cuttings.
Breaking Strength is the ultimate load
BARNEY CAR A relatively small car at which a tensile failure occurs in the
permanently attached to a haulage rope sample of wire rope being tested. (Note:
that pushes cars along a haulage system. The term breaking strength is synonymous
with actual strength.)
BASKET OF SOCKET The conical
Minimum Acceptance Strength is that
portion of a socket into which a broomed-
strength which is 2\12 % lower than the
rope-end is inserted and then secured
catalog or nominal strength. This
either with zinc or resin.
tolerance is used to offset testing variables
BECKET An end attachment to which exist when the test is made to
facilitate wire rope installation. determine the breaking strength of a
specific sample of wire rope. Its use
originated with the basic government
wire rope specification.
99
BREAKING STRENGTH (cont,) CABLEWAY Aerial conveying system
Nominal Strength is the published . for transporting single loads along Ii·
(catalog) strength calculated by a s,uspended track cable.
standard procedure and accepted by the
CASING LINE Wire rope used to
wire rope industry. The wire rope
install oil well casings.
manufacturer designs wire rope to this
strength, and the user should consider CATENARY The curve formed by a
this to be the minimum strength when . wire rope when supported horizontally
making design calculations. between two fixed points; e.g., the main
spans on a suspension bridge.
BRIDGE CABLE The all-metallic wire
ropes or strands used as the catenary and CENTERS Wire, strand or fiber at the
suspenders on a suspension bridge. center of a strand around which the wires
are laid.
BRIDGE SOCKET A wire rope fitting
of forged or cast steel that is designed with CHOKER ROPE A short wire rope
baskets-having adjustable bolts-for sling that forms a slip noose around an
securing rope ends. There are two styles: object that is to be moved or lifted.
1) the closed type has a V-bolt with or
without a bearing block in the V of the CIRCUMFERENCE Measured
bolt, and 2) the open type has two perimeter of a circle that circumscribes
either the wires of a strand or the strands
eye-bolts and a pin.
of a wire rope.
BRIDLE SLING A multipart wire
CLAMPS, STRAND A fitting for
rope sling.
forming a loop at the end of a length of
BRIGHT ROPE Wire rope fabricated strand, consisting of two grooved plates
from wires that are not metallic coated. and bolts.
BRONZE ROPE Wire rope fabricated CLASSIFICATION Group or family
from bronze wires. designation based on wire rope con-
structions with strengths and weights
BULL WHEEL A term applied to a
jointly lisied under the broad designation.
large-diameter wire rope sheave; e.g., the
sheaveS at the end of a ski lift. CLEANING OUT LINE Wire rope
used in conjunction with tools that are
BUTTON CONVEYOR ROPE
used to clean an oil well.
Wire ropes to which buttons or discs are
attached at regular intervals to move CLEVIS See SHACKLE.
material as in a trough.
CLIP Fitting for clamping two parts of
CABLE . A term loosely applied to wire wire rope to each other.
rope~, wire strand and electriCal
conductors. CLOSED SOCKET A wire rope end
, fitting consisting of basket and bail made
CABLE-LAID WIRE ROPE A type of integral.
wire rope consisting of several wire ropes
laid into a single wire rope. Example: . CLOSER A machine which lays (winds)
6 x 42 (6 x 6 x 7) tiller rope. strand around a central core to form rope.
CABLE TOOL DRILLING LINE CLOSING LINE Wire rope that per-
The wire rope used to operate the cutting forms two functions: 1) closes a clamshell
tools in the "cable tool" drilling method or orange peel bucket, and 2) operates
(i.e., rope drilling). as a hoisting rope.
100
COARSE LAID ROPE Term generally COlTON CENTER See FIBER
used in oil fields to designate a 6 x 7. CENTERS.
wire rope.
COTTON CORE See FIBER CORES.
COIL Circular bundle or package of
COUPLING (track strand) Device for
wire rope that is not affixed to a reel.
joining the ends of two lengths of
COMEALONG Device for making a track strand.
temporary grip on a wire rope.
COVER WIRES Outer layer of wires.
CONICAL DRUM Grooved hoisting
CRACKER Manila rope spliced or
drum with a varying diameter. See
otherwise attached to the end of a wire
DRUM.
drilling line.
CONSTRUCTION Geometric design
CREEP The unique movement of a
description of the wire rope's cross section.
wire rope with respect to a drum surface
This includes the number of STRANDS,
or sheave surface resulting from the
the-number of WIRES per strand and the
asymmetrical load between one side of the
pattern of wire arrangement in each
sheave (drum) and the other; It is not
STRAND.
dissimilar from the action of a caterpillar-
CONTINUOUS BEND Reeving of wire moving over a flat surface. It should be
rope over sheaves and drums so that it distinguished from slip which is yet
bends in one direction, as opposed to another type of relative movement
REVERSE BEND. between rope and the sheave or drum
surface.
CONVEYOR ROPE Endless wire rope
used to carry material. See BUTTON CRITICAL DIAMETER For any given
CONVEYOR ROPE. wire rope, it is the diameter oJ the smallest
bend that permits both wires and strands
CORD Term applied to small size wire
to adjust themselves by relative movement
ropes or strands.
while retaining their normal cross-secti9n
CORE The central member of a wire position.
rope aboutwhich the strands are laid.
CROSS LAY See LAY, TYPES.
It can be made of fiber, a wire strand or
an independent wire rope. CROWD ROPE A wire rope used to
CORING LINE Wire rope used to drive or force a power shovel bucket into
operate the coring tool that is used to take the material that is to be handled.
core samples during oil well drilling. CYLINDRICAL DRUM A hoisting
CORROSION Chemical decomposition drum of uniform diameter. See DRUM.
of the wires in a rope through the action DEAD-LINE In drilling, it is the end of
of moisture, acids, alkalines or other - the rotary drilling line fastened to the
destructive agents. anchor or dead-line clamp.
CORROSION-RESISTING STEEL DECELERATION STRESS
Chrome-nickel steel alloys designed for The additional stress that is imposed on
increased resistance to corrosion. a wire rope as a result of a decrease
CORRUGATED Term used to describe in the load velocity.
the grooves of a sheave or drum after
these have been worn down to a point
where they show an impression of a
wire rope.
101
: .. ,
lO~
FERRULE A metallic button, usually GALVANIZED STRAND Strand made
cylindrical in shape, normally fastened to up of galvanized wire.
a wire rope by swaging but sometimes by
GALVANIZED WIRE Zinc-coated wire.
spelter socketing.
FERRY ROPE Refers to wire rope that GRADE Wire rope or strand classifica-
tion by strength and/ or type of material-
is suspended over water for the purpose
i.e., Improved Plow Steel, Type 302
of guiding a boat.
Stainless, Phosphor Bronze, etc. It does
FIBER CENTERS Cords or rope made not imply a strength of the basic wire used
of vegetable or synthetic fiber that are to meet the rope's nominal strength.
used as the center of a strand.
GRADES, ROPE Classification of wire
FIBER CORES Cords or rope made of rope by the wire's metallic composition
vegetable of synthetic fiber that are used and the rope's breaking strength.
as the center of a wire rope.
GRADES, STRAND Classification of
FILLER WIRE Small auxiliary wires strand by the wire's metallic composition
within a strand whose primary purpose is and the strand's breaking strength. In the
to position and support other wires. order of increasing breaking strengths,
the grades are Common, Siemens Martin,
FIITING Any functional accessory
High-Strength and Extra-High Strength.
attached to a wire rope.
A Utilities grade strength is also made
FLAG Marker placed on a rope so as to meet special requit.ements and its
to locate the load position. strength is usually greater than high-:
strength.
FLAT ROPE Wire rope that is made of
a series of parallel, alternating right-lay GRAIN SHOVEL ROPE 6 x 19
and left-lay ropes, sewn together with Marline clad rope used for. handling
relatively soft wires. ' grain in scoops.
FLAITENED STRAND ROPE GROMMET An endless 6-strand wire
, Wire rope that is made either of oval or rope with a strand core made of one
triangular shaped strands in order to' continuous length of strand.
form a flattened rope surface.
GROOVED DRUM Drum with a
FLEET ANGLE That angle between grooved surface that accommodates the
the rope's position at the extreme end rope and guides it for proper winding and
wrap on a drum, and 'a line drawn perpen- un-winding.
dicular to the axis of the drum through
the center of the nearest fixed sheave. GROOVES Depressions-helical or
See DRUM and SHEAVE. parallel-in the periphery of a sheave or
drum that are shaped to position and
FLEXIBLE WIRE ROPE An archaic support the rope.
and imprecise term to differentiate one
rope construction from another; such as, GUY LINE Strand or rope, usually
6 x 7 (least flexible) and 6 x 19 classifi- galvanized, for stabilizing or maintaining
~ s~ructure in fixed-position.
cation (somewhat more flexible). See
EXTRA FLEXIBLE WIRE ROPE. HAULAGE ROPE Wire rope used for
GALV ANIZED Hot-dipped (occasion- pulling movable devices such as cars that
ally electro-chemical) zinc coating for roll on a track.
corrosion resistance. HAWSER Wire rope. usually galvan-
GALVANIZED ROPE Wire rope made ized, used for towing or mooring marine
up of galvanized wire. vessels.
103
,;>
. HERRINGBONE See LAY, TYPES. makes one complete turn about the axis of
. the strand or a strand about the axis of
HI'GH·STRENGTH STRAND
Ii rope. In this connection lay is also
Grade of galvanized or bright strand.
referred to as lay length or pitch.
See GALZANIZED and BRIGHT ROPE.
LAY,TYPES
HOLDING LINE Wire rope on a
1) Right Lay: product in which the
clamshell or orange peel bucket that acts
, elements are laid in a right hand helix.
as a restraint on the bucket while the
2) Left Lay: product in which the
closing line is released to dump its load.
elements are laid in a left hand helix.
IDLER Sheave or roller used to guide 3) Cross Lay: product in which one or
or support a rope. See SHEAVE. more laying or closing operations are
performend in opposite directions. A
IMPROVED PLOW STEEL ROPE multiple operation product is named
A specific grade of wire rope. according to the direction of the outside
INCLINE ROPES Ropes used in the layer.
operation of cars on an inclined haulage. 4) Regular Lay: wire rope in which the
wires in the strands and the strands in the
INDEPENDENT WIRE ROPE CORE rope are laid in opposite directions. The
Wire rope that is used as the core within crowns of the wires appear to line up
a larger rope. In rope specifications, with the axis of the rope.
it is usually denoted by the abbreviation 5) Lang Lay: wire rope in which the
IWRC. wires in the strands and the strands in the
INNER WmES AIl wires of a strand rope are laid in the same direction. The
except the outer or cover wires. crowns of the wires make an angle with
the axis of the rope.
INTERNALLY LUBRICATED 6) A lternate Lay: lay of a wire rope in
Wire rope or strand having all of its wire which the strands are alternately regular
components coated with lubricant. and lang lay.
mON ROPE A specific grade of 7) Alberts Lay: an old, now rarely used,
wire rope. term for lang lay.
8) Reverse Lay: another term for
mONING See MILKING. alternate lay.
IWRC See INDEPENDENT WIRE 9) Spring Lay: this is not actually a
ROPE CORE. unique lay and more properly refers to a
wire rope construction. See MOORING
KINK A unique deformation of a wire LINES and SPRING LAY.
rope caused by a loop of rope being pulled 10) Herringbone: an unusual construction
down tight. It represents irreparable consisting of 4 Lang Lay strands, each
damage to the rope and an indeterminable pair of which is separated by a
loss of strength. Regular Lay strand. See LAY.
LAGGING a) External wood covering LAY LENGm See LAY (b).
or
on a reel to protect the wire rope strand,
or b) the grooved shell of a drum. LEAD LINE That part of a rope tac~le
leading from the first, or fast, sheave to
LANG LAY ROPE See LAY, TYPES. the drum. See DRUM and SHEAVE.
LAY a) The manner in which the wires LEFT LAY See LAY, TYPES.
in a strand or the strands in a rope are
helically laid, or b) the length, parallel to LINE Term used synonymously with
"the longitudinal axis, in which a wire WIRE ROPE.
104
LOCKED COIL STRAND Smooth- MOORING LINES Galvanized wire
surfaced strand ordinarily constructed of rope, usually 6 x 12, 6 x 24, or 6 x 3 x 19
shaped, outer wires arranged in concentric spring lay for holding ships to dock.
layers around a center of round wires.
NON-ROTATING WIRE ROPE
LOOP A 360 change of direction in the
0
An abandoned reference to 19 x 7 or
course of a wire rope which when pulled 18 x 7 rope. See ROTATION
down tight will result in a kink. See EYE RESISTANT.
and EYE SPLICE.
NON-SPINNING WIRE ROPE
MARLINE- See NON-ROTATING WIRE ROPE.
A pre-lubricated fiber material.
OPEN SOCKET A wire rope fitting that
MARLINE-CLAD ROPE Rope with consists of a "basket" and two "ears"
individual strands spirally wrapped with a pin. See FITTING.
with Marline.
OUTER WIRES See COVER WIRES.
MARLINE SPIKE Tapered steel pin
PEENING Permanent distortion
used as a tool for splicing wire rope.
resulting from cold plastic flow of the
MARTENSTITE A micro-constituent outer wires. Usually caused by pounding
of steel that becomes extremely brittle against a sheave or machine member or by
when the steel is heated above the critical heavy operating pressure between rope
temperature and rapidly quenched; This can and sheave, rope and drum, or rope and
occur in wire ropes as a result of frictional adjacent wrap of rope.
heating and the mass cooling effect of the
PITCH See LAY (b).
cold metal beneath. Martenstite cracks
very easily when bent and such cracks PLOW STEEL See GRADES, ROPE.
propagate through the entire structure
below. PREFORMED STRANDS Strand in
which the wires are permanently shaped
MESSENGER STRAND Galvanized before fabrication into strand to the
strand used to support telephone and helical form they assume in the strand.
electrical cables.
PREFORMED WIRE ROPE
METALLIC CORES See WIRE Wire rope in which the strands are
STRAND CORE and INDEPENDENT permanently shaped before fabrication
WIRE ROPE CORE. into the rope to the helical form they will
MILD PLOW See GRADES, ROPE. assume in the wire rope.
MILKING Sometimes called ironing, it PRESSED FITTINGS Fittings which
is the progressive movement of strands are attached to wire rope by cold forming
along the axis of the rope 'that results from the fitting onto the rope by means of a
its movement through a restricted passage rotary swager or a press. See SWAGED
such as a tight sheave. ' FITTINGS.
MODULUS OF ELASTICITY PRE-STRESSING An incorrect
Mathematical quantity expressing the reference to prestretching.
ratio, within the elastic limit, between a
PRESTRETCHING Subjecting a wire
definite range of unit stress on a wire rope
rope or strand to tension prior to its
and the corresponding unit elongation.
intended application, for an extent and
MONOCABLE A term usually applied over a period of time sufficient to remove
to an aerial tramway designed with a most of the constructional stretch.
single wire rope that not only supports the
load but conveys it as well.
105
PROPORTIONAL LIMIt As used in SAFETY FACTOR
the rope industry this term is virtually the See DESIGN FACTOR.
Same as elastic limit. It is the end of the" ":,w
SAFE WORKING LOAD Potentially
load versus elongation relationship at
misleading. this term is in disfavor.
which an increase in load no longer
Essentially, it means the portion of the
prodllces a proportional increase in
nominal rope strength that can be applied
elongation and from which point recovery
" to nlove or Sllstal'n a load. It )'s misleadl'ng
to the rope's original length is unlikely.
because it is valid only when the rope
RATED CAPACITY The load which a is new and equipment is in good condition.
wire rope or wire rope sling, when new, See RATED CAPACITY.
may handle under given operating condi-
SAG See DEFLECTION.
titms and at an assumed design fattor.
SAND LINE See BAILING LINE.
REEL A flanged spool on which wire,
rope or strand is wound for storage or SASH CORD Small, 6 x 7 wire ropes,
shipment. commonly made of iron wires, are
REEVE To pass a rope through a hole referred to by this tcrm.
or around a system of sheaves. SEALE The name for a type of strand
REGULAR LAY ROPE construction that is characterized by:
1) covcr wires of a single size, 2) the same
See LAY, TYPES.
number of one size of wires in the
RESERVE STRENGTH The strength adjacent layer and 3) each layer having
of a rope exclusive of the outer wires; the same length and direction of lay.
refers to all ropes that exhibit some type of The most common construction of this
rotation-resistant quality or characteristic. type has one center wire, nine inner wires
and nine cover wires.
REVERSE BEND Reeving a wire rope
over sheaves and drums so that it bends SEIZE To make a secure binding at the
in opposing directions. See REEVE. end of a wire rope or strand with seizing
wire or strand. See SEIZING WIRE.
REVERSE LAY See LAY, TYPES.
SEIZING STRAND Small strand
RIGHT LAY See LAY, TYPES.
usually made up of 7 soft wires.
ROLLERS Relatively small-diameter See SEIZE.
cylinders, or wide-faced sheaves, that
SEIZING WIRE A soft wire.
serve as support for ropes.
See SEIZE.
ROTARY LINE On a rotary dri11ing rig,
SERVE To cover the surface of a wire
itis the wire rope used for raising and
rope or strand with a fiber cord or wire
lowering the drill pipe, as well as for
wrapping.
, controlling its position.
SEWING WIRES See FLAT ROPE.
ROTATION-RESISTANT ROPE
A wire rope consisting of an inner layer SHACKLE A D- or anchor-shaped
of'strand laid in one direction covered-by fitting with pin.
a layer' of strand laid in the opposite
SHEAVE A grooved
direction. This has the effect of counter-
plll1ey for wire rope.
acting torque by reducing the tendency
of the finished rope to rotate. SIEMENS-MARTIN STRAND
A grade of galvanized strand.
RUNNING ROPE Term used to
See GALVANIZE.
describe 6x 12 galvanized wire rope.
106
SLINGS Wire rope or ropes made into STONE SAWING STRAND A 2-wire
forms, with or without fittings, for: or 3-wire strand used in stone and slate
handling loads and designed to permit the quarrying operations.
attachment of an operating rope.
STONE SAWING WIRE A shaped and
SLING, BRAIDED A flexible sling, twisted wire used in stone and slate
the body of which is made up of two or quarrying operations.
more wire ropes braided together.
STRAND A symmetrically arranged
See SLINGS.
and helically-wound assembly of wires.
SMOOTH-COIL TRACK STRAND
STRAND CENTER See CENTERS.
Strand composed of concentric layers of
round wires, used as an aerial conveyor STRAND CORE See CORES.
track ·cable. See STRAND.
STRESS The force or resistance within
SMOOTH-FACED DRUM Drum with any solid body to alteration of form; in
a plain, ungrooved surf;;;:e. Sec DRUM. the case of a soEd \vire it ',,",QuId be the Io:'.d
on the rope divided by the area of the wire.
SOCKET Generic name for a type of
wire rope fitting. See BRIDGE SOCKETS, STRETCH The elongation of a wire
CLOSED SOCKETS, OPEN SOCKETS rope under load.
and WEDGE SOCKETS.
SWAB LINE
SPECIAL FLEXIBLE WIRE ROPE' See CLEANING OUT LINE.
Term sometimes used to describe 6 x 37
classification wire rope. SWAGED FITTINGS' Fittings into
which wire rope can be inserted and then
SPIN RESISTANT An abandoned permanently attached by cold pressing
term referring to a rotation-resistant rope (swaging) the shank that encloses the rope.
of the 8 x 19 type. See FITTING.
See ROTATION RESISTANT.
TAG LINE A small wire rope used to
SPIRAL GROOVE A continuous prevent rotation of a load.
helical groove that follows a path on and
around a drum face, similar to a screw TAPERED DRUM
thread. See DRUM. See CONICAL DRUM.
107
\ ,
1015
Appendix C WIRE ROPE FITTINGS
~---~T ~+
Approx.
Rope Wt
Diam. A B C D .G J R T Lb
NOTE: Dimensions are for reference only. Consult your supplier of the specific fittings for
exact details.
109
, l >~) ..
Approx.
Rope Wt
Diam. A B C D E G J K L N P Lb
,
.}
%;& 14' 2 1~11l 31'4 4~Y11l
1~"H 31'4 lYJll 1~11l ~1n FiSr. l1Afi 0.9
~}SG & 3/8 2 1% 'Vs 40/s 1!Jt,t; 1:!1r. 31'4 ' 1~11l 1 :~.[t:! Ph 10/1r. 1.1
'Vlr.& liz 2Y2 2 ,i 1"n 5°·1'u 1'Vs ' 1 1%,0 1 liz lYs ,1 2.3
1)10 & s/s 3 2Y2 IJ,4 6 31'4 21,4 111'4, P/s PA 'Hli 2 v.. 1:1111 3.8
11,4&1% 5 1/2 5 211.1,; 13:);1n 4% 2 31'4 2 11'4 2Y2 1 1/8 4 31'4 2Y2 32.0
11/2, 6 6 31/8' 15Ys 5% 3 23,4 3 1:t1li 5% 2% ;47:0
,1% 6 1/2 6 1/2 3 1,4 16 1,4 5 112 31,4 3 3 1ilti 5% 3 55.0
1%&I'Vs 711z 7 3% 18 1,4 6% 3Ys 31/lj 31/2 l!J.1°tj 6 112 3 112 85.0
3 & 31/8 12 1 JI,4 5:}4 29 11 1/2 5 I;~ 5 1,4 53..4 3 91/2 5 1,4 380.0
3 1,4 & 3% 13 1 B~ 6 J/M 30% 12 1'4 53,4 53,4' 6 1/4 31/8 10 51/2 434.0
31/2 &3~1l 14 121/2 ':6~4 33 1,4 13 6 1,4 61/2 M4 31,4 103,4 6 563.0
3%-4 15 13Y2 7% 36 11.1 14 1/.i 7 7 1,4 71/2 3lj2 12~'2 7 783.0
'i{;';
'NOTE: DifuensidJisatefot,reference6rtly. Consult your supplier of the specific fittings for
exact details.
lID
OPEN SWAGED WIRE ROPE
SOCKETS
NOTE: Dimensions are for reference only. Consult your supplier of the specific fittings for
exact details.
II I
OPEN SWAGED STRAND
SOCKETS
Fj-l
L@=r
r· k B
---r
~
c
-L
i, .. jJ;
Approx. ~ (.
1,4&%6 l1/s 5/S 11;4 1716 21;4 1~0 2 112 83/.; 3.5
',c\;,.
% 1% % 1112 Ph 2% 11710 3 10 1/2 6.25
1716 & % 11,4 1~16 . 1% 1% 3 1/.; 2 3% 121;4 9.25
1710 & % P/.; 1132 2 2 3% 2% 4 14 14.5
1%6 & 1 2 1~6 21;4 21;4 4 1/.; 2!)1n 4112 15 3/.; 20.5
1710 &1 1/8 21;4 1~6 21,4 21h 4% 21~ln 5 17V2 29.25
1710 & 11;4 2,1/2 Hio 21h 2 112 51;4 3Vs 51/.; 191;4 38.25
1%6 & 1% 2 3/.; mu. 3 2% 5% 31h 5.% 21 45.0
NOTE: Dimensions are for reference only. Consult your supplier of the specific fittings for
exact details.
:
"
.," '
112
.. __ ... ---'---~
/~,
.'.....f - - - - L I !
t \ r-E-+-F-l
~--;--.L.......r----J._~P"--,_j C§(! [ i :i n
113
CLOSED SWAGED STRAND
SOCKETS
1/2 & ~o }I/s }I/s 21h 114 2Ys l~fI 7 112 2.75
% 1% mo 3 II~b 2% 1% 9 5.0
11Ao & 34 11h I1h 3th 12%~ 3 1;8 2 11 7.25
l:}lo & % }3;4 1% 4 2:1112 3% 2 14 12Y2 11.0
NOTE: Dimensions are for reference only. Consult your supplier of the specific fittings for
exact details.
114
OPEN SWAGED SOCKETS
f-B~ A
.., ~'''i, ]
Center of pin Opening Diameter
Diameter' hole to end' between of Approximate
of of socket ears pin hole wt
rope A B C (lb)
'Va 9 13,4 1% 15
·1 9% ISh 1% 20
, I1h' 10% '1~ 1% 23
1% 11% 13,4 21h 32
1% 11% 1% 2Y8 32
1~ 13 1,4 2~ 3Y8 52
1% 13% 2~ 31h 52
NOTE: Dimensions are for reference only. Consult your supplier of the specific fittings for
exact details.
115
a
WIRE ROPE ASSEMBLIES Zinc-attached closed wire rope socket at (Jne end; zihc;.attached open wire rbpi
When ordering wire rope ;"'ith fittings socket at other end. ,:.~
attached. lengths-as shown-should Measurement: Pull of closed socket to centerline of open socket pin.
.. (."
be specified. Additionally, the load at
which this measurement is taken
should be specified, i.e., at no load, at b
a percentage of catalog breaking
strength etc. Closed swaged wire rope socket at one end; open swaged wire rope socket at
The accompanying drawings do other end.
not show all possible combinations of Measurement: Centerline of.,pin to centerline of pin.
fittings; in any case, the same
measuring methods should be
followed.'
c
Closed bridge socket attached to one end; open bridge socket attached to other end.
Measurements: Centerline of closed socket pin to centerline of open socket pin;
include two of the three values: takeup, contraction, and expansion. The values of
C and 0 are also required. \.. . '.;.
f
I)
116
a
~ 1Y::0f&{?ik~~",,;Z-<S,S~§§0%~ f>~: ;~·;:~·~ s~-0"' :; ;'-'"' '>,-c.; =*", -~", "*. .~""'~""'""'."""""";.;S:;,,"",,","';::,"",~""~,",:,",,["-II---@
,-
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - L E N G T H - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -......
I -.
!. -I!
c
""""'11"''''''' "~
HTAKE UP
--+-------mm-rm~~~'=::k;J~::::::::::
~
~ i
J------------------LENGTHI------------------_ .. '
TAKE UP, ICONTRACT10N)+ (EXPANSION)
117
BOOM PENDANTS WITH
SWAGED FITTINGS SINGLE-ROPE LEGS AND OPEN SWAGED SOCKETS I
',~
,:'.'
I , .
<Q:=:---'--;-1*~~""""="""'~......4.~~XJ~--=:§)
: 11 ~D
~ 1~~ts~~~ss~S!;S::[II ==~.
.• ] R W
*
I SINGLE-ROPE LEGS AND OPEN AND CLOSED SWAGED SOCKETS I
@=--'----r--:I~~~~""""''''''''"''''''~~~~?I=~'''''''''',~=~=®rT[I--@
: W1 ~
@:=.----I».*,......~~
I
=: ! I! )4
SINGLE- ROPE LEGS AND CLOSED SWAGED SOCKETS
I I -L
\-I-!;-'!--.=_---l~~ ~~-s(Jr--.-......-=.....'---.-!..;.,. ""-1) K
I '~I~ T
(--.!-;-I! =_---'~~~ ~---,-- ,,--,@
I~. . -----~I
- . . , . . _ - - - - - - L E N G T H OF PENDANT (SL)-,
118
119
Appendix D SOCKETING
C.l
SOCKETING PROCEDURES
Zinc-Poured Socketing
The following steps, in the order given. sh0l!Id be careful1y adhered to. '
1. Measure the Rope Ends to be Socketed
The rope end should be of sufficient length so that the ends of the un laid wires
(from the strands) will be at the top of the socket basket. (Fig. C.1 ).
2. Apply Serving at Base of Socket ,
Apply a tight wire serving band, at the point where the socket base will be,
for a length of two rope diameters. (Figs. C.2 & C.3).
3. Broom Out Strand Wires
Unlay and straighten the individual rope strands and spread them evenly so
that they form an included angle of approximately 60°, Unlay the win~s of.each
, individual strand for the full length of the rope end-being careful not to
disturb or change the Jay of the wires and strands under the serving band.
Unlay the wires of an independent wire rope core in the same manner.
C.2 A fiber core should be cut out and removed as close to the serving band
as possible (Fig. C.3).
4. Clean the Broomed-Out Ends
A suggested cleaning solvent for this step is SC-5 Methyl Chloroform. It is also
known under the names Chlorothane VG and 1-1-1 Trichlorethane.
CAUTION: Breathing the vapor of this solvent is harmful; \.
it should only be used in a well-ventilated area. Be sure to follow the
solvent manufacturer's instructions, and carefitlly observe all
,instructions printed on the hlbel.
Swish the broomed-out rope end in the solvent. then brush vigorously to
remove all grease and dirt-making certain that the wires are clean to the
very bottom close to the serving band (Fig. C.4). Additional1y. a solution of
muriatic acid may also be used. If. however. acid is used thebroomed-out
ends should be rinsed in a solution of bicarbonate of soda so as to neutralize any
acid that may remain on the rope. Care should be exercised to prevent aCid
from entering the core; this is particularly important if the rope has a fiber
core. Where it is feasible. the best and preferred cleaning method for rope
C.3 ends prior to socketing is ultrasonic cleaning. After this cleaning step, place
the broomed-out end upright in a vise al10wing it to remain until all
solvent has evaporated and the wires are dry.
Solvent should never be permitted to remain on the rope or on the serving
band since it v,'ill run down the wires when the rope is remo\'ed from the vise.
5. Dip the Broomed-Oll/ Rope Ends in Flux
Prepare a hot solution of zinc-ammonium chloride flux comparable to Zaclon K.
Use a concentration of 1 Ib of zinc-ammonium chloride to I gallon of water;
maintain this at a tempera'ture of 180 0 to 200 0 F. Swish th~ broomed-out
end in the flux solution. then place the rope end upright in the vise until such
time as the wires have dried thoroughly (Fig, C. 5).
6. Close Rope Ends and Place .'iacket
Use clean wire to compress the broomed-out rope end into a tight bundle
that will permit the socket to be slipped on easily over the wires (Fig. C. 6).
Before placing the socket on the rope. make certain that the socket itself
120
C.4
is clean and heated. This heating is necessary in order to dispel any residual
m moisture, and to prevent the zinc from cooling prematurely. A word of
J21
.. ",~
.I
123
4) Pot Life and Cure Time
After mixing, the resin-catalyst blend shall be pourable for a minimum
of eight minutes at 60 0 F and shall harden in 15 minutes. Heating
of the resin in the socket to a maximum temperature of 250 0 F is
permissible to obtain full cure.
B. Properties of Cured Resin
1) Socket Performance
Resin shall exhibit sufficient bonding to solvent-washed wire in typical
wire rope end fittings to develop the nominal strength of all types and
grades of rope. No slippage of wire is permissible when testing resin-filled
rope socket assemblies in tension. After testing, however, some
"seating" of the resin cone may be apparent and is acceptable.
Resin adhesion to wires shall be capable of withstanding
tensile-shock loading.
2) Compressive Strength
The minimum allowable compressive strength for fully cured resin
is 12,000 psi.
3) Shrinkage
Maximum allowable shrinkage is 2 %. To control shrinkage, an inert
filler may be used in the resin provided that viscosity requirements as
specified above (A.l) for the liquid resin are met.
4) Hardness
The desired hardness of the resin is in the range of BarcoI40-55.
Resin Socketing Compositions
Manufacturer's directions should be followed in handling, mixing and pouring
the resin composition.
Performance of Cured-Resin Sockets
Poured-resin sockets may be moved after the resin has hardened. Following the
ambient- or elevated-temperature cure, recommended by the manufacturer,
resin sockets should develop the nominal strength of the rope, and have the
capability of withstanding shock loading to a degree sufficient to break
the rope. without cracking or breakage. Manufacturers of resin socketing
material shall be required to test these criteria before resin materials will
be approved for rope socketing use.
A final note of caution: the foregoing discussion is a generalized description
of but one of many commercially available thermo-set resins suitable for wire rope
socketing. Characteristics of these products vary significantly and each must be
handled differently. ThLiS, as noted earlier, specific information of any kind
concerning any resin must be obtained from the individual manufacturer before
setting up a resin socketing ~rocedure.
1~4
Appendix E SHIPPING REEL CAPACITY
fl
The'formula* is: L = (A+D)· A • B • K
where: L = length of rope (ft)
A = depth of rope space on drum (inches)
B width of drum between
LH J
f---J-------1
D
K
H
x =
flanges (inches)
drum barrel diameter (inches)
comtant for given rope diameter
(see table below)
diameter of reel flanges (inches)
clearance
TABLE 45'
"K" FACTORS:~*
(0.2618 ..;- rope diameter2)
125
Appendix F WEIGHTS OF MATERIALS'~
''''='''
Weight Weight
.Substance (Ib/ft 3) Substance (Ib/ft 3)
'(.
METALS, ALLOYS, ORES '. VARIOUS SOLIDS
Aluminum, cast~hammered 165 Carbon, amorphous,
Aluminum, bronze ,..•... 481 graphitic . 129
Antimony .. 416 Cork . 15
Arsenic ;.;; . 358 Ebony . 76
Bismuth . 608 Fats . 58
Brass, cast-rolled . 534 Glass, common, plate .. 160
Bronze (gun metal)- Glass, crystal .. 184
cOpper 88, tin 10, Glass, flint . 220
zinc 2% .. 544 Phosphorous, white .. 114
Bronze (Phosphor)- Porcelain, china .. 150
copper 80, tin 10. Resins, Rosin, Amber . 67
lead 10% .. 562 Rubber, caoutchouc .. 58
Chromium .. 428 Silicon .. 155
Cobalt ; . 552 Sulphur, Amorphous . 128
Copper, cast-rolled .. 556 Wax . 60
Copper, ore, pyrites . 262 TIMBER, U.S. SEASONED
Gold, cast-hammered . 1205 Ash, white .. 41
Iron. cast, pig .. 450 Beech .. 44
Iron, wrought .. 485 Birch, yellow . 43 \ ..i
..
Iron, Spiegel-eisen . 468 Cedar, Port Orford .. 29
Iron, ferro-silicon .. 437 Cedar, white, red . 22-23
Iron, ore, hematite .. 325 Chestnut . 30
Iron, ore, hematite in bank 160-180 Cypress, southern .. 32
Iron, ore. hematite loose . 130-160 Douglas Fir, coast type .. 34
Iron, ore, limonite . 237 Douglas Fir, mountain .. 30
Iron, ore, magnetite .. 315 Elm, American .. 35
Iron, slag .. 172 Hemlock, eastern, western 28
Lead ; . 706 Hickory, bigleaf . 48
Lead ore, galena ,. 465 Hickory, pignut . 53
Magnesium .. 109 Larch, western .. 36
Manganese .. 456 Maple, red, black .. 38-40
Manganese or(f, pyrolusite 259 Maple, silver : .. 33
Mercury . .848 Oak, Oregon white . 51
Molybdenum . 562 Oak, red .. 44
Nickel .. 545 Pine, red .. 33
Nickel monel metal .. 556 Pine, white, yellow,
Platinum. cast-hammered .. 1330 western . 27-28
Silver, cast hammered ,. 656 Poplar, yellow . 28
Steel ~ .. 490 Redwood . 30
Tin. cast-hammered .. 459 Spruce, black, red .. 28
Tin. babbitt metal . 443 Spruce, Engelmann .. 23
Tin. ore, cassiterite . 418 Tamarack . 37
Tungsten . 1180 \Valnut . 39-40
*Weights are derived from average specific Vanadium .. 350 Moisture Contents:
gravities. except where noted as bulk, heaped Zinc. cast-rolled . 440 Seasoned timber 12%
or loose material. etc. Zinc, ore. blende .. 253 Green timber up to 50%
Weight Weight Weight
Substance (Ib/ft 3) Substance (Ib /ft 3) Substance (Ib/ft 3)
VARIOUS LIQUIDS Slate, shale .. 172. BRICK MASONRY
Alcohol, 100% . 49 Soapstone, talc . 169 .Pressed brick . 140
Acids, Muriatic 40% . 75 Common brick . 120
STONE, QUARRIED,
Acids, nitric 91 % . 94 Soft brick .. 100
PILED
Acids, sulphuric 87% . 112
Basalt, granite, gneiss . 96 CONCRETE
Lye, soda 66% ..........•....... 106
Limestone, marble, quartz 95 Cement, stone, sand . 144
Oils, vegetable . 58
Sandstone ".. 82 Cement, slag, etc .
Oils, mineral, lubricants . 57 130
Shale . 92 Cement, cinder, etc . 100
Petroleum . 55
Greenstone, hornblende . 107
Gasoline . 42
Water, 4°C, max. densilY .. 62.428 BITUMINOUS VARIOUS BUILDING
Water, 100°C . 59.830 SUBSTANCES MATERIAL
Water, ice . 56 Asphaltum .. 81 Ashes, cinders . 40-45
Water, snow, fresh fallen .. 8 Coal, anthracite : . 97 Cement, Portland, loose . 90
Water, sea water . 64 Coal, bituminous . 84 Cement, Portland, set . 183
Coal, lignite . 78 Lime, gypsum, loose . 65-75
GASES Coal, peat, turf, dry . 47 Mortar, set . 103
Air, O°C, 760mm 08071 Coal, charcoal, pine .. 23 Slags, bimk slag .. 67-72
Ammonia 0478 Coal, charcoal, oak . 33 Slags, bank, screenings .. 98-117
Carbon dioxide .1234 Coal, coke .. 75 Slags, machine slag . 96
Carbon monoxide 0781 Graphite . 131 Slags, slag sand ..: . 49-55
Gas, illuminating 028-.036 Paraffine . 56
Gas, natural : 038-.039 EARTH, ETC.,
Petroleum, crude : . 55
Hydrogen .00559 EXCAVATED
Petroleum, refined .. 50
Nitrogen .0784 Clay, dry . 63
Petroleum, benzine . 46
Oxygen .0892 Clay, damp, plastic . 110
Petroleum, gasoline . 42
Clay and gravel, dry .. 100
.Pitch . 69
MINERALS Earth, dry, loose . 76
Tar, bituminous . 75
Asbestos 153 Earth, dry, packed .. 95
Barytes 281 COAL AND COKE, PILED Earth, moist, loose . 78
Basalt 184 Coal, anthracite . 47-58 Earth, moist, packed . 96
Bauxite 159 Coal, bituminous, lignite .. 40-54 Earth, mud, flowing .. J08
Borax 109 Coal, peat, turf . 20-26 Earth, mud, packed . 115
Chalk 137 Coal, charcoal .. 10-14 Riprap, limestone .. 80-85
Clay, marl 137 Coal, coke .. 23-32 Riprap, sandstone . 90
Dolomite 181 Riprap, shale . 105
ASHLAR MASONRY
Feldspar, orthoclase :...... 159 Sand, gravel, dry, loose . 90-105
Granite, gneiss .. 172
Granite, gneiss 172 Sand, gravel, dry, packed.. 100-120
Limestone, crystalline .. 160
Greenstone, trap 187 Sand, gravel, wet . 118-120
Limestone, oolitic .. 144
Gypsum, alabaster 159
Marble' :.: . 168 EXCAVATIONS IN
Hornblende 187
Sandstone, bluestone . 147 WATER
Limestone, crystalline ......160
Limestone, oolitic 144 MORTAR RUBBLE Sand or gravel :; . 60
Magnesite 187 MASONRY Sand or gravel and clay .. 65
Marble 168 Granite, gneiss . 165 Clay .. 80
Phosphate rock, apatite 200 Limestone, crystalline .. 156 River mud _ . 90
Porphyry 172 Limestone, oolitic .. 138 Soil . 70
Pumice, natural................ 40 Marble . 162 Stone riprap .. 65
Quartz, flint 165 Sandstone, bluestone .. 140
Sandstone, bluestone 147
127
CONTENTS IN ALPHA:BETICAL ORDER'
BasitComponents /.7
Bending Rope Over Sheaves & Drums / 39
Breaking ina New Wire Rope /45
Breaking Strengths / 77
Clips, How to Apply /29
Cutting Wire Rope / 24
Design Factors /76
Drums: Grooved / 34
Multiple Layers /36
Plain (Smooth) / 35
Efficiency of End Attachments / 25
Elastic Properties of Wire Rope / 73
End Attachments / 25
Factors Affecting the Selection of Wire Rope / 49
Field Lubrication / 68
Fleet Angle / 48
Glossary of Wire Rope Terms (Appendix B) / 99
Handling Wire Rope /17
Inspections and Reports, Guidelines to / 52
Introduction / 5
Operation and Maintenance of Wire Rope / 37
Ordering, Storing and Unreeling Wire Rope (Appendix A) / 97
Physical Properties /73
Receiving, Inspection and Storage / 17
Seizing Wire Rope / 22
Sheaves & Drums / 37
Sheaves & Drums, Inspection of / 42
Shipping Reel Capacity (Appendix E) / 125
Socketing / 28
Socketing Procedures (Appendix D) / 120
Strength Loss of Rope Over Sheaves or Stationary Pins / 47
Unreeling & Uncoiling / 19
Wedge Sockets/ 33 "
Weights. of M,lterials (App~ndix F) / 126
Wire Rope: Clips / 29
Efficiency Over Sheaves / 70
Fittings (Appendix C) / 109
Identification / 9
Installation /18
Operations Inspection/ 45
"X-Chart": Abrasion Resistance. vs. Bending-Fatigue Resistance / 44