International Business Review 30 (2021) 101777

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

International Business Review

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ibusrev

The growing popularity of spiritual brands: What drives purchase intent?

Deepak Sardana a, *, Erin Cavusgil b, Narain Gupta c
a
University of South Australia Business School, University of South Australia, Adelaide, Australia
b
School of Management, University of Michigan-Flint, 303 E. Kearsley Street, Flint, MI 48502, United States
c
Management Development Institute Gurgaon, Mehrauli Road, Sukhrali, Gurgaon, 122007, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: In this study, we investigate the reason for the growing popularity of FMCG (Fast Moving Consumer Goods)
Self-identity theory household products branded, promoted and sold in India by local spiritual leaders. We find that religiosity and
Social identity theory normative community pressure are important purchase drivers for such products. Surprisingly, pragmatism in
Consumer behaviour
the presence of normative pressure also contributes to demand. We argue that self-identity theory provides a
Purchase intention
India
contextualized explanation in association with social identity theory to explain the influence of normative
Quantitative research pressure on increased demand. The results of the study suggest that integrating social and self-identity theories
Marketing provides a fuller insight into consumer behaviour in a complex social context.
FMCG products
Religiosity
Pragmatism

1. Introduction companies. However, in recent years, brands promoted by spiritual

Asia provides a unique context to understand boundary conditions
and/or influential contextual variables that impact consumers and drive
the purchase of products (Meyer, 2006; Schütte & Ciarlante, 1998). With
this in mind, international business and marketing scholars have long
since investigated individual behaviours exhibited in various Asian
countries, whether materialism (Sharma, 2011; Yang & Stening, 2016),
pragmatism (Yang & Stening, 2013) or religiosity and spirituality (Arli,
Cherrier, & Tjiptono, 2016; Casidy, Phau, & Lwin, 2016; El-Bassiouny,
2014; Jamal & Sharifuddin, 2015). An awareness of these consumer
patterns not only generates significant contextualized understanding for
the scholarly community, but it is of immense practical importance for
managers (Cavusgil, Ghauri, & Akcal, 2013; Meyer & Peng, 2016;
Sharma, 2011).
This study seeks to contribute to the growing body of knowledge in
the field of Asian management scholarship by focusing on the Indian
context. This research investigates unique phenomena within the FMCG
industry, a mature market in India with intense competition and product
categories mostly dominated by brands of MNCs and large domestic
gurus have become hugely popular (Maheshwari, 2017; Sanjai & Prad­
han, 2016). Two brands in particular, Patanjali and Sri Sri have dis­
rupted the industry with their intense growth over the past ten years
(Mitra, 2017). Their meteoric rise has occurred especially since 2014,
coinciding with the resurgence of right-wing Hindu nationalism (Sar­
dana & Zhu, 2017).1 This has perplexed marketing strategists in MNCs
and domestic companies, forcing them to take note of this intense
competition from unexpected quarters (Dutta, 2017; Malviya, 2017).
For the above-mentioned reasons, it is important to investigate and
understand why consumers (especially with similar religious beliefs as
that of spiritual leaders) are favourably disposed toward their products.
Therefore, along with religiosity, it is also imperative to understand
whether normative community pressure, generated by a sharp rise in
socio-ethnical awakening as a consequence of right-wing Hindu
nationalism, can be attributed to customers’ purchase intent of these
products. That is, is the latter mediating and enhancing the impact of
religiosity? Or, whether customers see any tangible value (such as
quality and affordability) that attracts them to products sold by spiritual
gurus? Or perhaps is it a combination of both?

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: Deepak.sardana@unisa.edu.au (D. Sardana), erinc@umich.edu (E. Cavusgil), narain.gupta@mdi.ac.in (N. Gupta).
1
For instance, Patanjali’s revenue grew from a meagre Rs. 1.63 billion in 2009− 10 to Rs 12 billion in 2013− 14; however, in subsequent three years, it jumped to
over Rs 105 billion, overtaking several national and international FMCG brands, such as Nestle, GSK, P&G, ITC, Tata, Britannia and Godrej (Dutta, 2016; ET Online,
2017; Goyal, 2016).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ibusrev.2020.101777
Received 4 May 2020; Received in revised form 17 October 2020; Accepted 1 December 2020
Available online 17 December 2020
0969-5931/© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
D. Sardana et al.
Social identity theory has often been used by scholars to illustrate
consumer choices that are either relating to social/religious conformity
or consumption as a means to identify to a particular social class or
group (Reed, 2002). However, it is a somewhat limited or incomplete
lens for providing explanations for the purchase intentions of mundane
daily-use FMCG products, in which circumstances self-identity theory
along with theory of planned behaviour are apposite considerations
(Smith et al., 2008). The suspicion for this is elevated by India’s unique
mixture and co-existence of various religious and secular elements. In
addition, due to multiple and diverse philosophies in the broad Hindu
society, a significant majority of the Hindu population, while outwardly
religious, are neither dictated to nor bound by any singular set of reli­
gious rules to regulate consumption, including foodstuffs, which has
often been contentious among different class, caste and region (Fischer,
2016; Olivelle, 1995). This differentiates them from other religious so­
cieties such as Jews (governed by kosher rules) and Muslims (informed
by halal rules). Given the often-concealed nature of these products,
conformity pressures to follow subjective norms of the community are
likely to be less of a factor in India. In such a diverse context, in general,
consumer choices of these everyday items are unlikely to bestow or
inform their identity or define their membership to a particular group.
At the same time, unlike luxury products, people’s choice of a particular
brand or product of daily consumable household FMCG goods is unlikely
to be seen contributing to their social status that will bestow them with
access to a desired grouping. This makes social identity theory super­
fluous as an explanation for the rise in the consumption of goods sold by
spiritual gurus. Yet, the uptake of daily items promoted by spiritual
gurus in India has been closely linked to the rise in right-wing Hindu
nationalistic sentiment. In such a social milieu, this religion based
ethnical identity could provide a compelling ground to generate
normative community pressure to buy those brands that conform to that
identity more closely. Hence, this prevents complete rejection of social
identity theory as an explanatory factor.
For the above reasons, exploration of the roles of (i) pragmatism, a
construct reflecting on the self and a key personality and behavioural
dimension that assesses the value of the purchase; and/or (ii) religiosity,
which shapes individuals’ identity through their affiliation (both the
extent and depth) to a certain social or confessional group in consumer
behaviour (Abrams & Hogg, 1990; Ajzen, 1985; Stets & Burke, 2000;
Fig. 1. Model conceptual framework.
2
International Business Review 30 (2021) 101777
Terry, Hogg, & White., 1999) are likely to showcase interesting insights
about the drivers to the sudden uptake of products by spiritual gurus. No
direct effect of religiosity and/or pragmatism to the purchase intention
of these products will likely tone down the influence of self-identity
theory, but at the same time the influence of these individual con­
structs on the uptake of such mundane household products via the
mediation of normative community pressure (NCP) is likely to give
credence to the contributing role of self-identity theory. Yet, a signifi­
cant role of NCP will affirmatively suggest presence of the social-identity
dimension.
The present study thus seeks to make a few notable contributions.
First, it advances our understanding of drivers that influence the private
consumption and purchase intent of common household items promoted
by spiritual/ religious brands. Second, the study will provide deep
contextualized insights into this phenomenon within Indian society,
which is reflective of socio-economic transformations in other emerging
economies. This is a current topic uniquely placed at the intersection of
business and society. Third, the study advances theoretical justifications
for factors contributing to the purchase intent of consumers (Fig. 1). In
doing so, the study draws on and attempts to reconcile social and self-
identity theories. This was already being achieved through the theory
of planned behaviour, but by adding additional insights, this paper aims
to further advance our theoretical assumptions.
Religiosity is an interesting construct for this study because of its
dual purpose within Indian context. The word ‘India’ literally translates
in to the ‘Land of Indus (Hindus)” (Madden, 2018), and the currently
ruling right-wing nationalistic party has championed the term Hindutva
meaning that “Hindu is not just a religion, but it is also a way of life”
(Bhatnagar, 2005). So, the ‘Hindu’ religion in India is being used to
develop a broad socio-ethnic identity that is grounded in a shared cul­
ture and heritage of over five thousand years. This is because, within the
colourful palette of India showcasing modernity and tradition, religion
in general continues to play an important part in everyday life. However,
the disposition to the contextual dimension of resurging
Hindu-nationalism and associated normative pressures is likely to vary
among individuals due to their respective religiosity. The latter being an
individual dimension will manifest differently in individuals. In­
dividuals will vary along the intrinsic (i.e. relating to inherent
faith-based motives) and extrinsic (i.e. relating to utilitarian motives)
D. Sardana et al.
dimensions of religiosity and will thus exhibit different consumer
choices (Arli et al., 2016), an aspect duly considered in the study.
Some spiritual gurus, by exploiting both their own social status
within the majority community in India and the current wave of Hindu
nationalism, have sought to innovatively craft a powerful narrative that
seeks to develop socio-ethnic identity related normative pressure among
consumers for the self-serving of their respective brands. In the current
socio-political milieu, the normative pressure felt by masses in general is
likely translated into purchase intention for the daily consumable items
branded and promoted by them. This unique transposition of socio-
ethnic identity to the brands promoted by themselves, the spiritual
gurus make them distinctive to the other brands by domestic or multi­
national companies. In addition, this makes them broadly appealing,
over and beyond their own narrow social grouping. At the same time,
pragmatism, an inherently individual trait, may also be contributing to
this phenomenon because the consumable items suggesting similar
product value may also be leading people to buy brands that are closer to
their ethnic-identity (or are likely giving such an impression), especially
in the stated context of a heightened awakening of socio-ethnic identity
due to a strong socio-political wave of Hindu-nationalism. In short, the
phenomenon is better explained by these constructs that demonstrate
contribution of both ‘push’ factors due to religiosity and/or normative
community pressure and the ‘pull’ factors due to pragmatism and/or
higher perceived value.
In the following section, we first provide a detailed literature review
wherein we discuss theoretical underpinnings, and then utilise prior
scholarly literature to formulate our hypothesis. Thereafter we present
our research methodology. This is followed by a detailed empirical
analysis of our findings. Finally, we discuss our findings. Based on our
findings, we inform our readers about the theoretical and managerial
implications of our study. This is followed by a ‘Conclusion’ where in
some limitations of the study and potential future research directions are
discussed.
2. Theoretical underpinning
Social identity theory is often adopted by scholars (e.g. Bachleda,
Hamelin, & Benachour, 2014; Mukhtar & Butt, 2012; Souiden & Rani,
2015) to explain consumer consumption decisions. This is particularly
true if the consumer choices are related to luxury goods, religious beliefs
(such as halal or kosher) or cult-forming products (e.g. Harley Davidson,
Apple). Social identity theory plays a part in the theory of reasoned
action, wherein subjective norms of society are shown to have a direct
impact on one’s purchase intent (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975). The primary
tenets of these rest on the assumption that individuals who purchase
such items wish to conform to the subjective norms of the group(s) they
identify with. Therefore, it is the normative influence rather than the
informational influence that takes precedence in their decision-making
(Levine & Russo, 1987). According to Abrams and Hogg (1990),
normative influence is subjectively experienced by individuals and the
pressure on them to comply. It is, however, important to take note that
any pressure to comply only works when the source has more power
than the target (such as society, group or family having more power over
individuals who are either part of it or seek to be a part of it), or the
target depends on the source for recognition or survival (Abrams &
Hogg, 1990). For instance, purchase of luxury fashion brands can result
in recognition among upper-class individuals, or within materialistic
society in general.
Moscovici (1976) observes that in scholarship there has been a
conformity bias in social influence in general, as the focus has primarily
been on considering individuals as social beings and the processes that
make them succumb to the influence of the majority. There are other
influences relevant to any individual’s choices. For instance, minority
thinking may not enjoy substantive power, and might not be in a posi­
tion to apply sufficient pressure on individuals to conform, yet it may
draw the attention of others as it presents an alternative perspective
3
International Business Review 30 (2021) 101777
(Nemeth, 1986). The latter requires serious consideration of alternative
points of view, which may play a central role in information processing.
Contrary to this, simple compliance or conformity may only involve
peripheral information processing (Petty & Cacioppo, 1981).
Even the conformity rests on multiple individual characteristics
therefore the self-identity of any individual is also important. The latter
is created by the combination of roles that the individual plays in society
and any individual’s unique disposition (Terry et al., 1999). Every in­
dividual is distinct and their motivations for a relevant act can vary due
to their unique personality traits (Abrams & Hogg, 1990). Individuals
are thus active contributors to social behaviour rather than simply being
influenced by normative pressures (Stryker, 1968). It is for this reason
that scholars subscribing to the theory of reasoned action were criticized
for failing to account for personal factors such as attitudes and behav­
ioural control; hence, the theory was later modified into the theory of
planned behaviour (Ajzen, 1985). Tajfel and Turner (1979) also mention
that it is imperative to acknowledge that there is a continuum between
self and social identity as both group and personality characteristics
influence any individual’s purchase intent.
It is also important to acknowledge that the behaviour of individuals
is shaped by both identity-defining roles and characteristics, and other
personality dimensions that are relevant to the act and are intrinsically
related to the character of the individual, such as extraversion, consci­
entiousness, or pragmatism (Dollinger, 1995; Topolewska-Siedzik, Cie­
ciuch, & Strus, 2018). Therefore, it is to be expected that dimensions
that relate to one’s personality characteristics should also contribute to
the purchase intent of an individual (Terry et al., 1999). To better un­
derstand the actions of an individual, it is essential to conceive of self
and broader social influences as intertwined and inseparable (Terry
et al., 1999). This provides a more accurate representation of identity
(Stryker, 1968).
Social norms will influence purchase intent more if the individual
strongly desires to identify with the group of interest. If not, individual
characteristics may have a greater impact on choices. For instance, in
general, consumption of mundane day-to-day household items (e.g.
detergent or pain balm) is likely to be primarily influenced by an
assessment of their intrinsic value. Different individuals, however, may
assess the value of a product differently. This will depend on a multitude
of demographic factors and individual characteristics. A more religious
person is likely to perceive more value in consuming daily-use common
products being sold by a religious leader as opposed to a secular (or a
relatively less religious) and/or a more pragmatic individual. Even in the
former case, the decision to purchase an item could be informed by
higher value perceptions rather than by a feeling of obligation towards
the group. Normative pressure to conform to the populist opinion of the
society or group may have, at best, a secondary role to play in decision to
purchase such products. In summary, it is reasonable to assume that
normative community pressures to conform and/or the perceived value
in such instances will interact with individual characteristics to influ­
ence purchase intent. We seek to better understand the interaction be­
tween these influences.
2.1. Normative community pressure (NCP)
Societal norms often influence an individual’s choices and behavior
(Ajzen, 2005). Individuals are more likely to conform to subjective
norms valued by social groups that they relate to, such as family, friends,
relatives, peer or any other affiliation (Ajzen, 2005; Bristol & Mangle­
burg, 2005). Individuals abide by group norms as a means of affiliating
themselves with them.
Compliance with subjective norms may be enhanced if respected
members of the society or group, such as opinion leaders or celebrities,
actively advocate for those norms. This is often the case when credible
brand ambassadors are deployed to advocate for a cause or a product
(Martin, Wentzel, & Tomczak, 2008; Spry, Pappu, & Cornwell, 2011).
Their advocacy leads to normative community pressure that further
D. Sardana et al.
motivates individuals to conform. Spiritual and religious leaders not
only have a huge following in India, but also enjoy tacit political support
(Jaggi & Ghosh, 2017; Mehrotra, Salunkhe, & Chakraborty, 2017). Their
endorsement of a product is akin to that of a popular celebrity, such as a
successful movie star or athlete (Feick & Higie, 1992). Spiritual and
religious leaders are well placed to advocate for feelings of national and
cultural identity, or attachment to heritage and traditional values.
Through their endorsement they are able to transfer such valued emo­
tions to a brand, hereby generating affinity towards it. By purchasing
products and brands promoted by spiritual/religious leaders, consumers
could be complying with subjective norms. This may however depend on
the strength of religious beliefs of the individual, that is their religiosity.
2.1.1. Mediation of NCP on religiosity
The degree to which followers of a religion accept beliefs and prac­
tices of their religion is referred to as religiosity (Allport & Ross, 1967;
Delener, 1990; Yousaf & Shaukat Malik, 2013). It is important to note
that the motivation to follow a religion can differ among individuals,
and one should avoid treating religiosity as a singular dimension (All­
port & Ross, 1967; Sardana, Gupta, & Sharma, 2018). Individuals who
choose to follow doctrines of a religion and have complete faith in them
as the ideal way to lead a life are considered to be intrinsically driven. On
the other hand, individuals with utilitarian motives who follow religious
practices because of the benefits, such as the comfort of being part of a
congregation, networking, etc., are defined as being extrinsically
religious.
Religiosity is an important precursor to several behaviours demon­
strated by consumers (Delener, 1990). Thus, religious branding can in­
fluence customer perception and increase sales (Einstein, 2011).
Differences between the two groups, i.e. intrinsic and extrinsic religi­
osity, have been demonstrated by scholars (e.g. Arli & Tjiptono, 2014;
Sardana et al., 2018; Vitell et al., 2015). Varied effects of intrinsic and
extrinsic religiousness on consumers’ attitude and behaviour has also
been demonstrated by scholars (Arli & Lasmono, 2014; Arli & Tjiptono,
2014; Chau, Johnson, Bowers, Darvill, & Danko, 1990; Ilter, Bayr­
aktaroglu, & Ipek, 2017; Sardana et al., 2018; Yeniaras & Akkemik,
2017). In the present study, we acknowledge the distinction between
extrinsic religiosity (RE) and intrinsic religiosity (RI) as we investigate
their impact on customer purchase intent of FMCG products in India.
It is expected that intrinsically religious people will consider
following religious precepts as an important way to lead their lives, and
thus are likely to adhere to these beliefs. For example, Muhamad and
Mizerski (2010) report that intrinsically religious people following Islam
are strict in their disposition and consider smoking and listening to
music to be contrary to their religion. Such individuals are thus likely to
avoid those behaviors. At the same time, intrinsically motivated reli­
gious individuals are more likely to purchase a privately consumed
product/service advertised which affirms their religious beliefs. It is
then reasonable to expect that intrinsically religious people are not just
more susceptible to being persuaded into buying products promoted by
the religious and/or spiritual leaders, but are also likely to be more
influenced by the narrative on socio-ethnic identity grounded in
religion.
H1. Normative community pressure positively mediates the effect of
intrinsic religiosity on the purchase intention of brands promoted by
spiritual leaders.
Extrinsically religious individuals, in contrast, are likely to buy
religious-branded products that help them express their identity and
conform with common group choices (Pace, 2014). They will thus be
motivated to buy religious-branded products that are more visible to
their group members and/or are often spoken about, which may not
necessarily be the case of several privately consumed FMCG goods.
Despite the above argument, several studies on Muslims report that
consumption of halal products (several of which may be privately
consumed daily items) to be deeply dependent on religiosity (Eid &
4
International Business Review 30 (2021) 101777
El-Gohary, 2015; Jamal & Sharifuddin, 2015; Shaharudin, Pani, Mansor,
Elias, & Sadek, 2010). While there is no argument that consumption of
halal food by Muslims (or kosher by Jews and vegetarian diets by Jains)
is intrinsically related to their religious beliefs; consumption of such
items has become deeply embedded in the socio-cultural system and is
thus considered a given practice or a social convention. Therefore, re­
sults of such studies must be interpreted in a nuanced manner. For
instance, Khan and Azam (2016) found that consumption of halal
products by Indian Muslims is not significantly related to religiosity but
is based on perceived behavioral control (i.e. behavioral intention and
their ability to act on this intent). It is therefore reasonable to assume
that consumption of halal food items by intrinsically religious Muslim
people can be taken as a way of life for them, whereas extrinsically
religious Muslims are simply following and displaying deeply
entrenched social conventions.
In concurrence to the above viewpoint, we can surmise that in a
deeply traditional context such as India, extrinsic religiosity may have a
significant association with the consumption of goods promoted by
spiritual gurus. Normative pressure will further enhance their appeal.
This is because consuming such products may bring a stronger feeling
among extrinsic religious people that they are contributing to the society
and/or the nation. These values are not simply emotional and are strong
enough to motivate consumers. These value-laden emotions will exert a
positive influence on purchase intent in this context. Positive feelings
relating to consumption of such products are likely to be accentuated
further in the prevailing nationalistic fervour, thus emboldening the
associated values.
H2. Normative community pressure positively mediates the effect of
extrinsic religiosity on the purchase intention of brands promoted by
spiritual leaders.
2.1.2. Mediation of NCP on pragmatism (PRG)
Pragmatism relates to a more balanced approach to purchasing,
wherein there is greater consideration to cost versus extraneous benefits.
This does not necessarily mean that the purchase will be solely an eco­
nomic transaction. The buyer is likely to evaluate the cost alongside
other perceived benefits, including functional characteristics and
emotional factors. At the same time, the overarching buying behaviour
is not guided by emotions only. For instance, Son, Jin, and George
(2013) found that Indian college students were less influenced by con­
formity norms, and swayed more by perceived behavioural control (i.e.
presence of resources to perform a certain behaviour) when buying a
foreign apparel brand. This is reflective of the context, as majority col­
lege students, especially in emerging markets, are less likely to have an
abundance of resources to afford foreign brands among other competing
needs. The example thus demonstrates that in a unique context prag­
matism may override normative pressure related conformity for making
consumption choices.
India is both religious and secular in orientation. It is also a country
where a culture of individualism and collectivism have co-existed
(Kumar & Sethi, 2005). In addition, as consumption of familiar house­
hold FMCG products is generally a private concern and not visible to the
public, consumers may be ambivalent towards normative pressures to
buy products promoted by spiritual gurus. So, pragmatic individuals
who find value in similar products by other established brands manu­
factured in India are unlikely to shift their preference to household
goods endorsed by spiritual leaders (i.e. direct impact of pragmatism
being negative on the purchase intention of products sold by spiritual
gurus). Despite the current wave of nationalistic feelings, pragmatism
will be an important factor that will likely dampen any normative
pressures to purchase goods promoted by spiritual leaders, as there are
other competing indigenous brands. The arguments thus suggest that in
this specific instance pragmatism and NCP may play an opposing role
vis-à-vis consumption choice. It is hypothesized that the indirect effect
of the pragmatism via normative community pressure on purchase
D. Sardana et al.
intensions will be negative.
H3. Normative community pressure negatively mediates the effect of
pragmatism on the purchase intention of brands promoted by spiritual
leaders.
2.2. Perceived value (VAL)
Perceived value of goods or services by customers is reflective of the
trade-off between the cost that they pay and the benefits that they
appear to receive by means of consumption (Sinha & DeSarbo, 1998).
Also, as the benefits that the customers seek may be functional as well as
emotional, so perceived value is an overall assessment of the cost paid or
sacrifices made for the goods/services vis-à-vis the sense of gratification
(Zeithaml, 1998). Perceived value of the products is therefore not just
influenced by functional attributes of the product but also by the quality,
service aspects, accessibility for purchase, risk associated with the pur­
chase, and lifestyle congruence (Lloyd, Yip, & Luk, 2011). At the same
time, culture also influences consumer behavior (Delener, 1990). This is
because the choices that consumers make are manifested in prevailing
social norms that confer special meaning on their lives (Slater, 1997;
Triandis, 1989). Every culture has certain fundamental values that shape
the identity of individuals living in that society (Hofstede, 1984;
Schwartz, 1997). It is hardly surprising, therefore, when scholars report
that religion, an important dimension of culture, moderates or directly
impacts the choices that people make in their day-to-day lives (Eid &
El-Gohary, 2015; Jamal & Sharifuddin, 2015; Mukhtar & Butt, 2012). In
summary, the purchase intent of household goods is influenced by their
perceived value, which in turn is influenced by both socio-cultural
norms and pragmatic cost-benefit considerations.
2.2.1. Mediation of perceived value on religiosity
In certain societies religion plays an important role in defining the
normative expectations of individual devotees. Each religion, through
its distinctive beliefs and practices, also shapes the identity of its sub­
scribers, who feel that they belong to a like-minded social group (Hogg
& Abrams, 1988; Stets & Burke, 2000). This is in keeping with the social
identity theory, according to which an individual’s self-concept is
formulated in relation to his/her membership of a particular group
(Tajfel & Turner, 1979). Religion, as institutions, have displayed
considerable dogmatism and hence normative pressures for its members
to subscribe to certain subjective norms (Sardana et al., 2018); however,
the ability to exert this pressure will depend on the religiosity of its
followers, as discussed in the previous sections. However, there is a
complementary argument that religious people are likely to associate
higher value for product brands promoted by religious/spiritual leaders,
as the former will likely bestow more trust in the latter (Priester & Petty,
2003). The perceived value may manifest in various product charac­
teristics such as purity, divinity and quality. These perceived benefits are
additional to the associative value consumers derive due to an increased
sense of belonging to their religious group by consuming religious
brands (Balmer, 2008; Park & Baker, 2007).
In the context of a religious and conservative society such as India,
spiritual and religious leaders have always occupied a position of esteem
and prominence. A product class or a brand they endorse is likely to
exhibit values of cultural belonging to consumers. Spiritual and religious
leaders’ association to the brands may also be perceived as an indication
of purity and thus more natural ingredients and better quality. Those
perceived feelings are likely to be strong among religious individuals,
especially intrinsic religious people. This is because they are likely to
have greater trust of the religious/spiritual leaders.
H4. Perceived value positively mediates the effect of intrinsic religi­
osity on the purchase intention of brands promoted by spiritual leaders.
H5. Perceived value positively mediates the effect of extrinsic religi­
osity on the purchase intention of brands promoted by spiritual leaders.
5
International Business Review 30 (2021) 101777
2.2.2. Mediation of perceived value on pragmatism (PRG)
Abiding by social expectations can be part of pragmatic decision-
making in several contexts. For example, Choo, Chung, and Pysarchik
(2004) state that subjective norms and familiarity with the product
positively influences Indian consumers when buying new processed food
products. It is likely that normative beliefs will have an impact due to
information provided by members of the community and community
leaders (Ryan, 1982). Alternatively, pressure to conform to community
expectations can also result in buying a product. In Korea, Chung and
Pysarchik (2000) found that cultural conformity, face saving, and group
conformity had a significant impact on the purchase of domestic prod­
ucts, as buying them was identified with loyalty to Korean products, i.e.
a mark of nationalism. In such situations, the purchase of products that
are seen as conforming to community beliefs can also be taken as a
pragmatic choice. Group conformity and acceptance by family and so­
ciety has been shown to be a significant factor in several other Asian
societies, such as the ‘Confucian’ societies of China and South East Asia
(Lee, 1990) and the traditional society of India (Banerjee, 2008; Khare,
2011).
Despite the current nationalistic wave and the tradition of confor­
mity in the prevailing social context, pragmatism among individuals in
India will diminish the sale of products by spiritual gurus. The rhetorical
positioning of their products as intrinsically cultural and nationalistic
products will likely be seen as trivial by pragmatic individuals. There­
fore, pragmatic concerns may prompt some to avoid altering their
preferences. This is particularly true if the product is similar to
competing products in terms of their functional attributes. Furthermore,
the nationalistic feelings raised by spiritual brands are likely to be
dampened by the information provided by other competing indigenous
brands. In addition, brands promoted by spiritual gurus are relatively
new in comparison to long established competing brands. Competing
brands are produced and consumed in India, so their contribution to the
country is no less. If a consumer does, in fact, find substantive value in a
product endorsed by spiritual gurus, purchase of the product may be
more likely.
H6. Perceived value positively mediates effect of pragmatism on the
purchase intention of brands promoted by spiritual leaders.
3. Methodology
In this section, we described data collection in terms of research
setting, sample profile, data collection procedure, as well as scales and
measures used. The study is operationalized in the emerging market of
India, where spiritual gurus have offered products and are competing
with global brands. Hypotheses were tested using field-survey based
data collected in India.
3.1. Research setting
The economic liberalization of India has led to a cultural trans­
formation of business as well as society. Consumers in India have been
influenced by western values and norms, such as materialism and a
consumer culture unleashed by the unbridled capitalism that India has
witnessed (Sardana & Zhu, 2017). At the same time, a resurgence of
Hindu nationalism has occurred in India in the last two decades (Sar­
dana & Zhu, 2017). These two evolving factors have had an impact on
religious discourse as well, with the changing environment allowing
spiritual gurus to exploit deep-seated religious sentiment by capitalist
means.
Unlike kosher or halal products that are intrinsically related to the
laws of their respective religions, the spiritual branded products in India
are ordinary products with no religious connotation, but ingeniously
packaged and branded by spiritual gurus. The spiritual products pro­
moted in India are associated with divinity and purity. It should be of
interest to scholars to understand the strategy adopted by these spiritual
D. Sardana et al.
gurus to promote their products and compete with global brands.
A large part (about 80 %, based on the 2019 CIA World Factbook) of
the Indian population is Hindu. Spiritual gurus such as Patanjali, SriSri,
etc. have promoted their products in Indian retail stores. The branding
and advertisements of such products is associated with ancient cultural
aspects (Sardana et al., 2018). The number of products promoted by
spiritual gurus in India has seen exponential growth in the last decade.
These newly emerged brands are a threat to brands offered by MNCs in
India.
3.2. Scales and measures
A survey was designed based on well-established validated scales
from the literature. A Likert scale with a rating of 1–7 was used to
capture respondents’ perceptions, with 1 being “strongly disagree” and
7 being “strongly agree” for each item. The content validity of the
constructs was examined by reviewing the literature. Allport and Ross
(1967) developed scales to measure religious intrinsic (RI) and religious
extrinsic (RE). We adapted the RI and RE scale from Allport and Ross
(1967), Darvyri et al. (2014), and Maltby (1999). These measures were
modified for the local setting. Later Vitell (2009) employed measures of
religiosity (intrinsic) and religiosity (extrinsic) in a business and mar­
keting context. Measures for pragmatism (PRG), normative community
pressure (NCP), and value perception (VAL) were adapted from Alge­
sheimer et al. (2005), Spry et al. (2011) and Yang and Stening (2013)
respectively. The scale for purchase intent (PI) was adapted from Arli
et al. (2016).
In order to develop a robust sampling design, we collected data from
urban as well as rural communities in India. The demographics of Indian
urban and rural respondents vary in terms of their education and in­
come. The selection of these product items is reflective of the evolving
consumer demands in India and also representative across primary
consumption categories (i.e. food products, medicinal products, and
personal care). Some of the most commonly used FMCG products in
India (urban and rural) with extensive retail penetration are shampoos
(79 % retail reach), biscuits (78 %), toilet soaps (75 %), washing pow­
ders/liquids (70 %), hair oils (68 %), salty/savory snacks (i.e. namkeen)
(64 %), toothpastes (63 %), detergent bars (59 %), skin creams (54 %)
and toothbrushes (35 %) (Sarkar & Mukherjee, 2014).
The purchase intent of urban consumers was captured using ten
popular products from various categories, such as food (honey, cheese,
biscuits, and cooking oil), household goods (toilet cleaner, detergent
powder, shampoo, and moisturizer), and medicinal products (pain relief
balm, and cold rub). Competing brands included: (i) Dabur, Himalaya,
Britannia, Amul, Parle, Saffola, and Sundrop for food products, (ii)
Iodex, Moov, Vicks Vaporub, and Amrutanjan for medicinal products,
and (iii) Harpic, Lysol, Surf, Ariel, Sunsilk, Clinic Plus, Nivea, and Pal­
molive for household and personal care products. This was designed to
capture the purchase intent of products promoted (and sold) by spiritual
gurus in comparison to competing brands. In addition, the selection of
daily consumable products is often used in a typical middle-income
household in an urban setting, which were also the target group for
data collection.
To assess the participants’ purchase intent for brands endorsed by
spiritual leaders, we asked about purchase intent in ten relevant product
categories providing five choices: (i) two focal brands, ‘Patanjali,’
endorsed by Baba Ramdev, and ‘SriSri,’ endorsed by Sri Ravi Shankar,
(ii) two popular brands from domestic or MNC competitors, and (iii) a
fifth choice referred to as ‘others’. We then calculated factor scores using
the respondents’ answers to the ten questions above. For example, if a
respondent chose either Patanjali or SriSri for all the ten questions, the
factor score was ‘10’. Similarly, if a respondent did not choose Patanjali
or SriSri on any of the ten questions, then the factor score was ‘0’. For all
the other combinations of the brands, the factor score was a number
between 1 and 10. In order to make the factor score a continuous
measure we divided the scores by 10. Thus, all the factor scores
6
International Business Review 30 (2021) 101777
(purchase intent) ranges between 0 and 1.
The wording of the survey scales was tailored to the scales of the
local cultural context. For example, a statement “I go to church because
it helps me make friends,” is revised to “I go to a religious service
because it helps me to make friends” (where a religious service in Hindu
context will be a bhajan, kirtan, jagrata, or any other religious congregation,
which is similar to a service like a ‘mass’ in a Catholic church).
Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was then conducted in a pilot study to
examine the validity of the scales. Fifty-four random responses were
collected for the pilot study from the Northern Capital Region (NCR),
Bangalore, and Mumbai. Fifty-three valid responses were employed in
the EFA with a 98 % response rate. The instrument was tweaked and
improved based on the EFA results, commonalities, and item loadings.
The longer items of the scales were made more concise and clearer.
Repetition among scale items was avoided to make the results clearer.
Data from rural respondents was collected face-to-face. Different
products were used in the survey for rural consumers compared to urban
consumers, based on differences in consumption patterns and/or habits.
For instance, cheese (including cottage cheese) while popular and often
consumed in a middle-class urban family that is nutrition conscious, may
be less consumed in rural areas because it is expensive. So, we changed it
with a savory pack (namkeen) that is often consumed in a rural setting.
Food products included in the rural survey are (i) honey, (ii) namkeen (a
savory snack), (iii) biscuits, and (iv) cooking oil. Personal care products
were altered most to reflect consumption patterns. For instance, (i) toilet
cleaner was replaced with dish washing bar; (ii) detergent powder
replaced with detergent soap; (iii) moisturizer cream with hair oil; and
(iv) shampoo with toothpaste. Medicinal products (pain relief balm and
cold rub) are included in both rural and urban consumer surveys as they
are commonly used across the demographics. Brands popular among
rural Indian consumers, such as Haldiram and Bikano (food products)
and Vim, Vishal, Parachute, Dabur, and Colgate (personal care and
household products) were used.
A local social worker team was trained to address the socio-cultural
barriers in settings where respondents were less educated and skeptical
of strangers. Respondents’ questions about the survey were addressed by
the surveyors based on the training they received. This helped ensure
that the accuracy of the data collected was maintained. A number of
additional measures were adopted to ensure the credibility of responses.
Surveyors were informed that random respondents would be contacted
after the survey to verify that they responded to the survey. During the
survey, the name, mobile number, and name of the village of the re­
spondents were also collected. After the data collection, some re­
spondents were contacted to verify that they had indeed been contacted
to complete the survey, and in order to examine the consistency of their
responses. This face-to-face data collection technique allowed for a high
survey response rate and high-quality responses.
3.3. Sample and procedure
Data collection was conducted using online (www.surveygizmo.
com) and print survey questionnaires. Approximately 800 online re­
spondents were identified by referrals and snowballing. We received a
total of 299 responses from online participants, of which only 213 were
valid responses, with an effective response rate of 26.6 %. We separately
approached 506 respondents with a print survey, receiving 323 re­
sponses. From this, 300 responses were complete and valid, with an
effective response rate of 59 %. The total number of responses from the
D. Sardana et al. International Business Review 30 (2021) 101777

online and print surveys was 513 (213 + 300). Of the 513 responses, 188 Table 2
respondents lived in rural India. The response rate for rural Indian re­ Measurement model (CFA) results.
spondents was high since the survey was conducted in person. Rural Sr. Item definition Lambda Mean SD
respondents were from a few villages in Uttarakhand (a state in North No.
India).2 F1 Religious Intrinsic (RI) - Allport and Ross Ch Alpha: 0.791
The demographic profiles of India are presented in Table 1. We (1967)
applied the Mahalanobis (De Maesschalck, Jouan-Rimbaud, & Massart, F1.1 I often go to a religious place (i.e. temple or 0.65 4.39 1.63
2000) distance method to exclude outliers. A significance of 0.001 was mosque or gurudwara or church)
F1.2 I live life according to my religious beliefs and 0.73 4.52 1.56
used. The total sample size was 513. follow rituals
F1.3 I enjoy reading books about my religion 0.67 4.30 1.65
F1.4 I often hear religious sermons, talks or prayers 0.73 3.69 1.76
3.4. Data analysis on TV, radio or in person
F2 Religious Extrinsic (RE) - Allport and Ross Ch Alpha: 0.813
(1967)
Construct measures and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) results
F2.1 I go to a religious service because I enjoy 0.74 3.54 1.71
are provided in Table 2. interacting with people there
The model fit analysis was conducted, and the fit indices were found F2.2 I go to a religious service because it helps me 0.85 3.05 1.77
to be a close fit (χ2 = 225.53, df = 17, χ2/df = 2.69, CFI = .97, NFI = .94, to make friends
GFI = .95; RMSEA = .057, SRMR = .048), and better than (1 < χ2/df < 4, F2.3 I go to a religious service because it helps me 0.72 3.58 1.80
to feel socially secured and cared for
CFI > .90, NFI > .90, GFI > 0.9, RMSEA < .1, SRMR < .1) what is F3 Pragmatism (PRG) - Yang and Stening (2013) 0.801
recommended by Hair, Black, Babin, Anderson and Tatham (2005). F3.1 I would be happier to obtain desired goals by 0.87 3.42 2.08
Validity and reliability tests were conducted for the measures any means instead of honest life only
(Nunnally, 1978). We compared the observed average variance extrac­ F3.2 We can use any approaches as long as they 0.77 3.44 1.87
facilitate economic growth and wellbeing
ted (AVE) with the cut off 0.49 (Hair et al., 2005) to assess the
F3.3 Prayers do not really change what happens in 0.62 3.53 1.90
convergent validity. The observed AVE of all constructs ranged between life
0.49 to 0.59 (See Table 3). The square root of observed AVE (from 0.7 to F4 Normative Community Pressure (NCP) – Ch Alpha: 0.810
0.78) was compared with the bi-variate correlation among the respec­ Algesheimer et al. (2005)
tive constructs (Hair et al., 2005). The divergent validity of construct I am motivated to use consumable goods
being sold by a spiritual/religious leader as:
was thus confirmed by observing that the square root of AVE of the F4.1 I consider them to be nationalistic brands 0.75 3.03 1.63
construct was more than its correlation with other constructs (refer F4,2 It makes me feel belong to my community 0.80 3.00 1.69
Table 3). This ensured the divergent validity of each construct. F4.3 It makes me feel contributing to my society 0.75 3.74 1.81
and nation
F5 Value Perception (VAL) - Spry et al., 2011 Ch Alpha: 0.813
Table 1 I use (like to use) consumable goods being
Sample demographics. sold by a spiritual/religious leader because:
Demographic Variable (N = Categories Percentage Frequency F5.1 I consider them to be better in quality than 0.73 3.62 1.56
513) brands by other companies
F5.2 Products by them use more natural 0.86 4.20 1.58
Male 63.0 % 323 ingredients and less preservatives
Gender
Female 37.0 % 190 F5.3 Products by them are pure and divine 0.73 3.85 1.76
Less than 21 years 7.2 % 37
21− 30 years 42.1 % 216
31− 40 years 38.4 % 197 The observed composite reliability (CR) and Cronbach’s Alpha were
Age
41− 50 years 8.6 % 44
51− 60 years 2.7 % 14
compared with the cut off of 0.7 (Hair et al., 2005). The CR ranged from
More than 60 years 1.0 % 5 0.87 to 0.89 (Table 3), and Cronbach’s alpha ranged from 0.791 to
Married 60.6 % 311 0.813. These values indicate reliability of the scales used and mea­
Marital Status
Unmarried 37.2 % 191 surement accuracy of the constructs.
Divorced 1.0 % 5
Primary data collected from single respondents (Podsakoff, MacK­
Widow 1.2 % 6
High School or less 25.0 % 128 enzie, Lee, & Podsakoff, 2003) may suffer from common method vari­
Graduate 32.9 % 169 ance (CMV). Chang, Van Witteloostuijn, and Eden (2010) suggests steps
Education Level
Post-Graduate or
37.0 % 190
to address CMV. This concern was taken into consideration during the
more survey design step to analysis. We conducted a pilot survey and EFA to
Others (Please
specify)
5.1 % 26 ensure validity and reliability of the scales. Construct measures were
Household Income Less than .5 42.7 % 219 reviewed several times and adjusted as needed. The instrument was
(Million Indian Rupees .5 – 1.0 15.2% 78 reviewed by academic scholars for face validity. We administered the
Per Annum) 1.0 – 1.5 14.2% 73 survey in both online and print format, which is also one of the sug­
1.5 – 20 11.3% 58
gested ways to overcome CMV.
2.0–2.5 5.5 % 28
2.5 – 3.0 3.7% 19 The literature (Chang et al., 2010) suggests that the likelihood of a
More than 3.0 7.4% 38 respondent bias in responses which are used for complex mediation
analysis is close to zero. We conducted the Harman single factor test
(Harman, 1976), and observed that the total variance explained by the
forced single factor was 33.43 %, which is well below the cut off 50 %.
Based on the steps taken in this study we can conclude that CMV is not a
problem.
2
Of 513 total respondents, 495 were Hindus and remaining from associated
religions in India that had genesis in Hindu religion (such as Jains or Sikhs).
Respondents from divergent faiths (e.g. Christianity, Islam, or Judaism) were 4. Results
excluded. This is important as the ‘religiosity’ dimension is being hypothesized
and tested; and the two spiritual gurus whose brands were being tested belong Four path models were developed and the indirect effects were tested
to ‘Hindu’ religion. using AMOS bootstrap method which is considered to be the most

7
D. Sardana et al. International Business Review 30 (2021) 101777

Table 3
Bi-variate correlation, descriptive, and validity.
Gender Age Income Education Level Marital Status RI RE PRG NCP VAL PI

Gender –
Age − 0.02 –
Income − 0.16 0.20 –
Education Level 0.06 0.17 0.29 –
Marital Status − 0.00 − 0.40 − 0.12 − 0.04 –
RI 0.12 0.02 − 0.31 − 0.03 − 0.06 0.70
RE 0.09 − 0.09 − 0.32 − 0.05 − 0.00 0.50 0.77
PRG 0.06 − 0.28 − 0.27 − 0.04 0.11 0.13 0.36 0.76
NCP 0.08 − 0.10 − 0.34 − 0.09 0.01 0.37 0.40 0.39 0.77
VAL 0.05 0.06 − 0.30 − 0.13 − 0.06 0.32 0.28 0.09 0.51 0.78
PI − 0.06 0.05 − 0.12 − 0.04 0.01 0.12 0.07 0.06 0.24 0.26 –
Mean 1.37 2.60 2.62 2.23 1.43 4.22 3.39 3.46 3.26 3.89 0.09
SD 0.48 0.91 1.89 0.90 0.58 1.30 1.50 1.65 1.46 1.40 0.17
AVE – – – – – 0.49 0.59 0.57 0.59 0.60 –
CR – – – – – 0.87 0.88 0.87 0.88 0.89 –

Note: Correlations above |0.091| are significant at 0.05, and above |0.115| are significant at 0.01; the diagonals show the square root of AVE.

credible method to test the mediation effects (Hayes & Scharkow, 2013).
Results are provided in Tables 4–7. Model M1 examines the direct effects Table 5
NCP and VAL mediation (Model M2).
of RI, RE and PRG on PI (Table 4). Model M2 assesses the mediation
effects of NCP and VAL (Table 5). In order to assess the individual Independent DV (NCP) DV (VAL) DV (PI)
mediation effect of NCP and VAL we developed two more models: M3 Variables Beta t stat Beta t stat Beta t stat
(Table 6) and M4 (Table 7), respectively. The model fit indices of each of Main Effects
the four models were better than standards (1 < χ2/df < 4, CFI > .90, NFI RI –> 0.21*** 4.77 0.19*** 4.12 0.03 0.60
> .90, GFI > 0.9, RMSEA < .1, SRMR < .1) recommended by Hair et al. RE –> 0.14** 3.12 0.12* 2.52 − 0.05 − 1.02
(2005). PRG –> 0.28*** 6.73 − 0.00 − 0.02 0.01 0.28
NCP –> 0.15** 2.81
The regression assumptions were assessed for statistical validity of
VAL –> 0.17 3.31
the beta coefficients. The skewness coefficient of all the items as well as ***
constructs were below |0.5|. In the Indian population, it is believed that
the religiousness and pragmatism of consumers varies according to age, Co-variates
gender, education, income and marital status. These variables were used (Controls)
Age –> 0.01 0.34 0.11* 2.37 0.08 1.70
as controls.
Income –> − 0.15 − 3.44 − 0.20 − 4.39 − 0.04 − 0.83
Results of model M1 indicate that the direct effect of RI, RE and PRG *** ***
on PI are not significant (Table 4). Regarding model M2, the indirect Gender –> 0.00 0.04 − 0.01 − 0.35 − 0.08 − 1.88
effect of RI (β = 0.065, p < 0.01), RE (β = 0.042, p < 0.01), and PRG (β = Marital Status − 0.03 − 0.64 − 0.04 − 0.84 0.04 0.96
0.043, p < 0.05) on PI are positive and significant (Table 5). This indi­ –>
Education Level − 0.03 − 0.72 − 0.08 − 1.75 − 0.00 − 0.03
rect effect is a total indirect effect of mediators NCP and VAL. While it
–>
was clear that the indirect effects of RI, RE and PRG were significant on R-Square 0.27 0.17 0.09
PI, we could only calculate the individual indirect effects of RI, RE, and
PRG via NCP and VAL. It was not possible to test each of the six indi­ Indirect Effect
vidual mediation hypotheses using model M2. RI –> PI (Via NCP and VAL) 0.065
**
The indirect effect of an independent variable X on a dependent
RE –> PI (Via NCP and VAL) 0.042
variable Y via a mediator M can be estimated (Edwards & Lambert, **
2007, pp7, Eq7) as the product of the direct effect of X on M (i.e. βXM), PRG –> PI (Via NCP and 0.043*
VAL)

Note:
Table 4 *
p < 0.05.
Direct effect model (Model M1). **
p < 0.01.
DV (PI) ***
p < 0.001.
Independent Variables
Beta t stat

Main Effects and M on Y (i.e. βMY). As an illustration, the total indirect effect of RI on
RI –> 0.095 1.871 PI (β = 0.065, p < 0.01) is explained as follows. The indirect effect of RI
RE –> − 0.010 − 0.196 on PI via NCP could be calculated as the product of the two direct effects
PRG –> 0.056 1.176 RI to NCP (β = 0.21, p < 0.001), and NCP to PI (β = 0.15, p < 0.01),
which is (0.21 × 0.15 = 0.032). Similarly, the indirect effect of RI on PI
Co-variates (Controls)
Age –> 0.101* 2.075 via VAL is the product of direct effect of RI on VAL (β = 0.19, p < 0.001),
Income –> − 0.097* − 1.967 and VAL on PI (β = 0.17, p < 0.01), which is (0.19 × 0.17 = 0.033). The
Gender –> − 0.082 − 1.875 total indirect effect of RI on PI is the sum of the two indirect effects
Marital Status –> 0.034 0.716 (0.032 + 0.033 = 0.065).
Education Level –> − 0.018 − 0.401
Model M3 was used for testing hypotheses H1, H2, and H3. The in­
R-Square 0.036
direct effect of RI on PI via NCP (β = 0.048, p < 0.001), and RE on PI via
Note: The p value of RI is 0.062, which indicates that the effect of intrinsic NCP (β = 0.033, p < 0.01) are positive and significant (Table 6). H1 and
religiosity on purchase intentions is considerable, however the direct effect H2 are supported. The indirect effect of PRG on PI via NCP (β = 0.064, p
hypothesis is rejected at p value of 0.05.
* < 0.001) is positive and significant. It is hypothesized that the indirect
p < 0.05.

8
D. Sardana et al. International Business Review 30 (2021) 101777

Table 6 5. Discussion
NCP mediation (Model M3).
DV (NCP) DV (PI) Business and society are intrinsically and dynamically linked to one
Independent Variables another. The strong interconnections between them are demonstrated
Beta t stat Beta t stat
by Parsons and Smelser (1972) in their elaborate multi-level systems
Main Effects conception of society, which was proposed as the ‘theory of action’. Yet,
RI –> 0.211*** 4.766 0.047 0.920
RE –> 0.143** 3.116 − 0.043 − 0.826
often, business is studied and researched in isolation to the context in
PRG –> 0.282*** 6.734 − 0.008 − 0.163 general, and society in particular. The call to explicitly situate business
NCP –> 0.228*** 4.603 scholarly research in the social context is coming from scholars doing
research in emerging economies (Cavusgil et al., 2013; Meyer & Peng,
Co-variates (Controls) 2016; Tsui, 2004). This is due to cultural and institutional idiosyncrasies
Age –> 0.014 0.335 0.098* 2.049
of the context and the way it impacts business functioning (e.g. Marquis
Income –> − 0.148 − 3.441 − 0.063 − 1.292
Gender –> 0.001 0.038 − 0.083 − 1.921 & Raynard, 2015; Meyer & Nguyen, 2005). Implementing this topical
Marital Status –> − 0.026 − 0.641 0.040 0.861 research agenda demands a methodology that is reflective of the
Education Level –> − 0.029 − 0.715 − 0.012 − 0.264 contextualized understanding and is specific to the research question
R-Square 0.266 0.075
(Tsui, 2007).
The present study aligns with the above calls for contextualized
Indirect Effect
RI –> PI (Via NCP) 0.048*** research in Asia. The subject is a recent occurrence, as India has wit­
RE –> PI (Via NCP) 0.033** nessed a massive and unprecedented resurgence of right-wing nation­
PRG –> PI (Via NCP) 0.064*** alism within society, which catapulted the right-wing party to power
Note: with an absolute (or near absolute) majority in the 2014 and 2019
*
p < 0.05. elections. These socio-political developments are closely connected to
**
p < 0.01. the striking rise in the FMCG businesses promoted and branded by
***
p < 0.001. spiritual gurus (Mitra, 2017). This research sought to explain whether
the shift in the social-political landscape has altered the purchase intent
of the Hindu population, leading to the impressive growth of these
Table 7 businesses. This study contributes to theory development in the area of
VAL mediation (Model M4). identity theory and theory of reasoned action and planned behaviour,
DV (VAL) DV (PI) and also seeks to make methodological contributions. The investigation
Independent Variables
Beta t stat Beta t stat also has clear implications for understanding the interactions between
business and society, as discussed below.
Main Effects
RI –> 0.194*** 4.121 0.050 1.000
RE –> 0.123* 2.515 − 0.038 − 0.744 5.1. Implications for managers
PRG –> − 0.001 − 0.021 0.057 1.208
VAL –> 0.230*** 4.933
Emerging market societies are continuously changing and trans­
forming in many ways, and India is no exception (Sardana & Zhu, 2017).
Co-variates (Controls)
Age –> 0.107* 2.373 0.077 1.598 One such change is the recent emergence of ‘New Age’ spiritual leaders,
Income –> − 0.201*** − 4.392 − 0.051 − 1.036 who are leveraging their spiritual/religious connection to consumers to
Gender –> − 0.014 − 0.349 − 0.079 − 1.842 build multi-billion-dollar FMCG corporate enterprises. The timing of
Marital Status –> − 0.036 − 0.837 0.042 0.915
their entrepreneurial impact coincides with a seismic socio-political
Education Level –> − 0.075 − 1.753 − 0.001 − 0.028
R-Square 0.170 0.080
change in India. Indian society has moved towards embracing a more
right-wing Hindu nationalist ideology, giving a decisive mandate to the
Indirect Effect ruling right-wing party in consecutive elections for the first time since
RI –> PI (Via VAL) 0.045*** independence.
RE –> PI (Via VAL) 0.028** It is noteworthy that the spiritual gurus who are traditionally ex­
PRG –> PI (Via VAL) 0.000
pected to demonstrate ascetic lifestyles have now become capitalist role
Note: models, as they seek to challenge the dominance of MNC and domestic
*
p < 0.05. FMCG companies in India (Dutta, 2017). They have clearly sought to
**
p < 0.01. position their products as being ‘natural’, ‘of the land’ and ‘pure and
***
p < 0.001.
healthy’ (drawing on their yoga and spirituality), as well as relating to
the country’s culture. At the same time, they identify the growth of their
effect of pragmatism on purchase intentions via normative community enterprises with the growth of the nation and/or contributing to its
pressure is negative. Contrary to our hypothesis, we did not find any development (Knowledge@Wharton, 2017). Their rapid market entry
evidence of negative indirect effect. H3 is not supported. has rattled the senior management of incumbent firms who are unable to
It is counter intuitive that the indirect effect of PRG on PI via NCP is comprehend the rationale behind a growing consumer preference for
positive and significant. We address this unexpected finding in the dis­ products branded and sold by spiritual gurus. Traditional marketing
cussion. The direct effect of RI, RE, and PRG on PI are not significant, strategies have failed to provide an adequate response. This is because
indicating that there is a full mediation effect of NCP on PI. these enterprises exist in highly competitive and mature industries
Model M4 was used for testing the hypothesis H4, H5, and H6. The dominated by MNCs and large domestic companies. Thus, there is little
indirect effects of RI on PI via VAL (β = 0.045, p < 0.001) and RE on PI room to offer significantly better value (i.e. better quality for cheaper
via VAL (β = 0.028, p < 0.01) are positive and significant (Table 7). H4 prices) for their goods. MNCs and large domestic firms are better
and H5 are supported. The indirect effect of PRG on PI via VAL (β = equipped and resourced to attract suppliers and command better logis­
0.000, p > 0.964) is almost zero and not statistically significant. H6 is tics, and new entrants offer no unique products, nor do they use any
not supported. The direct effect of RI and RE on PI are not significant, innovative business models. At the same time, their promotional stra­
indicating that these relationships are fully mediated by VAL. tegies are modest and unostentatious. Hence, the rise of indigenous
firms affiliated with spiritual gurus can be best explained by

9
D. Sardana et al.
investigating how business and societal trends interact to influence
consumer decisions and purchase intent. Is it that the transforming so­
cial milieu is also having an impact on customers? Or, do consumers
really find more value in their products?
Our results suggest that intrinsic religiosity of individuals has a direct
impact (not at p < 0.05 but at p < 0.1; Table 4) on their intent to buy
products promoted by spiritual gurus, but it interacts with normative
community pressures in the current social milieu to further increase
purchase intent. Likewise, extrinsic religiosity on its own does not
significantly influence purchase intent, but in the presence of normative
community pressure purchase intent is also impacted for this group. A
surprising finding is that pragmatism, when interacting with normative
community pressure, also increased purchase intent. This is counterin­
tuitive. One explanation could be that people are making this conscious
shift in preference towards goods sold by spiritual gurus because the
concerned products are household goods commonly perceived as com­
modities. Hence, making this choice to substitute one common product
with a new product is considered harmless. Furthermore, the choice
aligns with the transformed social milieu and thus conforms to the
prevailing normative community pressure within the broad society. This
choice is therefore seemingly more pragmatic.
As expected, religious (both intrinsic and extrinsic) oriented in­
dividuals perceive higher value from products being sold by spiritual
gurus, which also translates into purchase intent. Value perception is
driven by inferences of higher quality, better pricing, and greater purity
while also having less preservatives. Such value perception is likely due
to the association of the product with the spiritual gurus, who tradi­
tionally have portrayed desired imagery of purity, naturalness and di­
vinity, rather than simply being a product (or commodity) sold by a
profit-seeking corporation. This assertion is further supported by the
fact that the interaction of pragmatism with value perceived was found
to have no impact on the purchase intent of consumers. This suggests
that pragmatic individuals do not discern any tangible benefit, signi­
fying that products sold by spiritual gurus are of no better value
compared to competing products in the market.
The present study demonstrates how a transformed social milieu has
led to the success of firms selling products promoted by spiritual gurus in
a highly competitive environment. As such, buying these privately
consumed common household goods (including ones promoted by
spiritual gurus) does not confer group inclusivity or an enhancement of
status. Individuals continue to belong to the nation (a social grouping),
despite their consumption of a particular brand. Therefore, social-
identity theory provides fewer compelling insights or justification for
the use of the products promoted by spiritual gurus. Nevertheless, the
study demonstrates the belief that normative expectations rooted in
nationalistic feelings, religion and culture can influence choice by
engendering socio-ethnic identity. At the same time, it can also be
inferred that the consumption of products sold by spiritual gurus in some
mannerisms contributed to an individual’s pride, and thus their self-
identity, primarily manifested through religiosity.
Consumption of such products is an affirmation and reinforcement of
one’s self-identity rather than an attempt to become part of a group. The
individual’s pride and boost to their self-identity also comes from the
realization of belonging to a unique and ancient culture. This is partic­
ularly relevant in this case as Hinduism (viz. religion in this case) in the
context of India is intrinsically linked to the nation and to its culture.
Therefore, unlike other countries where religion is not linked to the
culture of the country, the religious beliefs are often merged with the
idea of India. So, for many, Hinduism (the religion) becomes a way of
life, closely tied to their distinctive cultural and national identity. Reli­
giosity, an individual characteristic that contributes to ‘self-identity’,
thus re-enforces social identity (i.e. national identity) for people of the
same faith in India.
The present study reveals that technology is not the only and
necessary condition for disruption, as is often assumed. Even a mature
industry can be disrupted by an ongoing social transformation. It is
10
International Business Review 30 (2021) 101777
crucial for managers to monitor the fluid social context in an emerging
market, and either seek to modify strategies accordingly or be willing to
adapt. In this instance, a nuanced understanding of the factors influ­
encing the purchase intent of consumers in the current social milieu
could help with developing competing strategies. A response to this new
competition from brands promoted by spiritual gurus, could be to
communicate with customers about the actions a particular company
has taken to contribute to the national progress and/or to demonstrate
how it is engaged in socio-cultural traditions (such as yoga day or an
Indian festival).
5.2. Implications for theory
The present study explicitly takes note of normative community
pressure as one of the factors that is reflective of the broader change.
However, we do not neglect the fact that consumers may be buying such
products because they are genuinely superior in quality and/or are more
affordable, thus providing an overall perception of better value. As right-
wing nationalism in India has its basis in the idea of Hindu religion and
way of living, we do assess individuals’ religiosity and associated
normative community pressure, which can be considered ‘push’ factors
contributing to the uptake of products promoted by spiritual gurus.
Finally, we also consider pragmatic aspects of an individual and value
perception of the product. These are ‘pull’ factors that helps individuals
judge the true value of the product and make a practical choice.
The above approach not only draws on social-identity theory and
self-identity theory (Reed, 2002; Terry et al., 1999), but it combines
them to derive novel insights into the factors that contribute to con­
sumption of household goods promoted and sold by spiritual gurus.
Religiosity and pragmatism are individual-level characteristics helping
to define one’s self (Delener, 1990; Yang & Stening, 2013). The former,
along with normative community pressure, can be used to gauge an
individual’s social-identity. Pragmatism concerns individual character­
istic and attitudes, which are likely to influence the perceived value of a
product. This distinct characterization of factors based on theoretical
justification is prudent. They relate to, mimic even, the constructs used
in the theory of planned behaviour and seek to progress it. Perceived
control behaviour (often used in the theory of planned behaviour) was
not explicitly examined because the objective of the study was primarily
to understand the choices people make, rather than determine their
ability to buy the products (Ajzen, 2005; Khan & Azam, 2016).
The above approach adheres to theories grounded in social identity,
self-identity, and planned behaviour for the research questions posed in
this study. The choice of constructs is unique as they help to explain an
observed phenomenon. Further, methodologically the study demon­
strates that individual-level factors (i.e. intrinsic religiosity, extrinsic
religiosity and pragmatism) not only directly impact purchase intent (as
purportedly in the theory of reasoned action and planned behaviour),
but they also interact with constructs (such as normative pressure and
perceived value of a product) to explain consumers’ purchase decisions.
Overall, the findings can be interpreted in a nuanced manner and in-
depth insights can be drawn.
6. Conclusions
The value systems of the economy are subordinate to the value sys­
tems of the society, yet there is a tendency is to give primacy to the
former and neglect the latter. This is reflected in scholarly research in
management. With this research, we seek to highlight the relationship
between society and business and how significantly the latter is influ­
enced by the former.
We conclude that disruption in the mature household FMCG market
in India was essentially triggered by the changing social milieu. The
change can be attributed to the awakened nationalist pride founded on
the religious dimension of individual identity. Whereas the uptake of
goods promoted by spiritual gurus can be attributed to widespread
D. Sardana et al.
normative pressure, it was the ‘religiosity’ aspect of self-identity that
influenced the purchase intention of the individual customers. Drawing
on religious and national identity, the socio-political landscape simply
acted as an institutional catalyst, facilitating social discourse around
self-identity. These aspects of self-identity were awakened and brought
to the fore through this discourse. This, in turn, may have helped en­
terprises led by spiritual gurus to reach a critical mass, which thereafter
took the form of a social contagion effect (Kretschmer et al., 1999).
The primary factors contributing to the uptake of the brands pro­
moted by spiritual gurus was found to be religiosity and normative
community pressure. Surprisingly, pragmatism was also found to be a
contributory (and not opposing) factor in the presence of normative
pressure. This is a significant finding and it may be attributed to the
nature of the products (i.e. privately consumed household goods) and
the balancing act between normative pressure and perceived value of
these products that are often considered as commodities. The findings
suggest that despite the influence of normative pressure on purchase
intent, social identity theory is not best suited to providing a full
explanation. Instead, the religiosity dimension of self-identity provides a
more accurate explanation for the influence of normative community
pressure. This study thereby integrates social identity and self-identity
theory to provide a nuanced explanation and in doing so progresses
the theory of reasoned action and planned behaviour.
Despite some notable findings contributing to managerial and
theoretical understanding, there are some limitations to the present
study. An important shortcoming of the study is a relatively small
sample size vis-à-vis the population of India, so generalizability of the
findings is a limitation. Additionally, while there was a genuine effort to
select the participants as randomly as possible, the samples primarily
come from a select few cities/villages in India. Hence, representation
may also be a limiting factor. Future research could potentially seek to
collect more data using diverse sampling methods in order to overcome
these shortcomings. In addition, future research can also use other
methods (such as lab experiments) to advance the findings of the study
and possibly add other dimensions or cues.
References
Abrams, D., & Hogg, M. A. (1990). Social identification, self-categorization, and social
influence. European Review of Social Psychology, 1(1), 195–228.
Ajzen, I. (1985). From intentions to actions: A theory of planned behaviour. In J. Kuhl, &
J. Beckmann (Eds.), Action-control: From cognition to behaviour (pp. 11–39).
Heidelberg: Springer.
Ajzen, I. (2005). Attitudes, personality, and behaviour (2nd ed.). UK: Open University
Press.
Algesheimer, R., Dholakia, U. M., & Herrmann, A. (2005). The social influence of brand
community: Evidence from European car clubs. Journal of Marketing, 69(3), 19–34.
Allport, G. W., & Ross, J. M. (1967). Personal religious orientation and prejudice. Journal
of Personality and Social Psychology, 5(4), 432–443.
Arli, D., & Lasmono, H. (2014). Are religious people more caring? Exploring the impact
of religiosity on charitable organizations in a developing country. International
Journal of Non-profit and Voluntary Sector Marketing, 20(1), 38–51.
Arli, D., & Tjiptono, F. (2014). The end of religion? Examining the role of religiousness,
materialism, and long-term orientation on consumer ethics in Indonesia. Journal of
Business Ethics, 123(3), 385–400.
Arli, D., Cherrier, H., & Tjiptono, F. (2016). God blesses those who wear Prada: Exploring
the impact of religiousness on attitudes toward luxury among the youth of Indonesia.
Market Intelligence & Planning, 34(1), 61–79.
Bachleda, C., Hamelin, N., & Benachour, O. (2014). Does religiosity impact Moroccan
Muslim women’s clothing choice? Journal of Islamic Marketing, 5(2), 210–226.
Balmer, J. M. (2008). Identity based views of the corporation: Insights from corporate
identity, organisational identity, social identity, visual identity, corporate brand
identity and corporate image. European Journal of Marketing, 42(9/10), 879–906.
Banerjee, S. (2008). Dimensions of Indian culture, core culture values, marketing
implications – An analysis. Cross Cultural Management: An International Journal, 15
(4), 367–378.
Bhatnagar, R. (2005). Hinduism is not just a religion, it’s a way of life. The Times of India,
(25 April).
Bristol, T., & Mangleburg, T. F. (2005). Not telling the whole story: Teen deception in
purchasing. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 33(1), 79–95.
Casidy, R., Phau, I., & Lwin, M. (2016). Religiosity and digital piracy: An empirical
examination. Services Marketing Quarterly, 37(1), 1–13.
Cavusgil, S. T., Ghauri, P. N., & Akcal, A. A. (2013). Doing business in emerging markets
(2nd ed.). London: Sage Publishers.
11
International Business Review 30 (2021) 101777
Chang, S. J., Van Witteloostuijn, A., & Eden, L. (2010). From the editors: Common
method variance in international business research. Journal of International Business
Studies, 41(2), 178–184.
Chau, L. L., Johnson, R. C., Bowers, J. K., Darvill, T. J., & Danko, G. P. (1990). Intrinsic
and extrinsic religiosity as related to conscience, adjustment, and altruism.
Personality and Individual Differences, 11(4), 397–400.
Choo, H. J., Chung, J.-E., & Pysarchik, D. T. (2004). Antecedents to new food product
purchasing behaviour among innovator groups in India. European Journal of
Marketing, 38(5/6), 608–625.
Chung, J.-E., & Pysarchik, D. T. (2000). A model of behavioural intention to buy
domestic versus imported products in a Confucian culture. Marketing Intelligence &
Planning, 18(5), 281–291.
Darvyri, P., Galanakis, M., Avgoustidis, A. G., Pateraki, N., Vasdekis, S., & Darviri, C.
(2014). The revised intrinsic/extrinsic religious orientation scale in a sample of
Attica’s inhabitants. Psychology, 5(13), 1557–1567.
De Maesschalck, R., Jouan-Rimbaud, D., & Massart, D. L. (2000). The mahalanobis
distance. Chemometrics and Intelligent Laboratory Systems, 50(1), 1–18.
Delener, N. (1990). The effects of religious factors on perceived risk in durable goods
purchase decisions. The Journal of Consumer Marketing, 7(3), 27–38.
Dollinger, S. M. C. (1995). Identity styles and the five-factor model of personality.
Journal of Research in Personality, 29, 475–479.
Dutta, A. (2017). Ramdev’s Patanjali shakes up FMCG order; Next up “nutritious
restaurants”. Business Standard, (5th May).
Edwards, J. R., & Lambert, L. S. (2007). Methods for integrating moderation and
mediation: A general analytical framework using moderated path analysis.
Psychological Methods, 12(1), 1–22.
Eid, R., & El-Gohary, H. (2015). The role of Islamic religiosity on the relationship
between perceived value and tourist satisfaction. Tourism Management, 46, 477–488.
Einstein, M. (2011). The evolution of religious branding. Social Compass, 58(3), 331–338.
El-Bassiouny, N. (2014). The one-billion-plus marginalization: Toward a scholarly
understanding of Islamic consumers. Journal of Business Research, 67, 42–49.
Feick, L., & Higie, R. A. (1992). The effects of preference heterogeneity and source
characteristics on Ad processing and judgments about endorsers. Journal of
Advertising, 21(2), 16–24.
Fischer, J. (2016). Markets, religion, regulation: Kosher, halal and Hindu vegetarianism
in global perspective. Geoforum, 69, 67–70.
Fishbein, M., & Ajzen, 1. (1975). Belief, attitude, intention, and behavior: An
introduction to theory and research. Reading, MA: AddisonóWesley.
Hair, J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., Anderson, R. E., & Tatham, R. L. (2005). Multivariate
analysis of data (pp. 89–127). Porto Alegre: Bookman.
Harman, H. H. (1976). Modern factor analysis. USA: University of Chicago Press.
Hayes, A. F., & Scharkow, M. (2013). The relative trustworthiness of inferential tests of
the indirect effect in statistical mediation analysis: Does method really matter?
Psychological Science, 24(10), 1918–1927.
Hofstede, G. (1984). The cultural relativity of the quality of life concept. The Academy of
Management Review, 9(3), 389–398.
Hogg, M. A., & Abrams, D. (1988). Social identifications: A social psychology of intergroup
relations and group processes. UK: Routledge.
Ilter, B., Bayraktaroglu, G., & Ipek, I. (2017). Impact of Islamic religiosity on materialistic
values in Turkey. Journal of Islamic Marketing, 8(4), 533–557.
Jaggi, R., & Ghosh, M. (2017). Consumer perception of patanjali products: An analytical
study. IUP Journal of Brand Management, 14(1), 13.
Jamal, A., & Sharifuddin, J. (2015). Perceived value and perceived usefulness of halal
labeling: The role of religion and culture. Journal of Business Research, 68, 933–941.
Khan, A., & Azam, M. K. (2016). Factors influencing Halal products purchase intention in
India: Preliminary intention. IUP Journal of Marketing Management, 15(1), 20–35.
Khare, A. (2011). Impact of Indian culture values and lifestyles on meaning of branded
products: Study of university students in India. Journal of International Consumer
Marketing, 23, 365–379.
Knowledge@Wharton. (2017). How a yoga guru is mastering the consumer goods market
in India. Knowledge@Wharton, (15th June).
Kretschmer, M., Klimis, G. M., & Choi, C. J. (1999). Increasing returns and social
contagion in cultural industries. British Journal of Management, 10(1), S61–S72.
Kumar, R., & Sethi, A. K. (2005). Doing business in India. New York, USA: Palgrave
Macmillan.
Lee, C. (1990). Modifying an American consumer behaviour model for consumers in
Confucian culture: The case Fishbein behavioural intention model. Journal of
International Consumer Marketing, 3(1), 27–50.
Levine, J. M., & Russo, E. M. (1987). Majority and minority influence. In C. Henrick
(Ed.), Review of personality and social psychology (Vol. 8, pp. 13–54). USA: Sage.
Lloyd, A. E., Yip, L. S. C., & Luk, S. T. K. (2011). An examination of the differences in
retail service evaluation between domestic and tourist shoppers in Hong Kong.
Tourism Management, 32, 520–533.
Madden, D. (2018). This world map of literally translated country names will amaze you.
Forbes, (29 March) Accessed on 18 July 2020 https://www.forbes.
com/sites/duncanmadden/2018/03/29/a-world-map-of-th
e-literal-translations-of-country-names/#7959170b523f.
Maheshwari, R. (2017). The epic rise of patanjali: Game-changer in Indian FMCG
industry. Yourstory.com, (17th March).
Malviya, S. (2017). HUL makes new game plan, forms crack teams to knock the wind out
of Patanjali’s sale. The Economic Times, (19th May).
Marquis, C., & Raynard, M. (2015). Institutional strategies in emerging markets. The
Academy of Management Annals, 9(1), 291–335.
Martin, B. A. S., Wentzel, D., & Tomczak, T. (2008). Effects of susceptibility to normative
influence and type of testimonial on attitudes toward print advertising. Journal of
Advertising, 37(1), 29–43.
D. Sardana et al.
Maltby, J. (1999). The internal structure of a derived, revised, and amended measure of
the religious orientation scale: The ‘Age-Universal’ I-E scale–12. Social Behavior and
Personality, 27(4), 407–412.
Mehrotra, S., Salunkhe, U., & Chakraborty, I. (2017). Patanjali: An Indian FMCG on
growth path. Emerald Emerging Markets Case Studies Collection, 7(2), 1–35.
Meyer, K. E. (2006). Asian management research needs more self-confidence. Asia Pacific
Journal of Management, 23, 119–137.
Meyer, K. E., & Nguyen, H. V. (2005). Foreign-investment strategies and sub-national
institutions in emerging markets: Evidence from Vietnam. Journal of Management
Studies, 42(1), 63–93.
Meyer, K. E., & Peng, M. W. (2016). Theoretical foundations of emerging economy
business research. Journal of International Business Studies, 47, 3–22.
Mitra, S. (2017). Baba Ramdev’s Patanjali eyes two-fold rise in sales at Rs. 20,000 crore
in FY18. Live Mint, (4th May).
Moscovici, S. (1976). Social influence and social change. European monographs in social
psychology, No. 10. London: Academic Press.
Muhamad, N., & Mizerski, D. (2010). The constructs mediating religions’ influence on
buyers and consumers. Journal of Islamic Marketing, 1(2), 124–135.
Mukhtar, A., & Butt, M. M. (2012). Intention to choose Halal products: The role of
religiosity. Journal of Islamic Marketing, 3(2), 108–120.
Nemeth, C. (1986). Differential contribution of majority and minority influence.
Psychological Review, 93, 23–32.
Nunnally, J. (1978). Psychometric theory, 2. C. (1978). New York: McGraw Hill.
Olivelle, P. (1995). Food in India. Journal of Indian Philosophy, 23, 367–380.
Pace, S. (2014). Effects of intrinsic and extrinsic religiosity on attitudes toward products:
Empirical evidence of value-expressive and social-adjustive functions. Journal of
Applied Business Research, 30(4), 1227–1238.
Park, J. Z., & Baker, J. (2007). What would Jesus buy: American consumption of religious
and spiritual material goods. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 46(4),
501–517.
Parsons, T., & Smelser, N. J. (1972). Economy and society: A study in the integration of
economic and social theory (5th ed.). London: Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd.
Petty, R. E., & Cacioppo, J. T. (1981). Attitudes and persuasion: Classic and contemporary
approaches. USA: W. C. Brown.
Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Lee, J. Y., & Podsakoff, N. P. (2003). Common method
biases in behavioral research: A critical review of the literature and recommended
remedies. The Journal of Applied Psychology, 88(5), 879–903.
Priester, J. R., & Petty, R. E. (2003). The influence of spokesperson trustworthiness on
message elaboration, attitude strength, and advertising effectiveness. Journal of
Consumer Psychology, 13(4), 408–421.
Reed, A., II (2002). Social identity as a useful perspective for self-concept-based
consumer research. Psychology & Marketing, 19(3), 235–266.
Ryan, M. J. (1982). Behavioral intention formation: The interdependence of attitudinal
and social influence variables. The Journal of Consumer Research, 9, 118–136.
Sanjai, P. R., & Pradhan, B. (2016). India’s bearded Yogis are snatching sales from Global
brands. The Economic Times, (1st December).
Sardana, D., Gupta, N., & Sharma, P. (2018). Spirituality and religiosity at the junction of
consumerism: Exploring consumer preference for spiritual brands. International
Journal of Consumer Studies.
Sardana, D., & Zhu, Y. (2017). Conducting business in China and India: A comparative and
contextual analysis. London, UK: Palgrave Macmillan.
Sarkar, J., & Mukherjee, S. (2014). Personal care drives FMCG business on rural push.
The Times of India, (27 December) Accessed on 10 July 2020 https://timesofindia.ind
iatimes.com/business/india-business/Personal-care-drives-FMCG-business-on-
rural-push/articleshow/45655697.cms.
Schütte, H., & Ciarlante, D. (1998). Consumer behaviour in Asia. New York, USA: New
York University Press.
12
International Business Review 30 (2021) 101777
Schwartz, S. H. (1997). Values and culture. In D. Munro (Ed.), Motivation and culture (pp.
69–84). USA: Routledge.
Shaharudin, M. R., Pani, J. J., Mansor, S. W., Elias, S. J., & Sadek, D. M. (2010). Purchase
intention of organic food in Malaysia; A religious overview. International Journal of
Marketing Studies, 2(1), 96–103.
Sharma, P. (2011). Country-of-origin effects in developed vs. emerging markets:
Exploring the contrasting roles of materialism and value-consciousness. Journal of
International Business Studies, 42(2), 285–306.
Sinha, I., & DeSarbo, W. S. (1998). An integrated approach towards the spatial modeling
of the preconceived consumer value. Journal of Marketing Research, 35(2), 236–249.
Slater, D. (1997). Consumer culture and modernity. Cambridge: Polity Press.
Smith, J. R., Terry, D. J., Manstead, A. S. R., Louis, W. R., Kotterman, D., & Wolfs, J.
(2008). The attitude-behaviour relationship in consumer conduct: The role of norms,
past behaviour, and self-identity. The Journal of Social Psychology, 148(3), 311–334.
Son, J., Jin, B., & George, B. (2013). Consumers’ purchase intention toward foreign
brand goods. Management Decision, 51(2), 434–450.
Souiden, N., & Rani, M. (2015). Consumer attitudes and purchase intentions toward
Islamic banks: The influence of religiosity. International Journal of Bank Marketing, 33
(2), 143–161.
Spry, A., Pappu, R., & Cornwell, B. T. (2011). Celebrity endorsement, brand credibility
and brand equity. European Journal of Marketing, 45(6), 882–909.
Stets, J. E., & Burke, P. J. (2000). Identity theory and social identity theory. Psychology
Quarterly, 63(3), 224–237.
Stryker, S. (1968). Identity salience and role performance: The importance of symbolic
interaction theory for family research. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 30,
558–564.
Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1979). An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. In
W. G. Austin, & S. Worchel (Eds.), The social psychology of intergroup relations (pp.
33–47). USA: Brooks-Cole.
Terry, D. J., Hogg, M. A., & White, K. M. (1999). The theory of planned behaviour: Self-
identity, social identity and group norms. The British Journal of Social Psychology, 38,
225–244.
Topolewska-Siedzik, E., Cieciuch, J., & Strus, W. (2018). Personality underpinnings of
identity: The role of mettraits and traits identity formation modes. Self and Identity.
https://doi.org/10.1080/15298868.2018.1483964.
Triandis, H. C. (1989). The self and social behaviour in differing cultural contexts.
Psychological Review, 96(3), 506–520.
Tsui, A. (2004). Contributing to global management knowledge: A case of high quality
indigenous research. Asia-Pacific Journal of Management, 21(4), 491–513.
Tsui, A. (2007). From homogenization to pluralism: International management research
in the academy and beyond. The Academy of Management Journal, 50(6), 1353–1364.
Vitell, S. J. (2009). The role of religiosity in business and consumer ethics: A review of
the literature. Journal of Business Ethics, 90, 155–167.
Vitell, S. J., King, R. A., Howie, K., Toti, J. F., Albert, L., Hidalgo, E. R., et al. (2015).
Spirituality, moral identity, and consumer ethics: A multi-cultural study. Journal of
Business Ethics, 139(1), 147–160.
Yang, S., & Stening, B. W. (2013). Mao meets the market: Reconciling ideology and
pragmatism in China. Management International Review, 53, 419–438.
Yang, S., & Stening, B. W. (2016). Antecedents of materialism in China – An
intergenerational analysis. International Journal of Consumer Studies, 40, 701–711.
Yeniaras, V., & Akkemik, K. A. (2017). Materialism and fashion consciousness: The
moderating role of status consumption tendencies and religiosity. Journal for the
Scientific Study of Religion, 56(3), 498–513.
Yousaf, S., & Shaukat Malik, M. (2013). Evaluating the influences of religiosity and
product involvement level on the consumers. Journal of Islamic Marketing, 4(2),
163–186.
Zeithaml, V. A. (1998). Consumer perceptions of price, quality, and value: A means-end
model and synthesis of evidence. Journal of Marketing, 52(3), 2–22.