Dynamic System and Control - Lecture 3

Dynamic Systems and Control, Chapter 3: Feedback Control Theory
Feedback Control Theory
© 2015 Quoc Chi Nguyen, Head of Control & Automation Laboratory, nqchi@hcmut.edu.vn 3-1
Root-Locus Method
- The basic characteristic of the transient response of a closed-loop
system is closely related to the location of the closed-loop poles.
- If the system has a variable loop gain, then the location of the closed-
loop poles depends on the value of the loop gain chosen.
- The closed-loop poles are the roots of the characteristic equation.
Finding the roots of the characteristic equation of degree higher than 3
is laborious and will need computer solution (Matlab can do it).
However, just finding the roots of the characteristic equation may be of
limited value, because as the gain of the open-loop transfer function
varies, the characteristic equation changes and the computations must
be repeated.
- Root-locus method, is one in which the roots of the characteristic
equation are plotted for all values of a system parameter
- By using the root-locus method the designer can predict the effects on
the location of the closed-loop poles of varying the gain value or
adding open-loop poles and/or open-loop zeros
ROOT-LOCUS PLOTS
Angle and Magnitude Conditions
Consider the negative feedback system
The characteristic equation for this closed-loop system

Angle condition
Magnitude condition
ROOT-LOCUS PLOTS
When G(s)H(s) involves a gain parameter K, characteristic equation
may be written as
Then, the root loci for the system are the loci of the closed-
loop poles as the gain K is varied from zero to infinity
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ZEROS-POLES AND ANGLE-
MAGNIGTUDE
The angle of G(s)H(s) is
The magnitude of G(s)H(s)

for this system is
General Rules for Constructing Root Loci
Consider the control system Illustrative example
The characteristic equation
Rearrange this equation in the form
Rule 1. Locate the poles and zeros of G(s)H(s) Illustrative example
on the s plane. The root-locus branches start
from open-loop poles and terminate at
zeros (finite zeros or zeros at infinity).
- The root loci are symmetrical about the
real axis of the s plane, because the
complex poles and complex zeros occur
only in conjugate pairs.
- If the number of closed-loop poles is
the same as the number of open-loop The first step in constructing a root-
poles, then the number of individual locus plot is to locate the open-loop
root-locus branches poles, s = 0, s =–1, and s =–2, in the
terminating at finite open-loop zeros is complex plane
equal to the number m of the open-loop
zeros. The remaining n-m branches
terminate at infinity (n-m implicit zeros
at infinity) along asymptotes
Rule 2. Determine the root loci on the real Illustrative example
axis. Root loci on the real axis are
determined by open-loop poles and zeros
lying on it.
- Each portion of the root locus on the
real axis extends over a range from a Q: - If the test point is on the
pole or zero to another pole or zero. positive real axis, then
- In constructing the root loci on the real
axis, choose a test point on it. If the total
number of real poles and real zeros to - If a test point on the negative real
the right of this test point is odd, then axis between 0 and –1, then
this point lies on a root locus.
- If a test point is selected between
–1 and –2, then
Rule 3. Determine the asymptotes of root loci. The root loci for very large values of s
must be asymptotic to straight lines whose angles (slopes) are given by
Since the angle repeats itself

Illustrative example
as k is varied, the distinct
angles for the asymptotes
are determined as 60°, –60°,
and 180°
Rule 3 (continued). Find the point where they intersect the real axis. The
abscissa of the intersection of the asymptotes and the real axis is then
obtained by
The three straight lines

shown are the asymptotes. They
meet at point s = –1
Rule 4. Find the breakaway and break-in points. Because of the conjugate symmetry
of the root loci, the breakaway points and break-in points either lie on the real
axis or occur in complex-conjugate pairs.
- If a root locus lies between two adjacent open-loop poles on the real axis, then
there exists at least one breakaway point between the two poles.
- If the root locus lies between two adjacent zeros (one zero may be located at –
q) on the real axis, then there always exists at least one break-in point between
the two zeros.
- If the root locus lies between an open-loop pole and a zero (finite or infinite) on
the real axis, then there may exist no breakaway or break-in points or there
may exist both breakaway and break-in points.
- Breakaway and break-in points can be determined from the roots of
- It should be noted that not all the solutions of dK/ds = 0 correspond to actual
breakaway points. If a point at which dK/ds = 0 is on a root locus, it is an
actual break away or break-in point. Stated differently, if at a point at which
dK/ds = 0 the value of K takes a real positive value, then that point is an actual
breakaway or break-in point
Rule 4. (continued)
Rule 5. Determine the angle of departure (angle of arrival) of the root locus from a complex pole (at
a complex zero). To sketch the root loci with reasonable accuracy, we must find the directions
of the root loci near the complex poles and zeros. If a test point is chosen and moved in the
very vicinity of a complex pole (or complex zero), the sum of the angular contributions from
all other poles and zeros can be considered to remain the same.
- Angle of departure from a complex pole= 180° – (sum of the angles of vectors to a complex
pole in question from other poles) + (sum of the angles of vectors to a complex pole in
question from zeros)
- Angle of arrival at a complex zero= 180° – (sum of the angles of vectors to a complex zero
in question from other zeros) + (sum of the angles of vectors to a complex zero in question
from poles)
There are no
complex
pole/zero in
the present
example
Rule 6. Find the points where the root loci may cross the imaginary axis. The points where
the root loci intersect the j axis can be found easily by (i) use of Routh’s stability criterion
or (ii) letting s = j in the characteristic equation, equating both the real part and the
imaginary part to zero, and solving for  and K. The values of  thus found give the
frequencies at which root loci cross the imaginary axis. The K value corresponding to each
crossing frequency gives the gain at the crossing point.
For the present example
Rule 7. Determine closed-loop poles. A particular point on each root-locus branch will
be a closed-loop pole if the value of K at that point satisfies the magnitude
condition. Conversely, the magnitude condition enables us to determine the value
of the gain K at any specific root location on the locus. (If necessary, the root loci
may be graduated in terms of K. The root loci are continuous with K.)
- The value of K corresponding to any point s on a root locus can be obtained using
Draw the root loci
Comments on the Root-Locus Plots

- A slight change in the pole–zero configuration may cause significant
changes in the root-locus configurations
Cancellation of Poles of G(s) with Zeros of H(s)
It is important to note that if the denominator of G(s) and the numerator of H(s)
involve common factors, then the corresponding open-loop poles and zeros will
cancel each other, reducing the degree of the characteristic equation by one or more.
Example: The closed-loop transfer function
The characteristic equation is
Because of the cancellation of the terms (s+1)
To obtain the complete set of closed-loop

poles, we must add the canceled pole of
G(s)H(s) to those closed-loop poles
The reduced characteristic equation is
obtained from the root-locus plot of
G(s)H(s)
Constant  loci and constant n loci
The damping ratio  of a pair of complex-conjugate poles can be expressed

in terms of the angle , which is measured from the negative real axis
Frequency response
- Frequency response is the steady-state response of a system to a sinusoidal
input. In frequency-response methods, we vary the frequency of the input signal
over a certain range and study the resulting response.
- One advantage of the frequency-response approach is that we can use the data
obtained from measurements on the physical system without deriving its
mathematical model.
- An advantage of the frequency-response approach is that frequency-response
tests are, in general, simple and can be made accurately by use of readily
available sinusoidal signal generators and precise measurement equipment.
- Often the transfer functions of complicated components can be determined
experimentally by frequency-response tests.
- Although the frequency response of a control system presents a qualitative
picture of the transient response, the correlation between frequency and
transient responses is indirect, except for the case of second-order systems.
- In designing a closed-loop system, we adjust the frequency-response
characteristic of the open-loop transfer function by using several design criteria
in order to obtain acceptable transient-response characteristics for the system
Steady-State Outputs to Sinusoidal Inputs
Input Output
Transfer function
Input Output
where
Input Output
Bode diagrams
• A Bode diagram consists of two graphs: One is a plot of the logarithm of
the magnitude of a sinusoidal transfer function; the other is a plot of the
phase angle; both are plotted against the frequency on a logarithmic
scale.
• The main advantage in using the logarithmic plot is the relative ease of
plotting frequency-response curves
• The basic factors that very frequently occur in an arbitrary transfer
function G(j)H(j) are
Gain K
A number greater than unity has a positive value in decibels, while a number
smaller than unity has a negative value. The log-magnitude curve for a constant
gain K is a horizontal straight line at the magnitude of 20 log K decibels. The phase
angle of the gain K is zero. The effect of varying the gain K in the transfer function
is that it raises or lowers the log-magnitude curve of the transfer function by the
corresponding constant amount, but it has no effect on the phase curve.
- The logarithmic magnitude of 1/j in decibels is
- The phase angle of 1/j is constant and equal to –90°

- The differences in the frequency responses of the factors 1/j and j
lie in the signs of the slopes of the log-magnitude curves and in the
signs of the phase angles. Both log magnitudes become
equal to 0 dB at  = 1
What is dB?
The decibel (dB) is a logarithmic unit used to express the ratio
between two values of a physical quantity, often power or intensity
Examples
- The log magnitude of the first-order factor 1/(1 + jT) is
- For low frequencies, such that  << 1/T, the log-magnitude may be
approximated by
- For high frequencies, such that  >> 1/T
- The exact phase angle f of the factor 1/(1 + j  T) is
- An advantage of the Bode diagram is that for reciprocal factors—for example,

the factor 1 + j  T — the log-magnitude and the phase-angle curves need only be
changed in sign, since
Control systems often possess quadratic factors of the form
If  > 1, this quadratic factor can be expressed as a product of two first-order factors
with real poles. If 0 <  < 1, this quadratic factor is the product of two complex
conjugate factors. Asymptotic approximations to the frequency-response curves are
not accurate for a factor with low values of . This is because the magnitude and
phase of the quadratic factor depend on both the corner frequency and the
damping ratio .
We have
for low frequencies such that  << n, the log magnitude becomes
For high frequencies such that  >> n , the log magnitude becomes
The equation for the high-frequency asymptote is a straight line having the
slope –40 dB/decade
- The two asymptotes just derived

are independent of the value of z.
Near the frequency  = n, a
resonant peak occurs.
- The damping ratio  determines the
magnitude of this resonant peak.
Errors obviously exist in the
approximation by straight-line
asymptotes. The magnitude of the
error depends on the value of . It is
large for small values of .
General Procedure for Plotting Bode Diagrams

- First rewrite the sinusoidal transfer function G(j)H(j) as a product of
basic factors.
- Identify the corner frequencies associated with these basic factors.
- Finally, draw the asymptotic log-magnitude curves with proper slopes
between the corner frequencies. The exact curve, which lies close to the
asymptotic curve, can be obtained by adding proper corrections.
- The phase-angle curve of G(j)H(j) can be drawn by adding the phase-
angle curves of individual factors
- The use of Bode diagrams employing asymptotic approximations
requires much less time than other methods that may be used for
computing the frequency response of a transfer function.
- The ease of plotting the frequency-response curves for a given transfer
function and the ease of modification of the frequency-response curve as
compensation is added are the main reasons why Bode diagrams are
very frequently used in practice
Examples of Bode Diagrams

Consider the transfer function
Step 1. Put G(j) in the normalized form, where the low-frequency asymptotes for
the first-order factors and the second-order factor are the 0 dB line
This function is composed of the following factors
The corner frequencies of the third, fourth, and fifth terms are  = 3,  = 2, and 
= 2 respectively. Note that the last term has the damping ratio of 0.3536.
Examples of Bode Diagrams
Minimum-Phase Systems and Nonminimum-Phase Systems
Transfer functions having neither poles nor zeros in the right-half s plane are
minimum-phase transfer functions, whereas those having poles and/or zeros in the
right-half s plane are nonminimum-phase transfer functions. Systems with
minimum-phase transfer functions are called minimum-phase systems, whereas those
with nonminimum-phase transfer functions are called nonminimum-phase systems
Minimum-Phase Systems and Nonminimum-Phase Systems
The two sinusoidal transfer functions have the same magnitude characteristics,
but they have different phase-angle characteristics
Transport Lag
Transport lag, which is also called dead time, is of non minimum phase behavior and
has an excessive phase lag with no attenuation at high frequencies. Such transport
lags normally exist in thermal, hydraulic, and pneumatic systems
The magnitude is always equal to unity, since
Therefore, the log magnitude of the transport lag e-jT is equal to 0 dB. The phase
angle of the transport lag is
Transport Lag
Phase-angle
characteristic of
transport lag
Stability Margin
Phase Margin
Gain Margin
Transient Response
Transient Response
Damping Ratio
Bandwidth and Natural Frequency
Finding Closed-Loop Bandwidth from Open-Loop Data
Finding Closed-Loop Bandwidth from Open-Loop Data
Bandwidth and Settling Time
Bandwidth and Peak Time
Bandwidth and Rise Time
Nyquist Stability
© 2015 Quoc Chi Nguyen, Head of Control & Automation Laboratory, nqchi@hcmut.edu.vn
• Học bù:
– Thứ năm tuần sau (4/5/2017): T9-T12 (R. 201 B2)
Unit impulse response of the linear systems
The homogeneous response
from the system pole
Real poles and pairs of complex-
locations on the pole-zero conjugate poles
plot q r
c(t )   a j e   bk e  k k t cos k 1   2 t
 p jt
j 1 k 1
r
  ck e  k k t sin k 1   2 t
k 1
With impulse input

u(s)=1 zeros
The linear system is stable iff.

all the poles are on left hand
side of complex plane poles
Examples
Control Systems Engineering, Fourth Edition

by Norman S. Nise
How the dynamics of the camera changes

as K is varied?
Examples
The questions raised

• How we can know the travel the poles
• How we can conclude the stability as well as the
performance of the system from the characteristic equations
Analysis of Stability and Control Performance
• Methods based on the roots of the characteristic equation

– Routh-Hurwitz: Determine the number of the roots on the
right side of the s-plane
– Root locus: Show how the moving of the roots of the
characteristic equation in s-plane as a single parameter
varies
• Frequency response method: Investigate the systems
with sinusoidal input = examine the transfer function
with s = j.
– Bode plot: Provide the log magnitude and phase diagram
– Nyquist plot: Polar plot
Example
• Consider the liquid control system (Dorf & Bishop, 2008):
Step Response
0.35
0.3
0.25
Case 1: No time delay between Amplitude

0.2
actuator and the tank 0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (seconds)
Example
• Consider the liquid control system (Dorf & Bishop, 2008):
Case 2: There is time

delay between actuator
and the tank
Nyquist Diagram
- Nyquist plot is the locus of vectors
as  is varied from
zero to infinity. Note that in polar
plots a positive phase angle is
measured counterclockwise from the
positive real axis.
- Each point on the polar plot of
G(j) represents the terminal
point of a vector at a particular
value of . In the polar plot, it is
important to show the frequency
graduation of the locus.
- The projections of G(j) on the
real and imaginary axes are its
real and imaginary components
Transfer Function Component Representation
Illustrate example about conformal mapping
Consider the system With the open-loop transfer function

2
G (s) H (s) 
s 1
The characteristic equation is
s 1
F ( s)  1  G ( s) H ( s)  0
s 1
Illustrate example about conformal mapping
Mapping Theorem (Cauchy’s Principle of Argument). Let F(s) be a ratio of two polynomials in s.
Let P be the number of poles and Z be the number of zeros of F(s) that lie inside some closed
contour in the s plane, with multiplicity of poles and zeros accounted for. Let the contour be such
that it does not pass through any poles or zeros of F(s).This closed contour in the s plane is then
mapped into the F(s) plane as a closed curve. The total number N of clockwise encirclements of
the origin of the F(s) plane, as a representative point s traces out the entire contour in the
clockwise direction, is equal to Z-P.
Application of the Mapping Theorem to the Stability Analysis

of Closed-Loop Systems
For analyzing the stability of
linear control systems, we let
the closed contour in the s
plane enclose the entire right-
half s plane. The contour
consists of the entire j axis 
= - to + and a semicircular
path of infinite radius in the
right-half s plane.
Then, The Nyquist path

encloses the entire right-half s
plane and encloses all the zeros
and poles of 1+G(s)H(s) that
have positive real parts
For a SISO feedback system the closed-loop transfer

function is given by
system characteristic equation
In the following we consider the complex function
whose zeros are the closed-loop poles of the transfer

function. In addition, it is easy to see that the poles of D(s)
are the zeros of M(s).
Nyquist Stability Criteria

Application of Cauchy’s Principle of Argument: If the open-loop transfer
function G(s)H(s) has k poles in the right-half s plane and then for stability, the
G(j)H(j) locus, as  varies from – to +, must encircle the –1+j0 point k
times in the counterclockwise direction.
Z=N+P
where Z number of zeros of 1+G(s)H(s) in the right-half s plane, N number of
clockwise encirclements of the –1+j0 point, P number of poles of G(s)H(s) in the
right-half s plane.
Using the Nyquist stability criterion, we see that three possibilities can occur
• There is no encirclement of the –1+j0 point. This implies that the system is
stable if there are no poles of G(s)H(s) in the right-half s plane; otherwise, the
system is unstable.
• There are one or more counterclockwise encirclements of the –1+j0 point. In
this case the system is stable if the number of counterclockwise encirclements
is the same as the number of poles of G(s)H(s) in the right-half s plane;
otherwise, the system is unstable.
• There are one or more clockwise encirclements of the –1+j0 point. In this case
the system is unstable.
Relative Stability and the Nyquist criterion
Obtain the phase and gain margins of the system shown for the
two cases where K=10 and K=100

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Dynamic Systems and Control, Chapter 3: Feedback Control Theory

Feedback Control Theory

The characteristic equation for this closed-loop system

The angle of G(s)H(s) is

The magnitude of G(s)H(s)

The characteristic equation

Rearrange this equation in the form

Since the angle repeats itself

The three straight lines

Draw the root loci

Comments on the Root-Locus Plots

Example: The closed-loop transfer function

The characteristic equation is

Because of the cancellation of the terms (s+1)

To obtain the complete set of closed-loop

Constant  loci and constant n loci

The damping ratio  of a pair of complex-conjugate poles can be expressed

- The logarithmic magnitude of 1/j in decibels is

- The phase angle of 1/j is constant and equal to –90°

- The log magnitude of the first-order factor 1/(1 + jT) is

- For high frequencies, such that  >> 1/T

- The exact phase angle f of the factor 1/(1 + j  T) is

- An advantage of the Bode diagram is that for reciprocal factors—for example,

Control systems often possess quadratic factors of the form

- The two asymptotes just derived

General Procedure for Plotting Bode Diagrams

Examples of Bode Diagrams

This function is composed of the following factors

Examples of Bode Diagrams

The magnitude is always equal to unity, since

Bandwidth and Natural Frequency

Finding Closed-Loop Bandwidth from Open-Loop Data

Finding Closed-Loop Bandwidth from Open-Loop Data

Bandwidth and Settling Time

Bandwidth and Peak Time

Bandwidth and Rise Time

With impulse input

The linear system is stable iff.

Control Systems Engineering, Fourth Edition

How the dynamics of the camera changes

The questions raised

Analysis of Stability and Control Performance

• Methods based on the roots of the characteristic equation

Case 1: No time delay between Amplitude

actuator and the tank 0.15

Case 2: There is time

Consider the system With the open-loop transfer function

Application of the Mapping Theorem to the Stability Analysis

Then, The Nyquist path

For a SISO feedback system the closed-loop transfer

system characteristic equation

In the following we consider the complex function

whose zeros are the closed-loop poles of the transfer

Nyquist Stability Criteria

Relative Stability and the Nyquist criterion

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