WELL CONTROL MANUAL: 5TH EDITION

Drilling & Workover VOLUME II

CHAPTER1– BASIC CALCULATIONS AND TERMINOLOGY

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Table of Contents

1.0 Understanding Pressures .......................................................... A-2

1.1 Hydrostatic Pressure ...........................................................................A-2
1.2 Pressure Gradient ................................................................................A-2
1.3 Formation Pressure .............................................................................A-3
1.4 Surface Pressure .................................................................................A-3
1.5 Bottomhole Pressure ..........................................................................A-4
1.6 Equivalent Circulating Density ...........................................................A-4
1.7 Differential Pressure ............................................................................A-5
1.8 Choke Pressure ...................................................................................A-5
1.9 Swab and Surge Pressures ................................................................A-5
1.10 Fracture Pressure ................................................................................A-6
2.0 Relationship of Pressure to Volume .............................................A-7
2.1 Liquids ..................................................................................................A-7
2.2 Gases ....................................................................................................A-7
3.0 Relationship of Pump Pressure to Mud Weight .........................A-8
4.0 Relationship of Pump Pressure to Circulating Rate .................A-8
5.0 Capacity Factors and Displacement .............................................A-9

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WELL CONTROL MANUAL: 5TH EDITION
Drilling & Workover VOLUME II

CHAPTER1– BASIC CALCULATIONS AND TERMINOLOGY

1.0 Understanding Pressures

1.1 Hydrostatic Pressure

All vertical columns of fluid exert hydrostatic pressure. The magnitude of the
hydrostatic pressure is determined by the height of the column of fluid and the
density of the fluid. It should be remembered that both liquids and gases could exert
hydrostatic pressure. The hydrostatic pressure exerted by a column of fluid can be
calculated using Equation A.1. While drilling ahead, the hydrostatic pressure exerted
by the drilling mud is our number one defence against taking kicks.

Equation A.1 Hydrostatic Pressure

HP = MW x 0.007 x TVD
where:
HP = Hydrostatic Pressure (psi)
MW = Mud Weight (pcf)
TVD = True Vertical Depth (ft)

1.2 Pressure Gradient

When comparing fluid densities and hydrostatic pressures, it is often useful to think
in terms of a pressure gradient. The pressure gradient associated with a given fluid
is simply the hydrostatic pressure per vertical foot of that fluid. Heavier (more dense)
fluids have higher-pressure gradients than lighter fluids. The pressure gradient of a
given fluid can be calculated with the formula given in Equation A.2.

Equation A.2 Pressure Gradient

PG = MW x 0.007
where:
PG = Pressure Gradient (psi/ft)
MW = Mud Weight (pcf)

As you can see from the above equation, the pressure gradient can be thought of as
an alternate way of describing a fluid’s density. This is useful because other
parameters, such as reservoir pressure, are often expressed in terms of pressure
gradients as well.

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Drilling & Workover VOLUME II

CHAPTER1– BASIC CALCULATIONS AND TERMINOLOGY

1.3 Formation Pressure

Formation pressure is the pressure contained inside the rock pore spaces.
Knowledge of formation pressure is important because it will dictate the mud
hydrostatic pressure and therefore the mud weight required in the well. If the
formation pressure is greater than the hydrostatic pressure of the mud column, fluids
(gas, oil or salt water) can flow into the well from permeable formations. Normal
pressure gradients for formations will depend on the environment in which they were
laid down in and will vary from area to area.

Consider a formation located at a vertical depth of 5000’ and with a reservoir

pressure of 2325 psi. The pressure gradient of this formation can be easily figured
with the following formula:
Pressure
PG = --------------------
Vertical Depth

2,325 psi
= ------------- = 0.465 psi/ft
5,000 ft

In order to keep this formation from flowing into the well, the mud in the hole must
also have a pressure gradient of at least 0.465 psi/ft. This condition could be
achieved by filling the hole with 67 pcf salt water.

1.4 Surface Pressure

We use the term surface pressure to describe any pressure that is exerted at the top
of a column of fluid. Most often we refer to surface pressure as the pressure, which
is observed at the top of a well. Surface pressure may be generated from a variety of
sources including downhole formation pressures, surface-pumping equipment, or
surface chokes.

Some surface pressures are conveyed throughout the wellbore while others are not.
For example, circulating an open well with 1,000 psi pump pressure will not increase
the bottomhole pressure by 1,000 psi. The reason for this is that the pump pressure
is due primarily to internal drillpipe friction, which acts opposite to the direction of
flow. In a similar way, the annular friction loss generated while circulating will
increase the bottomhole pressure but will not increase the annular surface pressure.
The key to understanding frictional pressure losses is to remember that they only
increase the pressures in the fluids, which are upstream of the point of friction.

Under static conditions (not pumping or flowing) frictional pressure losses are equal
to zero. Therefore, under static conditions, any pressure which we observe at
surface will also be conveyed downhole.

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CHAPTER1– BASIC CALCULATIONS AND TERMINOLOGY

1.5 Bottomhole Pressure

Bottomhole pressure is equal to the sum of all pressures acting in a well. Generally
speaking, bottomhole pressure is the sum of the hydrostatic pressure of the fluid
column above the point of interest, plus any surface pressure, which may be exerted
on top of the fluid column, plus any annular friction pressure. This concept is
expressed mathematically in Equation A.3.

Equation A.3 Bottomhole Pressure

BHP = HP + SP + FP

where: BHP = Bottomhole Pressure (psi)

HP = Hydrostatic Pressure (psi)
SP = Surface Pressure (psi)
FP = Friction Pressure (psi)

When the hole is full and the mud column is at rest with no surface pressure, the
bottomhole pressure is the same as the mud hydrostatic pressure. However, if
circulating through a choke or separator at the surface, the annular surface pressure
and friction pressure (back pressures) will be conveyed downhole and must be
added to the mud hydrostatic pressure to obtain the total bottomhole pressure. If the
well is shut in, under static conditions, the bottomhole pressure will be equal to the
sum of the hydrostatic pressure and any observed surface pressure. In this static
case, the bottomhole pressure will also equal the formation pressure.

1.6 Equivalent Circulating Density

When circulating fluid in a wellbore, frictional pressures occur in the surface system,
drill pipe, bit and in the annulus, which in turn are reflected in the standpipe pressure.
As also discussed, these frictional pressures always act opposite to the direction of
flow. When circulating conventionally, or the “long way”, all the frictional pressures,
including annular friction, act against the pump. The annular friction, or annular
pressure loss as it is sometimes referred to, acts against the bottom of the wellbore,
which results in an increase in bottomhole pressure. This is known as Equivalent
Circulating Density, or ECD. ECD is normally expressed as a pound per cubic foot
equivalent mud weight and is shown mathematically in Equation A.4.

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Drilling & Workover VOLUME II

CHAPTER1– BASIC CALCULATIONS AND TERMINOLOGY

Equation A.4 Equivalent Circulating Density

Annular Pressure Loss
ECD = ------------------------------- + Present Mud Weight
0.007 x TVD hole

ECD is a result of annular friction and is affected by such items as:

• Clearance between large OD tools and the ID of the wellbore
• Circulating rates (or annular velocity)
• Viscosity of the mud

An accurate value for annular pressure loss, and subsequently ECD, is very difficult
to arrive at for any particular situation and, once calculated, would change with
increasing hole depth and changes in hole geometry (hole washout, etc.). Thus,
attempting to keep up with ECD in the field would be an effort in futility. The
important thing to remember is that while circulating, bottomhole pressure will be
higher than when the well is static due to the presence of annular friction.

1.7 Differential Pressure

In well control, differential pressure is the difference between the bottomhole

pressure and the formation pressure. The differential is positive if the bottomhole
pressure is greater than the formation pressure, which creates what is called an
‘overbalanced’ condition.

1.8 Choke Pressure

Choke pressure is the pressure loss created by directing the return flow from a shut-
in well through a small opening or orifice for the purpose of creating a backpressure
on the well while circulating out a kick. The choke or back pressure can be thought of
as a frictional pressure loss which will be imposed on all points in the circulating
system, including the bottom of the hole.

1.9 Swab and Surge Pressures

Swab pressure is the temporary reduction in the bottomhole pressure that results
from the upward movement of pipe in the hole. Surge pressure is the opposite effect,
whereby wellbore pressure is temporarily increased as pipe is run into the well. The
movement of the drilling string or casing through the wellbore is similar to the
movement of a loosely fit piston through a vertical cylinder. A pressure reduction or
suction pressure occurs as the piston or the pipe is moved upward in the cylinder or
wellbore and a pressure increase occurs as the piston, or pipe, is moved downward.

Swab and surge pressures are mostly affected by the velocity of upward or
downward movement in the hole. Other factors affecting these pressures include:

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Drilling & Workover VOLUME II

CHAPTER1– BASIC CALCULATIONS AND TERMINOLOGY

• Mud gel strength

• Mud weight
• Mud viscosity
• Annular clearance between pipe and hole
• Annular restrictions, such as bit balling

In order to prevent the influx of formation fluids into the wellbore during times when
the pipe is moved upward from bottom, the difference between mud hydrostatic and
swab pressure must not fall below the formation pressure.

1.10 Fracture Pressure

The formations penetrated by the bit are under considerable stress, due to the
weight of the overlying sediments. If additional stress is applied while drilling, the
combined stresses may be enough to cause the rock to fail or split, allowing the loss
of whole mud to the formation. Fracture pressure is the amount of borehole pressure
that it takes to split or fail a formation.

Rock strength usually increases with increasing depth and overburden load. As load
is increased the rock becomes highly compacted, giving it the ability to withstand
higher horizontal and vertical stresses. Therefore, fracture pressure normally
increases with depth. Fracture pressure is normally expressed as a gradient or an
equivalent density with units of psi/ft or pcf, respectively.

2.0 Relationship of Pressure to Volume

All fluids under pressure will change in volume as the pressure changes. As pressure
increases, the volume of the fluid will decrease (i.e., the fluid will compress). As pressure
decreases the volume will increase (i.e., the fluid will expand). Volume of a fluid is related
to a lesser extent to its temperature. In general, volume will increase with an increase in
temperature and decrease with a decrease in temperature.
Fluids will compress or expand differently depending on their compressibility. Liquids have
a low compressibility compared to gas. The relative compressibility of liquids and gases is
an important factor in well control.

2.1 Liquids

Liquids of concern in well control include mud, salt water, oil, or any combination of
these liquids. Since the compressibility of these liquids is low, little change in volume
due to pressure or temperature changes should be expected as liquids are circulated
from the wellbore. Therefore, liquid expansion due to pressure and temperature
changes is considered negligible for nearly all well control calculations.

2.2 Gases

Gases, on the other hand, are very compressible and are subject to large changes in
volume as they migrate or are circulated from the wellbore. The expansion of a gas

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CHAPTER1– BASIC CALCULATIONS AND TERMINOLOGY

bubble while circulating out a kick displaces large volumes of mud from the annulus,
which lowers the hydrostatic pressure. In order to maintain the bottomhole pressure
at a constant value equal to formation pressure, the choke must be decreased which
increases the surface pressure. The expanding gas also causes the pit level to
increase, which must be considered. With constant surface pressure, the volume of
the gas bubble will roughly double each time the bubble depth of an open well is
halved. If ‘V’ is the volume of a gas and ‘P’ is the pressure then, disregarding
temperature effects, the relationship between volume and pressure of a gas is given
by Boyle’s Law in Equation A.5.

Equation A.5 Boyle’s Law

P1 x V1 = P2 x V2

where: P1 = Pressure of gas at depth 1

V1 = Volume of gas at depth 1
P2 = Pressure of gas at depth 2
V2 = Volume of gas at depth 2

3.0 Relationship of Pump Pressure to Mud Weight

The relationship between mud weight and pump pressure is given by the following formula:

Equation A.6 New Pump Pressure = Old Pump Pressure x New Mud Weight
Old Mud Weight
where:
New Pump Pressure & Old Pump Pressure (psi)
New Mud Weight & Old Mud Weight (pcf)

Example:
Old Pump Pressure = 2800 psi
Old Mud Weight = 97 pcf
New Mud Weight = 105 pcf

Calculate the pump pressure required to circulate the well with the new
mud weight?

New Pump Pressure = 2800 x (105/97) = 3030 psi

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Drilling & Workover VOLUME II

CHAPTER1– BASIC CALCULATIONS AND TERMINOLOGY

4.0 Relationship of Pump Pressure to Circulating Rate

The relationship between pump pressure and circulating rate is given by the formula below:

2
Equation A.7 New Pump Pressure = Old Pump Pressure x ( New Circ. Rate/Old Circ. Rate )

where:
New Pump Pressure & Old Pump Pressure (psi)
Circulating Rate (spm, gpm, or bpm)

Example:
Old Pump Pressure = 2800 psi
New Pump Speed = 60 spm
Old Pump Speed = 80 spm

Calculate the new pump pressure for the slower pump rate?
2
New Pump Pressure = 2800 x (60/80) = 1575 psi

5.0 Capacity Factors and Displacement

In well control and in routine drilling operations, frequent calculations of capacity and
displacement must be made. A brief review of the mechanics involved is provided below.

The capacity factor is defined as the volume of fluid held per foot of container. The
container may be any number of things including a mud pit, an open hole, the inside of a
drill string, or an annulus. Capacity factors change as the dimensions of the container
change. The internal capacity factor is used to calculate internal drillstring volumes and the
annular capacity factor is used to calculate annular volumes. The formulas for calculating
these capacity factors are given in Equations A.6 and A.7. In lieu of these equations,
Tables P.1 - P.4 can be used to determine internal and annular capacity factors for several
wellbore configurations.

Equation A.8 Internal Capacity Factor

ID2
CF = ----------
1029

where: CF = Capacity Factor (bbl/ft)

ID = Internal pipe diameter (inches)

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CHAPTER1– BASIC CALCULATIONS AND TERMINOLOGY

Equation A.9 Annular Capacity Factor

OD2 - ID2
CF = --------------
1029

where: CF = Capacity Factor (bbl/ft)

OD = Inside diameter of larger pipe (inches)
ID = Outside diameter of smaller pipe (inches)

Capacity is the volume of fluid held within a specific container. Internal (drillstring)
and annular capacities are some of the most important parameters, which are
calculated in a well control situation. Capacity is determined by multiplying the height
(or length) of the container by its capacity factor.

Displacement is the volume of fluid displaced by placing a solid, such as drill pipe,
tubing etc., into a fixed volume of liquid. Total displacement of drillpipe, casing,
tubing, etc. can be determined by multiplying the length of pipe immersed times the
displacement factor (bbls/ft) as determined from Tables P.1 - P.4.

The volume of mud in the hole is always equal to the capacity of the entire hole,
minus the displacement of the pipe in the hole (assuming the pipe and annulus are
full). The annular capacity between drillstring components and the casing or hole can
be calculated by subtracting both the capacity and displacement of the drillstring
component from the capacity of the hole.

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