SH1635

Discourse
§ Refers to any unit of connected speech or writing longer than a sentence
§ Discourse cannot be confined to sentential boundaries. It is something that goes beyond the
limits of the sentence. In other words, discourse is any coherent succession of sentences, spoken
or written
§ Discourse is one (1) of the four (4) systems of language, the others being vocabulary, grammar,
and phonology. It is any piece of extended language (language that is more than one [1] ,
§ sentence), written or spoken, that has unity, meaning, and purpose.

I. The Forms of Discourse

1. Narration
It is the description of an event, which occurs in chronological order. The differences
of narration from description are: (1) it uses the pronouns like “I” and “me”; (2) it includes
an action; and (3) it follows a chronological order but the description does not.
a. Elements
· Setting – This is the time and the place of the action. This answers the
questions When and Where.
· Character – These are the persons involved in the story. It answers Who in
the narrative.
· Actions – These are the incidents in the story, the causes responsible for the
occurrence, and the manner that the outcome is brought about. It answers
What, Why, and How.
· Note that there are other elements of narrative in a literature class.
b. Types
· Simple – narrative of events which really happen
· Plotted – fictional, results of the author’s invention or ingenuity
2. Description
It is the fiction-writing mode for transmitting a mental image of the particulars in the
story. It can go hand in hand with narration and makes the events in the story more
vivid.
a. Patterns
· Spatial – describes how the subject occupies space.
· Vertical – best with subjects that are taller than they are wide. You may start
at the top and work your way down, or start at the bottom and work your
way up. Descriptions of peoples are often vertically organized.
· Horizontal – moves from left to right, or from right to left, taking the details
in a horizontal sequence. Depending on the perspective of the writer, the
description could also move from the front to back or vice versa. Usually,
the direction of movement is a matter of choice. Descriptions of places are
often organized horizontally.
· Circular – used whenever a horizontal pattern involves something that is
not in a straight line. The interior of a room, for example, could use a circular
pattern, beginning at the door and working around the room until returning
to the starting point.

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· Affective – describes the effect a person, place, or thing has on the writer.
Recreating that same effect on the audience becomes the purpose of the
writer. It uses description to convey feelings.
· Temporal – refers to narration
b. Kinds
· Informative (Scientific and Technical)
o appeals to the intellect
o describes how it looks, feels or does, tastes, smells, sounds
o details in the appearance (color, size, and shape) of a person; a place
or an object for the purpose of identification
· Artistic (Suggestive / Evocative or literary)
o aims to give pleasure
o appeals to the sense of beauty by stimulating the imagination and
emotion of the reader that he may have a vivid image of the object
as felt and seen by the writer
3. Exposition
It is a type of oral or written discourse used to explain, describe, or give information.
The creator of an expository text cannot assume that the reader or listener has prior
knowledge or prior understanding of the topic that is being discussed. One important
point to keep in mind for the author is to try to use words that clearly show what they
are talking about rather than blatantly telling the reader what is being discussed.

The difference of exposition to argumentation is: An exposition gives the reader a

balanced amount of the subject and it uses a neutral, objective tone. On the other hand,
argumentation convinces the reader of the writer’s overall point and suggests wider
implication.

a. Patterns
· Circumlocution – This depicts a pattern in which the speaker discusses a
topic, then diverts to discuss a related but different topic.
· Narrative Interspersion – This is a pattern of a sub-pattern embedded in
other patterns in which the speaker or writer intersperses a narrative within
the expository text for specific purposes including to clarify or elaborate on
a point or link the subject matter to a personal experience.
· Recursion – This is when the speaker discusses the topic, and then restates
it using different words or symbolism. It is used to drive home a point and
to give special emphasis to the text.
· Description – The author describes a topic by listing characteristics,
features, and examples.
· Sequence – The author lists items of events in numerical or chronological
order (uses first, second, third, nest, then, finally).
· Comparison – the author explains how two or more things are alike and/or
how they are different (uses different, in contrast, alike, same as, on the
other hand).
· Cause and Effect – The author lists one or more causes and the resulting
effect or effects (uses reasons why, if… then, as a result, therefore, because).

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· Problem and Solution – The author states a problem and lists one or more
solutions for the problem. A variation of this pattern is the question-and-
answer format in which the author poses a question and then answers it (uses
problem is, dilemma is, puzzle is solved, question… answer).

b. Outline
I. Topic Sentence
ü Be sure to introduce all the ideas in the paragraph in an interesting way.
Grab your reader’s attention! Don’t just start with the first point.
II. First Point
ü Use a transition to introduce your first point: First of all, First, One
reason, or To begin. State your point clearly, and make sure it focuses
on the topic.
III. Support
ü Use specific details to support your first point. You may use an example
of offer an explanation. Personal examples and examples from the text
are always interesting if they are related to the topic.
IV. Second Point
ü Use a transition to introduce your second point: In addition,
Furthermore, Another reason, Second, or After that. State your point
clearly, and make sure it focuses on the topic.
V. Support
ü Use specific details to support your second point. You may use an
example of offer an explanation. Personal examples and examples from
the text are always interesting if they are related to the topic.
VI. Third Point
ü Use a transition to introduce your third point: Finally, Last, or Third.
State your point clearly, and make sure it focuses on the topic.
VII. Support
ü Use specific details to support your third point. You may use an example
of offer an explanation. Personal examples and examples from the text
are always interesting if they are related to the topic.
VIII. Concluding Sentence
ü Use a transition to introduce your concluding sentence: In conclusion,
As you can see, For these reasons, All in all. Make sure you sum up the
paragraph but DO NOT repeat the topic sentence and DO NOT say, “All
in all, those are my reasons…” Try giving a personal opinion or feeling
about the topic.
c. Types
· Exposition of a Process – the most frequently used organizational patterns
o Common Types of Exposition of a Process
1. How-to-do-it – gives directions for doing something in the
manner of recipe
2. How-it-works – shows an operation in its successive stages

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3. How-it-is-organized - shows how a complex organization

functions by breaking it into department and showing what each
does
4. How-did-it-happen – casual process, which seeks a cause for a
known effect and shows why and how an event occurred

· Exposition of an Abstract Term – achieved by definition, by analogy, by

comparison and contrast, by example, by cause and effect, by repetition, by
question and answer or by combined methods
o Three (3) Parts of Definition
1. Term – word to be defined
2. Genus – the class or concept to which the term belongs
3. Differentia/differentiation – the characteristics that differentiate
it from others belonging to the same class.
Example: Humans are rational animals.
(term) (differentia) (genus)
· Character Sketch – the process of writing individual traits to set forth our
idea of the person. It is also giving details of the characteristics of some
personified animal or thing.
o Two (2) Kinds of Character Sketches
1. Individual sketch – concerns a particular person
2. Type sketch – deals more with the characteristics common to a
group
· Essay – an exposition of an author’s thoughts or reflections on some subject
of human interest
o Two (2) Kinds of Essay and its Purpose
1. Formal Essay – to give information and instruction
2. Informal Essay – to reveal writer’s personality, to entertain, to
comment on interesting and important matters
· Comment and Criticism – It is usually published in newspapers and
magazines and is written in a large variety of subjects such as books, play,
music, painting, sculpture, or anything that naturally evokes opinion or
judgment. They are aimed at placing a book or any other piece of work in
its proper niche of respect and authority. Criticism justifies the point of view
and final judgment by means of signaling out merit and demerit, comparison
with established standards, and analysis of the work as a whole and part-by-
part. Criticism may be constructive; it may point the way to meritorious
accomplishment, giving advice and encouragement upon the given piece of
work under review. It may be destructive; it may deliberately so adverse as
to discourage further effort on the part of the writer or artist along the line
of work on which the criticism is based.
o Three (3) Kinds of Criticism
1. Historical criticism
2. Criticism by use of standards
3. Impressionistic or Personal Criticism

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· Classification and Partition – Two (2) different patterns, but both involve
sorting information into categories. These methods are generally used to
handle subjects where there is so much information. The writer, then,
decides to break the subject up into smaller pieces and examine each piece
separately.
· Summary – This states and explains briefly the subject of any spoken or
written composition of considerable length. The words abstract, epitome,
resume, abridgment, recapitulation and summary are practically
synonymous. The degree of condensation of any piece of composition must
depend on the purpose.

4. Argumentation
It is the form of composition that aims to convince others of the truth or falsity of a
disputed matter. It appeals to the understanding.
· The three (3) goals of critical argumentation are to identify, analyze, and
evaluate arguments. The term “argument” is used in a special sense,
referring to the giving of reasons to support or criticize a claim that is
questionable, or open to doubt.
· People who make use of argumentation always appeal – whether explicitly
or implicitly – to some standard of reasonableness. This, however, does not
always mean that each argumentation is indeed reasonable.

a. Suggested Argumentative Paper Format

I. INTRODUCTION
ü 1-2 paragraphs
ü PURPOSE: To set up and state one’s claim
ü OPTIONAL ELEMENTS
o Make your introductory paragraph interesting. How can you draw
your readers in?
o What background information, if any, do we need to know in order
to understand your claim? If you don’t follow this paragraph with a
background information paragraph, please insert that info here.
ü REQUIRED ELEMENTS
o If you are arguing about a literary work – state author + title
o If you are arguing about an issue or theory – provide a brief
explanation of your issue/ theory.
o If you are arguing about a film – state director, year + title
o STATE your claim at the end of your introductory paragraph.

II. BACKGROUND PARAGRAPH

ü PURPOSE: To lay the foundation for proving your argument
ü Will often include:
o Summary of works being discussed
o Definition of key terms
o Explanation of key theories

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III. SUPPORTING EVIDENCE PARAGRAPH # 1

ü PURPOSE: To prove your argument. Usually is one (1) paragraph, but it
can be longer.
ü TOPIC SENTENCE: What is one (1) item, fact, detail, or example you
can tell your readers that will help them better understand your
claim/paper topic? Your answer should be the topic sentence of this
paragraph.
ü EXPLAIN TOPIC SENTENCE: Do you need to explain your topic
sentence? If so, do it here.
ü INTRODUCE EVIDENCE: Introduce your evidence either in a few
words or in a full sentence.
ü STATE EVIDENCE: What supporting evidence (reasons, examples,
facts, statistics, and/or quotations) can you include to
prove/support/explain you topic sentence?
ü EXPLAIN EVIDENCE: How should we read or interpret the evidence
you are providing us? How does this evidence prove the point you are
trying to make in this paragraph?
ü CONCLUDING SENTENCE: End your paragraph with a concluding
sentence that reasserts how the topic sentence of this paragraph helps up
better understand and/or prove your paper’s overall claim.

IV. SUPPORTING EVIDENCE PARAGRAPH # 2, 3, 4, etc.

ü Repeat the steps given above.

V. COUNTERARGUMENT PARAGRAPH
ü PURPOSE: To anticipate your reader’s objections; make yourself sound
more objective and reasonable.
ü What possible argument might your reader pose against your argument
and/or some aspect of your reasoning? Insert or of more of those
arguments here and refute them.
ü End paragraph with a concluding sentence that reasserts your paper’s
claim as a whole.

VI. CONCLUSION PART 1: SUM UP PARAGRAPH

ü PURPOSE: To remind readers of your argument and supporting pieces
of evidence
ü To restate your paper’s overall claim and supporting evidence

VII. CONCLUSION PART 2: YOUR “SO WHAT”: PARAGRAPH

ü PURPOSE: To illustrate to your instructor that you have thought
critically and analytically about this issue
ü Your conclusion should not simply restate your introductory paragraph.
If your conclusion says almost the exact thing as your introduction, it
may indicate that you have not done enough critical thinking during the
course of your essay.

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ü Your conclusion should create a sense of movement to a more complex

understanding of the subject of your paper. By the end of your essay,
you should have worked through your ideas enough so that your reader
understands what you have argued and is ready to hear the larger point
you want to make about your topic.
ü Your conclusion should serve as the climax of your paper. So, save
your strongest analytical points for the end of your essay, and use them
to drive your conclusion.
ü Vivid, concrete language is perhaps more essential, since the
conclusion determines the reader’s final impression of the essay. Do
not leave them with the impression that your argument was vague or
unsure.
ü Warning: It’s fine to introduce new information or quotations in your
conclusions as long as the new points grow from your argument. New
points might be more general, answering the “so what” question; they
might be quite specific. Just avoid making new claims that need lots of
additional support.

References:
Bargo, D. D. (2014). Writing in the Discipline. Quezon City. Great Books Publishing.
Definition. (n.d.). Retrieved on July 21, 2016 from
http://www.wou.edu/~corninr/wr135/definition.html
Discourse. (n.d). Retrieved on July 21, 2016 from http://www.dictionary.com/browse/discourse
Discourse. (2006). Retrieved from http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/discourse
Domagsang, A. T. (2016). Exploring Literature and Grammar, Reading and Writing Skills. Quezon
City: Brilliant Creations Publishing Inc
Expository vs. Argumentative Essays. (n.d.). Retrieved on July 22, 2016 from
https://www.jyu.fi/hum/laitokset/kielet/oppiaineet_kls/englanti/studies/thesis-and-academic-
writing/text-types/argumentative-vs-expository-text
Narrative vs. Descriptive Writing. (n.d.). Retrieved on July 22, 2016 from
http://classroom.synonym.com/narrative-vs-descriptive-writing-1043.html
Sharma V. & Sharma M. (2010). Linguistic discourse analysis: Introduction and structure. Retrieved
from https://call-for-papers.sas.upenn.edu/node/39688

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