LOTIS P. PATUNOB, PECE, M.

ENG’G,
PhD. T. M. (lacking Dissertation)
Electronics Engineering Department
CIT - University
 Introduction
 Sets and Elements
 Universal set, empty set, power sets
 Subset and superset
 Finite and infinite sets
 Set Operations
 Product of Sets
 Fundamental Set Properties

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 Discrete: consisting of distinct or
unconnected elements
 Discrete Mathematics
 Discrete Mathematics is a collection of
mathematical topics that examine and use
finite or countably infinite mathematical
objects.

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 Definition: Well-defined collection of distinct
objects
 Members or Elements: part of the collection
 Roster Method: Description of a set by listing the
elements, enclosed with braces
 Examples:
V = {a,e,i,o,u}
P = {red, blue, yellow}
 Membership examples
 “a belongs to the set of V” is written as:
aV
 “j does not belong to the set of V:
jV
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 Set-builder method

 A = { x | x  S, P(x) } or A = { x  S | P(x) }

 A is the set of all elements x of S, such that x satisfies

the property P

 Example:

 If X = {2,4,6,8,10}, then in set-builder notation, X can be

described as

X = {n  Z | n is even and 2  n  10}

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 Common Standard Symbols which denote
sets of numbers
 N : The set of all natural numbers (i.e.,all
positive integers)
 Z : The set of all integers
 Z+ : The set of all positive integers
 E : The set of all even integers

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 Subsets

 “X is a subset of Y” is written as X  Y

 “X is not a subset of Y” is written as X Y

 Example:
 X = {a,e,i,o,u}, Y = {a, i, u} and

Z= {b,c,d,f,g}

 Y  X, since every element of Y is an element of X

 Y Z, since a  Y, but a  Z

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 Superset
 X and Y are sets. If X  Y, then “X is contained in
Y” or “Y contains X” or Y is a superset of X,
written Y  X
 Proper Subset
 X and Y are sets. X is a proper subset of Y if X 
Y and there exists at least one element in Y that is
not in X. This is written X  Y.
 Example:
 X = {a,e,i,o,u}, Y = {a,e,i,o,u,y}
 X  Y , since y  Y, but y  X

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 Set Equality
 X and Y are sets. They are said to be equal if every
element of X is an element of Y and every element of Y
is an element of X, i.e. X  Y and Y  X
 Examples:
 {1,2,3} = {2,3,1}
 X = {red, blue, yellow} and Y = {c | c is a primary
color} Therefore, X=Y
 Empty (Null) Set
 A Set is Empty (Null) if it contains no elements.
 The Empty Set is written as 
 The Empty Set is a subset of every set

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 Finite and Infinite Sets
 X is a set. If there exists a nonnegative integer n such
that X has n elements, then X is called a finite set with
n elements.
 If a set is not finite, then it is an infinite set.
 Examples:
 Y = {1,2,3} is a finite set
 P = {red, blue, yellow} is a finite set
 E , the set of all even integers, is an infinite set
  , the Empty Set, is a finite set with 0 elements

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 Cardinality of Sets
 Let S be a finite set with n distinct elements,
where n ≥ 0. Then |S| = n , where the
cardinality (number of elements) of S is n
 Example:
If P = {red, blue, yellow}, then |P| = 3
 Singleton
 A set with only one element is a singleton
Example:
H = { 4 }, |H| = 1, H is a singleton

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 Power Set
 For any set X ,the power set of X ,written
P(X),is the set of all subsets of X
 Example:
 If X = {red, blue, yellow}, then P(X) = {  ,
{red}, {blue}, {yellow}, {red,blue}, {red,
yellow}, {blue, yellow}, {red, blue, yellow} }

 Universal Set
 An arbitrarily chosen, but fixed set

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 Venn Diagrams
 Abstract visualization of a Universal set, U as a
rectangle, with all subsets of U shown as circles.
 Shaded portion represents the corresponding set
 Example:
In Figure 1, Set X, shaded, is a subset of the Universal
set, U

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 Union of Sets

Example: If X = {1,2,3,4,5} and Y = {5,6,7,8,9}, then

XUY = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9}

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  Intersection of Sets

Example: If X = {1,2,3,4,5} and Y = {5,6,7,8,9}, then X ∩ Y = {5}

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 Disjoint Sets

Example: If X = {1,2,3,4,} and Y = {6,7,8,9},

then X ∩ Y = 

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 Difference

• Example: If X = {a,b,c,d} and Y = {c,d,e,f},

then X – Y = {a,b} and Y – X = {e,f}

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 Complement

The complement of a set X with respect to a

universal set U, denoted byX , is defined to be =
X {x |x  U, but x  X}

Example: If U = {a,b,c,d,e,f} and X = {c,d,e,f},

then X = {a,b}

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 Ordered Pair
 X and Y are sets. If x  X and y  Y, then an ordered
pair is written (x,y)
 Order of elements is important. (x,y) is not
necessarily equal to (y,x)
 Cartesian Product
 The Cartesian product of two sets X and Y ,written
X × Y ,is the set
 X × Y ={(x,y)|x ∈ X , y ∈ Y}
For any set X, X ×  =  =  × X
 Example:
 X = {a,b}, Y = {c,d}
X × Y = {(a,c), (a,d), (b,c), (b,d)}
Y × X = {(c,a), (d,a), (c,b), (d,b)}

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21
 Venn diagram application
Example:
In a survey involving 1000 respondents on
brand preferences, 120 prefer brand X only,
200 prefer brand Y only and 150 prefer brand
Z only, 370 prefer either brand X or Y but not
Z, 450 prefer brand Y or Z but not X, and 370
prefer either brand Z or X but not Y and non
prefers all the three brands at a time. How
many persons have no brand preference?

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 Introduction
 Propositions
 Conjunction
 Disjunction
 Negation

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 Definition: Methods of reasoning, provides
rules and techniques to determine whether
an argument is valid
 Theorem: a statement that can be shown to
be true (under certain conditions)
 Example: If x is an even integer, then x + 1 is an
odd integer
 This statement is true under the condition
that x is an integer is true

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 A statement, or a proposition, is a declarative
sentence that is either true or false, but not both
 Uppercase letters denote propositions
 Examples:
 P: 2 is an even number (true)
 Q: 7 is an even number (false)
 R: A is a vowel (true)
 The following are not propositions:
 P: My cat is beautiful
 Q: My house is big

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 Truth value
 One of the values “truth” (T) or “falsity” (F) assigned to
a statement
 Negation
 The negation of P, writtenP , is the statement obtained
by negating statement P
 Example:
 P: A is a consonant
P: it is the case that A is not a consonant
 Truth Table
P P
T F
F T

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 Conjunction - Any
propositions can be
combined by the word AND
to form a compound p q
composition called the
conjunction. F F F
 Let P and Q be statements.The F T F
conjunction of P and Q, written
P ^ Q , is the statement formed T F F
by joining statements P and Q
using the word “and” T T T
 The statement P ^ Q is true if
both p and q are true;
otherwise P ^ Q is false
 Truth Table for Conjunction:

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 Disjunction
 Let P and Q be statements.
The disjunction of P and Q,
written P v Q , is the
statement formed by joining
statements P and Q using
the word “or” p q
 The statement P v Q is true F F F
if at least one of the F T T
statements P and Q is true; T F T
otherwise P v Q is false
T T T
 The symbol v is read “or”
 Truth Table for Disjunction:

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 Implication
 Let P and Q be
statements.The
statement “if P then Q”
is called an implication
or condition.
 The implication “if P p  q  p  q
then Q” is written P 
Q
 P is called the
p q
hypothesis, Q is called F F T
the conclusion
 Truth Table for F T T
Implication:
T F F
T T T

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 Implication
 Let P: Today is Sunday and Q: I will wash the car.
 PQ:
If today is Sunday, then I will wash the car
 The converse of this implication is written Q  P
If I wash the car, then today is Sunday
 The inverse of this implication is P  Q
If today is not Sunday, then I will not wash the car
 The contrapositive of this implication is Q  P
If I do not wash the car, then today is not Sunday

q  p

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 Biimplication
 Let P and Q be statements. p q
The statement “P if and F F T
only if Q” is called the F T F
biimplication or T F F
biconditional of P and Q T T T
 The biconditional “P if
and only if Q” is written P p  q   p  q  p  q
Q
 “P if and only if Q”
 Truth Table for the
Biconditional:

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 Precedence of logical
connectives is:

 highest

 ^ second highest

 v third highest

 → fourth highest

 ↔ fifth highest

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 Tautology
 A statement formula A is said to be a tautology if the truth
value of A is T for any assignment of the truth values T
and F to the statement variables occurring in A
 Contradiction
 A statement formula A is said to be a contradiction if the
truth value of A is F for any assignment of the truth values
T and F to the statement variables occurring in A
 Contingency – a compound proposition that is neither a
tautology nor a contradiction.

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 Tautology

p -p pv-p
F T T
T F T

 Contradiction

p -p p^-p
F T F
T F F
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 Logically Implies
 A statement formula A is said to logically imply a
statement formula B if the statement formula A → B is a
tautology. If A logically implies B, then symbolically we
write A → B
 Logically Equivalent
 A statement formula A is said to be logically equivalent
to a statement formula B if the statement formula
A ↔ B is a tautology. If A is logically equivalent to B ,
then symbolically we write A B

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© Dr. Eric Gossett 36
 Predicate or Propositional Function
 Let x be a variable and D be a set; P(x) is a sentence
 Then P(x) is called a predicate or propositional
function with respect to the set D if for each value of
x in D, P(x) is a statement; i.e., P(x) is true or false
 Moreover, D is called the domain (universe) of
discourse and x is called the free variable

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 Quantifier
 The two basic quantifiers are “for all”
and “there exists”.
 We often use the symbol ∀ to denote
“for all” and the symbol ∃ to denote
“there exists.”
 Example:
 All automobiles have wheels.
 This statement makes an assertion about all
automobiles. It is true, because every automobile does
have wheels.
 There exists a woman who is blonde
 This statement is of a different nature. It does not claim
that all women have blonde hair—merely that there
exists at least one woman who does. Since that is true,
the statement is true.

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 Universal Quantifier

 Let P(x) be a predicate and let D be the

domain of the discourse. The universal
quantification of P(x) is the statement:
 For all x, P(x) or
 For every x, P(x)
 The symbol  is read as “for all and every”
 x, P( x) or x  D, P( x)
 Two-place predicate:
x, y, P( x, y)

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 Existential Quantifier
 Let P(x) be a predicate and let D be the universe of
discourse. The existential quantification of P(x) is
the statement:
 There exists x, P(x)
 The symbol  is read as “there exists”
 x D, P( x) or x, P( x)
 Bound Variable
 The variable appearing iN:x, P( x)
or
x, P( x)
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 Negation of Predicates (DeMorgan’s Laws)

x, P( x)  x, P( x)
 Example:
 If P(x) is the statement “x has won a race”
where the domain of discourse is all
runners, then the universal quantification of
P(x) is x, P( x) , i.e., every runner has
won a race. The negation of this statement
is “it is not the case that every runner has
won a race. Therefore there exists at least
one runner who has not won a race. x, P( x)
Therefore:

x, P( x)  x, P( x)

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© Dr. Eric Gossett 42
The Boolean Algebra on B= {0, 1} is defined as follows:

+01 · 01
0 01 0 00
1 11 1 01

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 Duality
 The dual of any Boolean theorem is also a theorem.
 Parentheses must be used to preserve operator precedence.

© Dr. Eric Gossett 44

 Logic is basis of ALU (Boolean Algebra)
 Logic is crucial to IF statements
 AND
 OR
 NOT

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 Introduction
 Functions
 Relations

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Relation
A relation is a set of ordered pair.
All subsets from the Cartesian product of set A
and set B (AxB)
Notation
When we have the property that one value is
related to another, we call this relation a binary
relation and we write it as

xRy
Function
A function is a relationship between two sets of
numbers. It is also defined as a relationship that for
each first element there is one and only one second
element.

0, 1, 1, 3, 1, 5  NOT a function

0, 1, 1, 3 ,  2, 5   a Function
Domain of the function is the first element of the
ordered pair.
Range (Codomain) of the function is the resulting
set of second elements.
One-to-one Functions
A function f is said to be one-to-one or injective, if
and only if f(a)≠f(b) whenever a ≠ b.

X Y
a 1
b 2
c 3
d 4
5
A function is said to be an injection if it is one-to-one.
Onto Functions
A function f from A to B is called onto or
surjective, if and only if for every element
b  B there is an element a  A with
f  a  =b
X Y
a 1
b 2
c 3
d
One-to-one Correspondence

The function f is a one-to-one

correspondence or a bijection, if it is
both one-to-one and onto.
X Y
a 1
b 2
c 3
d 4
Inverse Functions
The inverse function of f is denoted by f-1 where f(a) = b and
f-1 (b) = a provided that f is a one-to-one function.

Function Inverse function

x y=f(x) x y=f -1(x)

1 20 20 1

2 80 80 2

3 120 120 3

4 160 160 4
Problem

Given the functions: f(x)  2x  1 .

Find the inverse function.

x 12
Answer : f 1
 x 
2
Function Composition

f g x   f  g  x  
Operation of Functions

 f  g x   f  x   g  x 
 f  g x   f  x   g  x 

 fg x   f  x  g  x 

 f / g x   f  x  / g  x 
Problem

Given the following functions: p(x)  2x  1

and q  x   3x  1. Find
2

a.  p  q x  2x  1  3x  1
2

b.  pq 5  228
c. p q x  6x  1
2

d.  q p  5  28
Problem

If f(g(x)) = 4x2 – 8x and

f(x) = x2 – 4, then g(5) =

Answer : 8
 Topic Outline:

1. Number System
2. Significant Figures
3. Greatest Common Factor
4. Least Common Multiple
5. Counting Techniques
6. Combination
7. Permutation
8. Probability
 Number System
Complex Numbers

Real Numbers Imaginary

Rational
Rational Irrational
Non -
Integers
Integers

Whole
Negative
Numbers

Natural

Zero
 Number System
Complex Number
- Is an expression involving a combination of real and
imaginary numbers
- They are written in the form :
a + bi
where:
a and b are real numbers
Real Numbers
- Are the rational and irrational numbers taken together.
- Example: { 2, 5, -4, 0, 2/3, -3/4, √2, , etc.}
Imaginary Numbers
- Are the square roots of negative numbers
- Example: √-2 = i √2
 Number System

The Set of Real Numbers

1. Rational Numbers
- are numbers which can be expressed in the form m/n,
where m and n are integers and n  0
- Examples: {2, 5, -4, 0, 2/3, -3/4, etc}
2. Irrational Numbers
- are numbers, which cannot be expressed in the form m/n
- Examples: {√2, √3, pi, etc}
3. Integers
- are the natural numbers, along with their negatives, and
zero
- Examples: {-3, -1, 0, 3, 5, etc.}
 Number System
The Set of Real Numbers
4. Natural Numbers
- are numbers, except 0, formed by one or more of the digits
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 0.
- a.k.a positive integers or counting numbers
- Examples: {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, ...}
5. Whole Numbers
- are the positive integers and 0
- Examples; {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, ... }
6. Prime Numbers
- are natural numbers that are divisible by 1 and itself only
7. Composite Numbers
- are natural numbers that are neither 1 nor a prime number
- Examples: {4, 6, 8, 10, 12, etc.}
 Number System
Properties of Real Numbers
1. Closure Property
- The set of real numbers is closed under addition and
multiplication. This means that adding or multiplying two or
more real numbers always results to another number that
belongs to the same set of real numbers
2. Commutative Property
- The order of adding two or more numbers of a sum or
multiplying two or more factors of a product does not affect
the result
3. Associative Property
- When two or more real numbers are added or multiplied
together, no matter how the numbers are grouped, or
associated, when performing the operation the result is not
affected
 Number System
Properties of Real Numbers
4. Distributive Property
- The product of a number a by the sum of two or more
numbers (b + c + d + ...) is equal to the sum of the
products ab, ac, ad,...
5. Identity Property
- Additive Identity
- When zero is added to a real number, the sum is the real
number itself
6. Inverse Property
- Additive Inverse
- The additive inverse of a real number is its opposite, so
that the sum of that number and its additive inverse is 0
 Sample Questions: Number System
1. Which of the following equations defines the associative
property of addition ?
A. (a + b) c = ac + bc B. a + b = b + a
C. a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c D. a + b = c + d
2. What is the additive inverse of -2a ?
A. 2a B. 2/a
C. 1/2a D. a/2
3. What is the identity element for addition ?
A. 0 B. -1
C. 1 D. 2
4. What is the identity element for multiplication ?
A. 0 B. -1
C. 1 D. 1/a
 Significant Figures
Rules Regarding Significant Figures:
1. All nonzero digits are significant
2. All zeroes between two nonzero digits are
significant
3. All zeroes to the right of an understood decimal
and following a nonzero digit are significant
4. For values less than one, zeroes immediately to
the right of an understood decimal point but to
the left of a nonzero digit are not significant.
 Sample Problems: Significant Figures
1. Determine the significant figures of ff. numbers:
a. 20.03
b. 20.0
c. 0.2003
d. 0.20030
2. Round off 0.003086 to three significant figures.
3. Round off 0.003085 to three significant figures.
 Sample Problem: Greatest Common
Factor
1. What is the GCF of 27, 81, and 108 ?
2. A choir director at your school wants to
divide the choir into smaller groups.
There are 24 sopranos, 60 altos, and 36
tenors. Each group will have the same
number of each type of voice. What is
the greatest number of groups that can
be formed ?
 Greatest Common Factor

Rule:
To find the GCF, factor the given
numbers in canonical form and
MULTIPLY the common prime factors
with least exponent in the
given numbers
 Least Common Multiple
The Least Common Multiple of two or more numbers
is the least integer that is a multiple of each of the
given numbers

Rule:
To find the LCM, factor the given numbers in
canonical form and MULTIPLY all unique prime
factors and the common factors with the highest
exponent.
 Sample Problems: Least Common
Multiple
1. Find the LCM of the numbers 15, 21, 36.
2. Ben exercise every 12 days and Isabel
every 8 days. Ben and Isabel are
exercised today. How many days will it be
until they exercise together again ?
PROBABILITY
 If an experiment is performed in two stages,
with m ways to accomplish the first stage and
n ways to accomplish the second stage, then
there are mn ways to accomplish the
experiment.
 This rule is easily extended to k stages, with
the number of ways equal to
n1 n2 n3 … nk

Example: Toss two coins. The total

number of simple events is: 4
 The number of ways you can arrange
n distinct objects, taking them r at a time is
n!
P 
n

(n  r )!
r

where n! n(n  1)( n  2)...(2)(1) and 0! 1.

Example: How many 3-digit lock

combinations can we make from the
numbers 1, 2, 3, and 4?
Example: In how many different
orders can 7 books be arranged on a
shelf if a certain 3 – volume book is not
to be separated

Example: Three persons rode a

minibus with 6 vacant seats. In how
many ways can they be seated if one
insists on seating at the right side.
  The number of distinct combinations of n
distinct objects that can be formed, taking
them r at a time is
n!
C 
n

r!(n  r )!
r

Example: Three members of a 5-person

committee must be chosen to form a
subcommittee. How many different
subcommittees could be formed?
Example: In how many ways can you invite
one or more of your five friends in a party

Example: In how many ways can a

committee of 3 men and 2 women be chosen
from 7 men and 5 women
 Definitio
ns
Probability is the mathematics of chance.

It tells us the relative frequency with which we can

expect an event to occur

The greater the probability the more

likely the event will occur.

It can be written as a fraction, decimal, or percent

 Definitio
ns
1 Certain
Probability is the numerical
measure of the likelihood that
the event will occur.

Value is between 0 and 1. .5 50/50

Sum of the probabilities of all events

is 1.

0 Impossible
 Definitio
ns
The result of a single trial in a probability experiment
is an outcome.

The set of all possible outcomes of a probability

experiment is the sample space, denoted as S.
e.g. All 6 faces of a die: S = { 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 }
 Definitio
ns

An event consists of one or more outcomes and is a

subset of the sample space.

Notation: The probability that event E will occur is

written P(E) and is read
“the probability of event E.”
 Definitions
• The Probability of an Event, E:

Number of Event Outcomes

P(E) =
Total Number of Possible Outcomes in S
 Examples

1. Toss a fair coin twice. What is the

probability of observing at least one head?

2. A bowl contains three M&Ms®, one red,

one blue and one green. A child selects
two M&Ms at random. What is the
probability that at least one is red?
 Examples

3. Two dice are roll. What is the probability

that the sum is:
a. 1
b. 2
c. 5
d. 6
e. 12
 Examples

4. In many poker games, each player is

dealt five cards from a well shuffled
deck. What is the probability of getting
four of a kind in a five card hand?
 The Multiplication
Rule
If events A and B are independent, then the
probability of two events, A and B occurring in a
sequence (or simultaneously) is:

P( A and B)  P( A  B)  P( A)  P( B)

Two events are independent if the occurrence of the

first event does not affect the probability of the
occurrence of the second event.
 Mutually
Exclusive
Two events A and B are mutually exclusive if and
only if:
P( A  B)  0
In a Venn diagram this means that event A is
disjoint from event B.

A A B
B

A and B are M.E. A and B are not M.E.

 The Addition
Rule
The probability that at least one of the events A
or B will occur, P(A or B), is given by:

P( A or B)  P( A  B)  P( A)  P( B)  P( A  B)
If events A and B are mutually exclusive, then the
addition rule is simplified to:

P( A or B)  P( A  B)  P( A)  P( B)
 Examples

1. Suppose two dice are thrown.

What is the probability that “the first die is
a two” or “the sum of the dice is less than or
equal to 5”.
 Examples

2. In a certain population, 10% of the people

can be classified as being high risk for a heart
attack. Three people are randomly selected
from this population.
a. What is the probability
that exactly one of the three are high risk?
b. We know that only 49% of the population are
female. Also, of the female patients, 8% are
high risk. A single person is selected at random.
What is the probability that it is a high risk
female?
 Expected Value
Suppose that the outcomes of an experiment are
real numbers called x1 , x2 , x3 ,..., xn
and suppose that these outcomes have probabilities
p1 , p2 , p3 ,..., pn respectively. Then the expected
value of x, E(x), of the experiment
is:
n
E ( x)   xi pi
i 1
 Expected Value
Example
In a dice game, one fair die is used.
The player wins P10 if he rolls either
a 1 or a 6. He losses P5 if he turns
up any other face. What is the
expected winning for one roll of his
die?
 Expected Value
Example

A local club plans to invest $10000 to host

a baseball game. They expect to sell tickets
worth $15000. But if it rains on the day of
game, they won't sell any tickets and the
club will lose all the money invested. If the
weather forecast for the day of game
is 20% possibility of rain, is this a good
investment?
 Expected Value
Example
At a raffle, 1500 tickets are sold at $2 each for
four prizes of $500, $250, $150, and $75. What
is the expected value of your gain if you play?
 Expected Value
Example
A company makes electronic gadgets. One
out of every 50 gadgets is faulty, but the
company doesn't know which ones are faulty
until a buyer complains. Suppose the
company makes a $3 profit on the sale of
any working gadget, but suffers a loss
of $80 for every faulty gadget because
they have to repair the unit. Check whether
the company can expect a profit in the long
term.
 The End...

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