Preferred Appeals As A Replection of Culture - Mobile Phones Advertising in Vietnam - Hau N. Le, 2007

This article was downloaded by: [Anadolu University]
On: 24 December 2014, At: 01:09

Publisher: Routledge
Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House,
37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK
Asia Pacific Business Review

Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information:
http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/fapb20
Preferred Appeals as a Reflection of Culture: Mobile

Phones Advertising in Vietnam
a b
Nguyen Thi Thuy Khanh & Le Nguyen Hau
a
Managing Director - Pacific Advertising Co. Ltd , Vietnam
b
School of Industrial Management, HoChiMinh City University of Technology , Vietnam
Published online: 02 Feb 2007.
To cite this article: Nguyen Thi Thuy Khanh & Le Nguyen Hau (2007) Preferred Appeals as a Reflection of Culture: Mobile
Phones Advertising in Vietnam, Asia Pacific Business Review, 13:1, 21-39, DOI: 10.1080/13602380600652987
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13602380600652987
PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE
Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the “Content”) contained
in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensors make no
representations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the
Content. Any opinions and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors, and
are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content should not be relied upon and
should be independently verified with primary sources of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for
any losses, actions, claims, proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever
or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arising out of the use of
the Content.
This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic
reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any
form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http://
www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions
Asia Pacific Business Review
Vol. 13, No. 1, 21–39, January 2007
Preferred Appeals as a Reflection of

Culture: Mobile Phones Advertising
in Vietnam
Downloaded by [Anadolu University] at 01:09 24 December 2014
NGUYEN THI THUY KHANH* & LE NGUYEN HAU**

*Managing Director - Pacific Advertising Co. Ltd, Vietnam, **School of Industrial Management,
HoChiMinh City University of Technology, Vietnam
ABSTRACT This study is an initial step to consider whether international brands should create
global images or tailor the images to the local culture. Its objective is to explore the preferences of
Vietnamese consumers on advertising appeals related to mobile phones and to see if those
preferences reflect specific dimensions of the Vietnamese culture. Survey findings indicate that the
consumers’ preferences for advertising appeals do reflect the Vietnamese culture in power distance,
masculinity and uncertainty avoidance. However, appeals related to collectivity and emotionality
are less preferred to individuality and rationality, respectively. Differences among subgroups of
consumers in terms of gender, age and price segments have also been identified.
KEY WORDS : Advertising appeals, standardization, adaptation, culture, mobile phones, Vietnam
Introduction
For almost the last two decades, most multinational companies have been
concerned whether international brands should create global images or tailor the
images to relate to the local cultures (Mai, 2005). This issue has been addressed in
a recent review of advertising literature: ‘consumer response to international
advertising is a major research topic in the international advertising literature,
reflecting scholars’ continued curiosity about the differential responses of
different cultures to various types of appeals in international advertising’ (Zou,
2005: 10).
In this regard, there exist two perspectives. Advocates of globalism argue that
the world is becoming a common marketplace in which people – no matter
where they live – desire the same products and lifestyles (Levitt, 1983). In
Levitt’s view, globalization is transforming the world into a ‘homocultural’
marketplace. Consequently, all customers can be persuaded by the same
advertising appeals and values, irrespective of the culture they belong to. If this
is true, such a homogenization of culture would have a number of important
advantages from a marketing point of view. Brands and brand image could be
Correspondence Address: Le Nguyen Hau, Department of Management and Marketing, School of Industrial
Management, HoChiMinh City University of Technology, 268 Ly Thuong Kiet Str., Dist 10, HCM City,
Vietnam. Email: lnhau@sim.hcmut.edu.vn
1360-2381 Print/1743-792X Online/07/010021-19 q 2007 Taylor & Francis

DOI: 10.1080/13602380600652987
22 N. T. T. Khanh & L. N. Hau
standardized without any great problem across countries. There would also be
significant cost savings in producing advertising, as local market testing and
localized advertising design would not be needed (Dahl, 2005). In contrast,
proponents of localism argue that markets are people, not product. There may be
global products but there are no global people. There may be global brands but
there are no global motivations for buying those brands (Mooij, 1998). They
point out that the essence of advertising is to convince people that a product is
meant for them. By purchasing it, they will receive some benefit, whether it be
lifestyle, status, convenience or financial. As a result, when an advertising
campaign is taken abroad, different values and perceptions as to what enhances
status or gives convenience exist. These differences make the original advertising
campaign defunct (Payne, 2004).

This issue of standardization or adaptation of international advertising has
continued to be a major yet underresearched topic in international advertising.
Given the complexity of cultures, it can be expected that much more emphasis is
needed in this area of research (Zou, 2005).
With regard to the mobile phone sector in Vietnam, recent interviews conducted
with Nokia1 and Samsung2 – the two biggest players in Vietnam – revealed that
all mobile phone companies in Vietnam are using global advertising with the
justification of economies of scale. However, academics and advertisers in
Vietnam have become particularly concerned about which circumstances would
require culturally congruent advertising versus a more standardized global
approach. This issue has still been left unanswered (Ha, 2005).
The specific problem in this study is whether, in the case of mobile phones,
there is an association between the preferred advertising appeals and the
Vietnamese culture. If the preferred advertising appeals reflect the dimensions of
Vietnamese cultural values, one would expect success in the tailoring approach.
Conversely, if the preferred appeals do not reflect cultural values held by
Vietnamese, then it is not necessary to adapt global marketing strategies because it
does not matter whether the message is global or local.
To address these questions, this research firstly identified various advertising
appeals and cultural dimensions. Then those identified advertising appeals were
categorized by each cultural dimension. Also, the Vietnamese cultural values in
each dimension were identified. Hypotheses on the preferred advertising appeals
of the Vietnamese were developed. To test the hypotheses, a survey was conducted
with 308 mobile phone users in Vietnam. If the hypotheses were found to be
supported, the localization in advertising promised to be successful. Otherwise,
the globalization in advertising would be recommended. For the exploratory
purpose, analyses were conducted for the whole sample as well as multiple
subgroups in terms of gender, age and price segments.
Literature Review and Hypotheses

Advertising Appeals from a Cultural Perspective
In this study, an advertising appeal is defined as ‘something that makes the product
particularly attractive or interesting to the consumer’ (Wells et al., 1992: 249).
Mobile Phones Advertising in Vietnam 23
Examples of appeals provided by Wells et al. (1992) are security, esteem, fear, sex
and sensory pleasure. Previous research by Pollay (1983) provided a list of 42
common advertising appeals that can be used. Pollay’s (1983) study developed an
exhaustive list of all common advertising appeals by drawing on the previous
advertising literature, as well as values research in other disciplines. It has been
used widely in previous content analyses (Albers-Miller & Gelb, 1996; Cheng &
Schweitzer, 1996).
A number of explanatory perspectives have been used in research on
advertising across cultures. In a recent review, Dahl (2005) identified three
different categories. The first is sociological perspective which focuses on a
certain aspect of society as portrayed in advertising. Studies of this type
typically try to contrast culturally inspired norms such as gender roles across
different countries (Maynard & Taylor, 1999). The second perspective includes
ethnology inspired research. Studies of this type rely on a set of historical and
general societal values to explain perceived differences in advertising in two or
more countries (Wiles et al., 1996). This type of research generally does not
focus on cultural dimensions. The third category, which is adopted in the
current study, includes cross-cultural psychology inspired research. This type of
study provides a somewhat deeper explanation of observed differences in
advertising by linking appeals and observations to cultural dimensions, and
hence tries to forecast the value and appeal differences in various countries
(Albers-Miller & Gelb, 1996). It usually tries to explain the differences and
similarities among observed advertising appeals by using the fundamental
dimensions of cultural variability. It relates the findings back to established
cross-cultural and intercultural research. By establishing the link between
observed differences and cultural dimensions, cross-cultural advertising
research identifies, at least potentially, a certain degree of predictability in
the observed differences (Dahl, 2005).
Hofstede’s Model of Culture and Advertising Appeals

Hofstede’s model of culture has been used widely in marketing research as a
framework for testing cross-cultural differences (Jones & George, 2003; Dahl,
2005). Hofstede (1980) developed dimensions along which national cultures can
be placed. These include four original dimensions, namely Individualism versus
Collectivism, High versus Low Power distance, High versus Low Uncertainty
avoidance and Masculinity versus Femininity. Many researchers have applied this
model successfully as a tool for matching cultural value with advertising appeals
with the assumption that the principle conduit for incorporating values into
advertising is appeals (Albers-Miller & Gelb, 1996).
In an attempt to conduct a research on whether the commonly used appeals
actually relate to the values of a particular culture, Albers (1994) identified a
number of relationships between advertising appeals by Pollay (1983) and
Hofstede’s dimensions as presented in Table 1.
It should be noted that 4 out of 42 appeals by Pollay (1983) have been
eliminated by Albers (1994) because they belong to the fifth dimension, that is
long-term orientation, which was not included in her research.
Table 1. Advertising appeals and culture dimensions

Culture Dimension Appeal
Individualism Independence: Distinctive, freedom, independence
Collectivism Conformity: popular, succour, family, community, affiliation
Power Distance high Power: ornamental, dear, vain, status,
health, sex
Power Distance low Submission: cheap, humility, wisdom, moral, nurture
Uncertainty Avoidance high Risk aversion: safety, tamed, neat
Uncertainty Avoidance low Risk-prone: casual, adventure, untamed, magic, youth
Masculinity Achievement: effective, durable, convenient, self-respect,
productivity
Femininity Quality of life: relax, enjoy, frail, natural, modest, plain
Source: Albers (1994)
A Brief Review of Previous Studies

Most researchers in this field have drawn on the works of Hofstede (1980, 1991) in
order to explain and potentially predict observed differences or similarities. For
example, Zandpour et al. (1994) developed a model to predict preferences for
creative strategies, information content and advertising style across different
cultures. The model was mainly based on Hofstede’s (1991) four dimensions but
also added the time orientation. They then tested the proposed model in eight
countries including Taiwan, Korea, Germany, UK, France, Spain, the USA and
Mexico. They found that information strategies were most dominant in countries
that were individualistic, polychronic and/or low in uncertainty avoidance.
Argument strategies were most dominant in cultures with low power distance
and/or high uncertainty avoidance. Psychological motivation strategies were used
more in countries with high power distance and/or collectivism. Symbolic
association strategies were most frequently found in polychronic cultures with
low power distance. In cultures that were monochronic and showed high power
distance and high uncertainty avoidance, imitation strategies were the most
dominant. Although they did not investigate the use of appeals in advertising,
Zandpour et al. (1994) demonstrated the influence of cultural dimensions and time
perception on the creative approach and strategies of television commercials.
In another study, Zhang and Gelb (1996) examined the effects of different
advertising appeals in both the USA and China from a consumer perspective.
The test products were cameras and toothbrushes. They found that Chinese
consumers responded more favourably to a collectivistic than to an individualistic
appeal. Albers-Miller and Gelb (1996) attempted to measure the extent to which
cultural dimensions are reflected in advertising appeals in practice. They
employed a list of 42 common advertising appeals published by Pollay (1983).
Out of the 42 appeals, 12 appeals were considered to have no relationship with any
of the dimensions and were eliminated. Subsequently, the relationships between
the remaining 30 appeals and the cultural dimensions were analysed. The authors
selected advertising in four product categories for their research: office
equipment, financial services, clothing and accessories, and travel services.
Around 200 advertisements in all four categories were selected from the main
business publications of Chile, Brazil, Taiwan, Japan, India, Israel, Mexico, the
USA, France, Finland and South Africa, and coded using the 30 appeals identified
as being culturally related. As a result, 10 of the 30 hypothesized relationships
were found to be statistically significant. For power distance, six of the eight
hypothesized appeals were found to be significantly correlated. For uncertainty
avoidance, three of the eight hypothesized appeals were found to be significantly
correlated, with two more being statistically significant. For the masculinity/
femininity dimension, two of the six hypothetically related appeals were found to
be significantly correlated. For the individualism/collectivism dimension, three
appeals were found to be significantly correlated with this dimension. Albers-
Miller and Gelb (1996) concluded that advertising appeals were well vary in line
with the cultural dimensions. This study pointed out that the usage of appeals in
advertising could be a function of cultural dimensions, and as such there is a
predictive function of cultural dimensions and appeals used in advertising.
Cho et al. (1999) developed a more fundamental framework for the analysis of
cultural value differences in television commercials in the USA and Korea. Their
study addressed Hofstede’s individualism/collectivism as well as time orientation,
the relationship with nature and contextuality. They found that individualism was
more often used in US commercials than in Korean commercials. However, they
failed to find a significant difference in the amount of collectivist themes between
the countries. The study did, however, find support for the more individualist
content in the USA, and the more collectivist content in Korea. Cho et al. (1999)
also found support that Korean television commercials were more high-context
than those of their US counterparts.
Milner and Collins (2000) tried to establish a link between the femininity-
masculinity values of a country and the portrayal of gender roles in television
advertising in Japan, Russia, Sweden and the USA. They demonstrated that
television advertising in feminine cultures features more depictions of
relationships between men and women than commercials shown in masculine
societies. However, their predictions of an emphasis on productivity in masculine
societies and the portrayal of fewer gender differences in feminine societies were
not supported by their research. Given their proposed link between advertising
features and intercultural communication theory, their findings could potentially
be useful for more than the countries they have studied.
Al-Olayan and Karande (2000), using a more traditional approach based on
advertising practice, also used Hofstede’s individualism and collectivism as well
as Hall’s high-context/low-context3 concept in their content analysis of magazine
advertisements from the US and the Arab world. They examined the
advertisements for a number of aspects, such as information content, usage of
price appeals and the depiction of men and women. Al-Olayan and Karande
(2000) found that more Arabic advertisements showed either the women’s faces
only or depicted women in a long dress, and that relatively fewer people were
shown in Arab advertisements. They also identified that US advertisements tended
to contain more information clues than Arab advertisements. However, relatively
few links were made by Al-Olayan and Karande between the identified cultural
influence factors and the resulting observations. In their article, they only stressed
the negative relationship between the price and promotion information and a high-
context society, the characteristic of the Arab world.
Tai (2004) looked at cultural values and the preference for one of two message
strategies. Analysing service advertising in Hong Kong and the USA, Tai (2004)
looked at whether there was a preference for either ‘informational strategies’ (that
is, focusing on a unique selling position, use of comparative advertising or factual
description) or for ‘transformational strategies’ (that is, enhancing the brand or
user image). Tai found that the use of ‘informational strategies’ was more frequent
in the USA than in Hong Kong. On the other hand, ‘transformational strategies’
were more frequent in Hong Kong. She concluded that a masculine culture and
cultures with long-term orientation or low individualism were more likely to adopt
transformational message strategies.

Considering previous studies, a large number of researchers have focused on the
appeals used in advertisements across cultures. Many researchers have drawn on
Pollay’s (1983) list of 42 advertising appeals. However, the number of appeals and
the methods for deriving the appeals in each study are different. For example, some
researchers included only a very limited number of appeals (Belk et al., 1985;
Caillat & Mueller, 1996), others have used a quite large number of appeals,
such as Albers-Miller & Gelb (1996) who used 30 appeals in their research. Most
researchers have linked the appeals used in advertising to possible cultural
dimensions, such as ‘eastern’ and ‘western’ values (Cheng & Schweitzer, 1996;
Ji & McNeal, 2001; Lin, 2001). Others have tried to link appeals to a broader
framework, such as Hofstede (Albers-Miller & Gelb, 1996). Most studies found that
there was a specific significant variation of appeals across cultures (Dahl, 2005).
Vietnamese Culture
Although Hofstede (1980) did not study the culture values of the Vietnamese,
studies on national culture (Swierczek & Hirsch, 1994; Berrell & Hoa, 1998;
Quang 1998; Lowe & Corkindale, 1998; Berrel et al., 1999; Haley & Tan, 1999)
have characterized the culture of Vietnam as illustrated in Table 2.
Hypotheses
A review of previous research indicates that different cultures seem to emphasize
a variety of advertising appeals. These lead to a general argument that advertising
Table 2. Vietnamese culture
Culture Factor Characteristics
Individualism Low: strong group affiliation, collective oriented, social conformity,
norms.
Power Distance High: hierarchical relationship and position of authority, control and
forbearance.
Uncertainty Avoidance Medium: preference for job security, formal structure, and rational
process.
Masculinity High: Male achievement, leadership, patriarchal attitude.
appeals preferred by Vietnamese consumers reflect the culture values of Vietnam.

In this study of the mobile phone product, by matching the identified culture
values of the Vietnamese (Table 2) and the categorized advertising appeals
(Table 1), it is hypothesized as follows:
. Hypothesis 1. Mobile phone consumers in Vietnam prefer Conformity
appeals to Independence appeals (Collectivism vs. Individualism).
. Hypothesis 2. Mobile phone consumers in Vietnam prefer Power appeals
to Submission appeals (High vs. Low Power distance).
. Hypothesis 3. Mobile phone consumers in Vietnam prefer Achievement
appeals to Quality-of-life appeals (Masculinity vs. Femininity).
. Hypothesis 4. Although the value on Uncertainty avoidance of

Vietnamese is rated medium, the characteristics specified in Table 2
show that the Vietnamese prefer job security, formal structure and a
rational process. These preferences are closer to a high level of uncertainty
avoidance. This suggests the hypothesis that mobile phone consumers in
Vietnam prefer Risk – aversion appeals to Risk-prone appeals (High vs.
Low Uncertainty Avoidance).
According to Copeland’s study in 1924 (quoted in Albers-Miller & Stafford,
1999:43), individuals buy products for either rational or emotional reasons.
Rational advertising stems from the traditional information processing models of
decision making where the consumer is believed to make logical and rational
decisions; such approaches are designed to change the message receiver’s beliefs
about the advertised brand and rely on their persuasive power of arguments or
reasons about brand attributes (Albers-Miller & Stafford, 1999). Such appeals
relate to the audience’s self-interest by showing the product’s benefits (Kotler &
Armstrong, 1994). Examples of these are messages showing a product’s quality,
economy, value or performance (Albers-Miller & Stafford, 1999). In contrast,
emotional appeals are grounded in the feeling or experiential side of consumption.
They seek to make the consumers feel good about the product and rely on feelings
for effectiveness (Albers-Miller & Stafford, 1999).
An advertising appeal can be categorized as either rational or emotional. In a
study on emotional and rational appeals in services versus goods advertising,
Albers-Miller and Stafford (1999) categorized each of 42 Pollay’s (1983)
appeals as emotional or rational. Lin (2001:86) suggested, ‘Asian advertise-
ments often contain less information than do their Western counterparts
because, in a high context culture such as China, it is considered impolite to be
direct or boastful. A polite communicator is one who is rather indirect, modest,
and vague’. In contrast, in a low context culture such as the United States,
audiences are not presumed to rely as much on prior knowledge, and therefore,
more information is typically included in advertising appeals (Mueller, 1987;
Lin, 2001). In the particular case of mobile phones, it was revealed by
Samsung Vietnam during our interviews (see note 2) that Vietnamese
consumers tend to buy products according to their feelings and moods rather
than rationality. Although mobile phones are consumer products, Vietnamese
consumers tend to use them as fashion products rather than as a pure
communication tool. Many consumers use expensive phones just for showing
off. They buy models with high tech functions just for making calls and short
messages (SMS). They feel more confident owning an expensive phone. They
buy the product only because their friends have just bought it. In this market,
consumers, especially young people, believe that owning the latest model is
stylish. Many of them are buying and changing phone just to stay in fashion.
This particular trait is in accord with GfK’s data that 90 per cent of new
phones sold by official distributors are replacement phones, not phones sold
together with a new subscription (Bui, 2005). These underlying features
emphasize that Vietnamese mobile phone consumers tend to be more emotional
than rational:
. Hypothesis 5. Mobile phone consumers in Vietnam prefer an emotional
approach to a rational approach (Emotional vs. Rational).

In addition, to get more insight and understanding on how consumers from
different groups respond to specific advertising appeals, our study will also
analyse whether there are any differences in the preference of consumers from
multiple groups such as age, gender, and price segment. The findings are of
interest to advertisers for the focused market segments.
Method
In order to test the hypotheses, this study adopted the consumer preference
approach rather than analysing the current practice. This approach has been
employed successfully by Zhang and Gelb (1996) and Tai (2004) in the USA,
China and Hong Kong. The quantitative approach has been used in which data was
collected through a questionnaire survey. The questionnaire was first developed in
English based on Pollay’s 42 advertising appeals (Pollay, 1983). Seven of the 42
appeals were eliminated because the appeals did not relate to any of the four
dimensions under study or because of the irrelevance of the appeals with the
mobile phone product. The appeals which were eliminated were traditional,
modern, technological, maturity, natural, humility and casual. To measure those
variables, a five-point rating scale was used to measure the extent to which the
respondent likes or dislikes each of the listed appeals. The questionnaire was
firstly designed in English, then translated into Vietnamese by one bilingual
translator and checked by another one. Mismatched points were discussed between
the two translators. The Vietnamese version was then revised accordingly. A pre-
test was conducted on 20 respondents to ensure no misunderstanding or confusion
occurred. After the pre-test showed satisfactory results, the main survey was
conducted using a convenience sampling method. The fieldwork was carried out in
Hanoi and HoChiMinh City (the two biggest cities in Vietnam) by five trained
interviewers during May-June 2005.
The measurement of various constructs is presented in Table 3, in which the
eight groups by Albers (1994) were again grouped into four pairs in
correspondence with the first four hypotheses being tested. To test hypothesis 5,
the measurement scales were developed based on the emotional/rational
categorizations by Albers-Miller and Stafford (1999). In Table 3, each appeal is
marked either (e) for emotional or (r) for rational.
Table 3. The measurement of scales
Culture dimensions Operationalization Appeals & Item type Hypotheses
Individualism Independence Distinctive (e), Freedom (e), Hypothesis 1. Mobile phone consumers
Independence (r). in Vietnam prefer Conformity
appeals to Independence appeals
(Collectivism vs. Individualism).
Collectivism Conformity Popular (e), Succour (e),
Family (e), Community (e),
Affiliation (e).
High Power Distance Power Ornamental (e), Dear (e), Hypothesis 2. Mobile phone consumers
Vain (e), Status (e), in Vietnam prefer Power
Health (r), Sex (e). appeals to Submission appeals

(High vs. Low Power
distance).
Mobile Phones Advertising in Vietnam

Low Power Distance Submission Cheap (r), Wisdom (r),
Moral (e), Nurture (e).
Masculine Achievement Effective (r), Durable (r), Hypothesis 3. Mobile phone consumers
Convenient (r), Self-respect (e), in Vietnam prefer Achievement
Productivity (r). appeals to Quality-of -Life
appeals (Masculinity vs. Femininity).
Feminine Quality-of-life Relax (e), Enjoy (e),
Frail (e), Modest (e),
Plain (e).
High Uncertainty Avoidance Risk-aversion Safety (r), Tamed (r), Hypothesis 4. Mobile phone consumers
Neat (r). in Vietnam prefer Risk – aversion appeals to Risk-prone
appeals (High vs. Low
Uncertainty Avoidance).
Low Uncertainty Avoidance Risk-prone Adventure (e), Untamed (e),
Magic (e), Youth (e).
29
Source: Albers (1994); Albers-Miller and Stafford (1999).
Data Analysis
The sample consisted of 308 mobile phone consumers, in which 60 per cent
(184 cases) were from HCM City and 40 per cent (124 cases) were from Hanoi.
Of the 308 respondents, 63 per cent were in the younger group (younger than
35 years old) and the other 37 per cent were in the older group (35 years old or
older); 50.3 per cent male and 49.7 per cent female; 40.6 per cent belonged to the
low-end segment (priced at less than US$150), 41.2 per cent belonged to the mid-
end segment (US$150 –300) and 18.2 per cent belonged to the high-end segment
(over US$300).
Scale Refinement
As described earlier, the development of those measurement scales was based on
previously developed research (Pollay, 1983; Albers, 1994; Albers-Miller &
Stafford, 1999;). Therefore, their content validities were assumed to be
satisfactory.
Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was used to assess (preliminarily) the
unidimensionality and convergent validity of each of the eight scales. Results
show that for each scale, only one factor was extracted. This, therefore, indicates
that each scale is unidimensional. Moreover, out of the total eight scales, four
were immediately accepted (namely, factor loading . 0.50) for a satisfactory
convergent validity, while the other four required some refinements (see
Appendix). The satisfactory scales are Submission (4 items), Quality of Life
(5 items), Risk-aversion (3 items) and Risk-prone (4 items). The scales required
some refinements (that is, eliminating low-loading items) are Independence,
Conformity, Power and Achievement. The eliminated items include Distinctive,
Popular, Health, Productivity and Self-respect.
After all scale validities had been first established, Cronbach Alpha was
estimated for each scale to assess the reliability (see Appendix). Results showed
that the alpha values for all scales range from 0.50 to 0.65, except the Risk-
aversion of which the alpha value was 0.39. The items included in this scale were
safety, tamed and neat. Despite this low alpha, all three items were kept to ensure
the content validity of the scale.
Test of Hypotheses for the Whole Sample

The test involves computing the score average of the remaining items in the
corresponding scale after refinement. Each score indicates the extent to which a
respondent likes or dislikes an appeal group reflecting a specific cultural
component. Then the comparison of the means between each pair was carried out
at a 95 per cent confidence interval in order to test for significant difference. The
means average of the eight appeals groups in the 1-to-5 scale and the means
comparison are described in Table IV.
The figures in Table 4 indicate that the achievement appeals have got the
highest score of preference by mobile phone consumers (mean ¼ 4.15) followed
by independence appeals (mean ¼ 3.91) and Risk aversion appeals
Table 4. Paired Sample Statistics
Paired
Std. differences Sig. Hypothesis
Mean Deviation of the mean (2-tailed) test
Pair 1 Independence 3.906 .706 .023 .600 Rejected
Conformity 3.883 .575
Pair 2 Power 3.844 .529 .104 .007 Supported
Submission 3.740 .589
Pair 3 Achievement 4.152 .607 .442 .000 Supported
Quality of Life 3.710 .571
Pair 4 Risk-Aversion 3.891 .614 .200 .000 Supported
Risk-Prone 3.691 .610

Pair 5 Emotional 3.811 .393 2.085 .000 Rejected
Rational 3.895 .423
(mean ¼ 3.89). The lowest score was Risk-prone appeals with a mean score of
only 3.69.
Firstly, as indicated in Table 4, there is no statistically significant difference in
the preference for conformity or independence. Therefore, H1 was not supported
by the data. In other words, the preference of Vietnamese mobile phone consumers
on advertising appeals does not relate to the cultural value of collectivism.
For the next three hypotheses (H2, H3 and H4), Vietnamese mobile phone
consumers address a special preference for advertising appeals related to power,
achievement and risk aversion. These features are the operationalization of the
culture dimensions that relate to high power distance, masculinity and high
uncertainty avoidance as reflections of the Vietnamese culture. These results
suggest that advertising appeals preferred by Vietnamese mobile phone
consumers reflect the culture values of Vietnam. Therefore, H2, H3 and H4 are
supported.
To test hypothesis 5, scores of preference on emotional appeals and rational
appeals were first computed by averaging their corresponding items. The
computed score for emotional appeals is 3.81 whereas that of rational appeals is
3.89. The score of rational appeals is significantly higher than that of emotional
appeals (sig. , 0.05). In other words, mobile phone consumers prefer the rational
approach to the emotional approach. Hypothesis 5 is, therefore, rejected.
Consumers’ Preference by Gender

To identify the differences between consumers in each subgroup (namely, gender,
age, price segments), the same technique was employed. The findings are
summarized in Table 5. Of the eight appeals groups, the Achievement appeals are
most favoured by both genders (mean value ¼ 4.10).
As for the first four hypotheses, three of them are supported by the data
collected from women while only two of them are supported by the data collected
from men. Female preference reflects the culture values of Vietnam in most of its
32
N. T. T. Khanh & L. N. Hau
Table 5. Consumers’ preference and the cultural reflection
Multiple-group
Gender Age Price segment
Culture dimension Ad. appeals Whole sample Male Female Younger Elder Low-end Mid-end High-end
Individualism Independence x x x x x x x x
Collectivism Conformity
p p p p
Power Distance high Power x x x x
Power Distance low Submission
p p p p p p p p
Masculine Achievement
Feminine Quality-of-life
p p p p p p
Uncertainty Avoidance high Risk aversion x x
Uncertainty Avoidance low Risk-prone
p p p p p
Rational/Emotional x x x
p
Note: ( ) ¼ statistically significant difference
p at 0.05 level; (x) ¼ not statistically significant at 0.05 level, meaning no difference is found.
For Rational/Emotional preference, ( ) indicates that rational appeals are preferred to emotional appeals.
components. Men are especially found to prefer a rational approach to an

emotional approach (namely, contrary to the hypothesized direction), while this
effect is not statistically significant on women. These findings may reflect the
distinction in the buying habits between men and women and confirms the
inherent difference between the two genders that men usually purchase as they
need the product whereas women purchase because they are attracted by the
product. In other words, a woman is more impulsive in her buying while a man
tends to search for information to make sure he really needs the product before
deciding to buy. As such, man tends to prefer the rational approach to the
emotional approach.
Consumers’ Preference by Age

Achievement appeals have obtained the highest score of preference by both
younger and elder groups (mean score ¼ 4.09 and 4.23, respectively). In
connection with the hypotheses, both groups prefer Achievement appeals to
Quality-of-life appeals. This preference reflects the masculinity of the groups.
However, the younger group tends to prefer Power appeals to Submission appeals
which are the reflection of high power distance, while the older group tends to
prefer Risk aversion appeals to Risk-prone appeals which are the reflection of
high uncertainty avoidance. These findings are consistent with the characterized
differences between the youth and the old. A cultural value of high power distance
is characterized as preferring a hierarchical relationship and a position of authority
and a cultural value of high uncertainty avoidance is characterized as preferring
job security and a formal structure (Berrel & Hoa, 1998; Quang et al., 1998;
Berrell 1999). Results also indicated that the older group prefers a Rational
approach to an Emotional approach while this effect is not statistically significant
for the younger group. This result, again, emphasizes the distinction between the
two groups. Older consumers are more careful in making buying decisions than
the younger ones.
Consumers’ Preference by Price Segment

Achievement appeals have been most favoured by consumers in all three
segments. The means score of preference for the low-end, the mid-end and the
high-end segments are 4.19, 4.12 and 4.10, respectively. Although all three
segments prefer Achievement appeals to Quality-of-life appeals, the results
empirically reveal that there are some differences in the preference of
consumers of the high-end segment from that of the low-end and mid-end
segments. Consumers from the low-end and the mid-end segments tend to
prefer the same appeals. They especially prefer Achievement appeals to
Quality-of-life appeals and Risk aversion appeals to risk-prone appeals. These
reflect the cultural values of masculinity and high uncertainty avoidance. On the
other hand, the high-end segment tends to prefer Power appeals to Submission
appeals and Achievement appeals to Quality-of-life appeals. Their preference
reflects high power distance and masculinity. A distinction can be made from
the above-mentioned findings that the high-end segment consumers are prone to
high power distance and the low-end and mid-end segments consumers are
prone to high uncertainty avoidance. These findings reflect the common sense
that the lower/middle class tends to prefer job security and formal structure
which are the characteristics of high uncertainty avoidance while the upper
class tends to prefer a hierarchical relationship and position of authority which
are the characteristics of high power distance (Quang et al., 1998; Berrell
et al., 1999).
Additionally, both low-end and mid-end segments significantly prefer a
Rational approach to an Emotional approach whereas this effect is not statistically
significant on the high-end segment. Again, this confirms the distinction between
the upper classes and the lower/middle classes that the lower/middle classes tend
to consider more carefully when buying things than the upper classes do.
Discussions
As a summary of the findings, the achievement appeals have received the highest
preference from Vietnamese mobile phone consumers. In addition, mobile phone
consumers in Vietnam prefer power appeals to submission appeals, achievement
appeals to quality-of-life appeals and risk aversion appeals to risk-prone appeals.
Only the preference for conformity over independence appeals is not statistically
significant. In particular, Vietnamese mobile phone consumers prefer rational
approach to emotional approach.
In terms of subgroup comparisons, of the eight appeal groups, the achievement
appeals are most favoured by all subgroups under analysis. Besides, almost all
subgroups tend to prefer Risk aversion appeals to Risk-prone appeals, except the
younger group and the high-end segment. Particularly, the hypothesized effect on
Power appeals versus Submission appeals is significantly different for women, the
younger group and the hi-end segment. The Rational approach is generally
preferred by Vietnamese consumers instead of the proposed emotional approach.
This effect is particularly significant for men, the older consumers and consumers
in the low-end and mid-end segments. In general, of the subgroups under analysis,
women are found to have a preference that reflects the culture values of Vietnam in
most of its components.
The test results show that three out of five hypotheses are supported and two are
rejected by the data-set in this particular study. H1 was not supported by the whole
sample data, as well as by different subgroups of gender, age and price segments.
That is, no empirical evidence in this study shows that mobile phone consumers in
Vietnam prefer conformity appeals to independence appeals. One possible
explanation for this unexpected result is based on the special traits of the majority
of Vietnamese mobile phone users. As mentioned previously, many of them use
mobile phones as fashion products rather than as a pure communication tool.
Many consumers buy expensive phones just to show off or to prove their worth.
These characteristics are more reflective to the independence/individualism rather
than conformity/collectivism.
The rejected H5 implies that most mobile phone consumers in Vietnam prefer
rational appeals to emotional appeals. This empirical result is associated with
westernized culture because Asian advertisements often contain less information
than do their western counterparts whereas in non-western cultures, advertising

often emphasizes status symbols, emotional appeals, indirect expression, less
information, and a tendency toward avoiding a comparative approach (Lin, 2001).
This result is also inconsistent with Zandpour et al.’s research (Zandpour, 1994).
This was an eight-country study which found that emotional strategies were used
more in countries with high power distance and/or collectivism. The rejection of
H5 in this particular case (namely, mobile phone products) might be explained by
the influence of the product life cycle. Accordingly, consumers may need more
information during the introduction stage which causes a rational approach to be
more preferable. Especially when the consumers are unaware of or know very
little about the innovation, they may require educating and convincing. Over time,
as the product moves along the life cycle toward later stages, product information
may be no longer needed and an emotional appeal may become more attractive
(Kotler et al., 2001).
Conclusion
Theoretical Implications
This work contributes to the relatively underresearched field of international
advertising where ‘only 122 research articles were published in the 1990-2002
period in major advertising, marketing, and international business journals,
suggesting an average of less than 10 articles published per year in these journals’
(Zou, 2005: 10). The findings of this study first, provide a case to support the
localism perspective and emphasize that understanding cultural differences is
critical for international advertisers. It suggests that the consumer preference of
advertising appeals could be a function of cultural dimensions, and as such that
there is possibly a predictive function of cultural dimensions and preferred appeals
in advertising. Second, it points out that if adopted wisely, both globalization and
localization can be effective under certain circumstances. As such, a more
practical strategy is to study the local consumers’ preferences in terms of
advertising appeals and then to standardize if the global advertising appeals are
matched with those preferences; and to localize if the global advertising appeals
are mismatched with local consumers’ preferences.
Managerial Implications
In particular for the mobile phone products in Vietnam, the results of this study
suggest several implications for international advertisers. Firstly, in this particular
case, the localization in advertising of mobile phones is more likely to be
successful. The most favoured appeals are the achievement appeals, followed by
independence, risk aversion, conformity and power appeals. The achievement
appeals can fit particularly well with various subgroups from gender, age and price
segments.
Secondly, there is still a ‘slot’ for those who would like to adopt a global
approach. Under certain conditions when mobile phone advertisers would like to
adopt a standardized approach, care should be taken to make sure the global
advertising appeals are falling in one of the advertising appeals that are favoured
by the mobile phone consumers. Again, the favoured advertising appeals, in a
priority order, are achievement appeals, independence appeals, risk aversion
appeals, conformity appeals and power appeals. However, adaptation is strongly
recommended if the global advertising appeals reflect submission appeals,
quality-of-life appeals or risk-prone appeals.
Thirdly, mobile phone consumers in Vietnam in general prefer a rational
approach to an emotional approach. It is recommended that as long as advertisers
stick to the strategy of using television commercials during the early stages of the
product life cycle, more information such as brand attributes, quality, value,
benefits or performance should be provided in these.
Limitations and Suggestions for Further Study

While this study provides international advertisers with primary information
about Vietnamese consumers’ preferences for advertising appeals as well as a base
for managerial decisions on adaptation versus standardization with regard to
television commercials, it is recognized that some shortcomings do exist. First, the
research was limited to television commercials and mobile phones. It would be
more interesting to find out whether the same effects exist for other advertising
media, especially print advertisements. Second, this study has not linked
consumers’ preferences for rational versus emotional to the product life cycle. It
is, therefore, suggested that future studies need to take the product life cycle into
consideration during the survey. Third, because of the exploratory nature of this
study, the researcher has set a rather low standard for the assessment of Cronbach
Alpha value, namely, alpha ¼ 0.5. Moreover, one of the scales (that is, risk
aversion) is below this threshold (alpha value ¼ 0.39). Future researchers should
elaborate more carefully in terms of item/scale development, especially the scale
for risk-aversion, so that the reliability of scales can be improved. Finally, it would
be also interesting to know if the framework and approach employed in this study
can be replicated with other product groups.
Notes
1
The interview with Nokia was conducted with Mr Nguyen Huu Nguyen, Marketing Manager, Nokia
Representative Office in HoChiMinh City. It took place over the telephone on 25 April 2005 at 9.30 a.m.
2
The interview with Samsung was conducted with Mr Nguyen Hong Chau, Sales and Marketing
Manager, Samsung Vina Electronics Co., Ltd. There were two interviews: one face-to-face interview at
the Samsung office in HoChiMinh City on 19 May 19 2005 at 3 p.m and the other over the telephone on
1 Aug 2005 at 2. 30 p.m.
3
High context culture (and the contrasting ‘low context culture’) are terms presented by anthropologist
Edward T. Hall. It refers to a culture’s tendency to cater towards in-groups. An in-group being a group
that has similar experiences and expectations, from which inferences are drawn. In a high context
culture, many things are left unsaid, letting the culture explain.
References
Albers, N. D. (1994). Relating Hofstede’s dimensions of culture to international variations in Print
advertisements: a comparison of appeals. A doctoral dissertation presented to the Faculty of the College of
Business Administration, University of Houston, May.
Albers-Miller, N. D. & Gelb, B. D. (1996) Business advertising appeals as a mirror of cultural dimensions: a
study of eleven countries, Journal of Advertising, 25(4), pp. 57 –70.
Albers-Miller, N. D. & Stafford, M. R. (1999) An international analysis of emotional and rational appeals in
services vs. goods advertising, Journal of Consumer Marketing, 16(1), pp. 42–57.
Al-Olayan, F. S. & Karande, K. (2000) A content analysis of magazine advertisements from the United States and
the Arab World, Journal of Advertising, 29(3), pp. 69– 83.
Belk, R. W., Bryce, W. J. & Pollay, R. W. (1985) Advertising themes and cultural values: a comparison of U.S.
and Japanese Advertising, in: K. C. Mun & T. C. Chan (Eds) Proceedings of the Inaugural Meeting of the
Southeast Region, Academy of International Business, pp. 11–20 (Hong Kong: Academy of International
Business).
Berrell, M. & Hoa, T. (1998) Cultural influences on management behavior of Vietnamese and Australian
managers, Economics and Development Review, No. 11–98, pp. 81–86.
Berrel, M., Wright, P. & Hoa, T. (1999) The influence of culture on managerial behavior, Journal of Management
Development, 18(7), pp. 578 –589.

Bui, M.H. (2005) Mobile phone market review 2003 and expectation 2004, 4th Annual Conference, unpublished
proceedings.
Caillat, Z. & Mueller, B. (1996) The influence of culture on American and British advertising, Journal of
Advertising Research, 36(3), pp. 79–88.
Cheng, H. & Schweitzer, J. C. (1996) Cultural values reflected in Chinese and U.S. Televisions Commercials,
Journal of Advertising Research, 36(3), pp. 27–45.
Cho, B., Kwon, U., Gentry, J. W., Jun, S. & Kropp, F. (1999) Cultural values reflected in theme and execution: a
comparative study of U.S. and Korean television commercials, Journal of Advertising, 28(4), pp. 59–74.
Dahl, S. (2005) Cross-cultural advertising research: what do we know about the influence of culture on
advertising? Middlesex University, Discussion Paper No. 28. Available at: http://ssrn.com/
abstract ¼ 658221.
Ha, L., (2005) International Advertising Research. Available at http://www.bgsu.edu/departments/tcom/faculty/
ha/publist.htm#asia (accessed 12 November 2005).
Haley, G. & Tan, C. (1999) East vs. west: strategic marketing management meets the Asian networks, Journal of
Business & Industrial Marketing, 14(2), pp. 91–101.
Hofstede, G. (1980) Culture’s Consequences: International Differences in Work-Related Values (Beverly Hills,
CA: Sage).
Hofstede, G. H. (1991) Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind (London: New York: McGraw-Hill).
Ji, M. F. & McNeal, J. U. (2001) How Chinese children’s commercials differ from those of the United States: a
content analysis, Journal of Advertising, 30,(3), pp. 79–92.
Jones, G. R. & George, J. M. (2003) Contemporary Management, 3rd ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill/Irwin).
Kotler, P. & Armstrong, G. (1994) Principles of Marketing, 6th ed. (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall).
Kotler, P., Armstrong, G., Saunders, J. & Wong, V. (2001) Principles of Marketing, 3rd European ed. (London:
Prentice-Hall).
Levitt, T. (1983) The globalization of markets, Harvard Business Review, July– August, pp. 113–122.
Lin, C. A. (2001) Cultural values reflected in Chinese and American television advertising, Journal of
Advertising, 30(4), pp. 83 –94.
Lowe, A. & Corkindale, D. (1998) Differences in cultural values and their effects on response to marketing
stimuli, European Journal of Marketing, 32(9/10), pp. 843–867.
Mai, Y. (2005) The tendency of brand localization, Saigon Businesspeople Magazine, 92(5), pp 21.
Maynard, M. & Taylor, C. R. (1999) Girlish images in Japanese vs. U.S. seventeen magazine ads, Journal of
Advertising, 28(1), pp. 38 –49.
Milner, L. M. & Collins, J. M. (2000) Sex-role portrayals and the gender of nations, Journal of Advertising, 29(1),
pp. 67–70.
Mooij, M. D. (1998) Global Marketing and Advertising: Understanding Cultural Paradoxes (Thousand Oaks,
CA, London and New Delhi: Sage).
Mueller, B. (1987) Reflections of culture: An Analysis of Japanese and American advertising appeals, Journal of
Advertising Research, 27(3), pp. 51–59.
Payne, N. (2004) Cross Cultural Advertising: How does culture impact advertising campaigns in foreign countries?
Available at http://www.buzzle.com/editorials/11-13-2004-61590.asp (accessed 3 November 2005).
Pollay, R. W. (1983) Measuring the cultural values manifest in advertising, in: J. H. Leigh & C. R.Jr, Martin (Eds)
Current Issues and Research in Advertising (Ann Arbor, MI: Graduate School of Business, Division of
Research, University of Michigan), pp. 72– 92.
Quang, T., Swierczek, F. & Chi, D. T. K. (1998) Effective leadership in joint ventures in Vietnam: a cross-cultural
perspective, Journal of Organizational Change Management, 11(4), pp. 357– 373.
Swierczek, F. & Hirsch, G. (1994) Joint ventures in Asia and Multicultural management, European Management
Journal, 12(8), pp. 197–209.
Tai, H. C. S. (2004) The relationship of cultural values and message strategies in service advertising, Marketing
Intelligence & Planning, 22(4), pp. 438– 454.
Wells, W., Burnett, J. & Moriarty, S. (1992) Advertising: Principles and Practice, 2nd ed. (Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice Hall).
Wiles, C. R., Wiles, J. A. & Tjernlund, A. (1996) The idiology of advertising: the United States and Sweden,
Journal of Advertising Research, 36(3), pp. 57–66.
Zandpour, F., Campos, V., Catalano, J., Chang, C., Young, D. C., Hoobyar, R., Jiang, S. F., Lin, M-C., Madrid, S.,
Scheideler, H. & Osborne, S. T. (1994) Global reach and local touch: achieving cultural fitness in TV
advertising, Journal of Advertising Research, 34(5), pp. 35–63.
Zhang, Y. & Gelb, B. D. (1996) Matching advertising appeals to culture: the influence of products’ use
conditions, Journal of Advertising, 25(3), pp. 29–47.
Zou, S. (2005) Contribute to international advertising research, Journal of Advertising, 34(1), pp. 99– 110.
Factor loading
Construct Items No. Original scale Refined scale

1. Independence
Distinctive 7 .432 eliminated
Freedom 23 .807 .824
Independence 26 .763 .824
Cronbach Alpha 0.53
2. Conformity
Popular 8 .243 eliminated
Affiliation 29 .644 .636
Succour 31 .715 .711
Family 32 .683 .703
Community 33 .605 .622
Cronbach Alpha 0.59
3. Power
Ornamental 4 .527 .536
Dear 6 .576 .627
Vain 24 .610 .604
Sex 25 .510 .538
Status 28 .629 .609
Health 34 .349 eliminated
Cronbach Alpha 0.51
4. Submission
Cheap 5 .512
Wisdom 9 .668
Moral 17 .697
Nurture 30 .647
Appendix. Continued
Factor loading
Construct Items No. Original scale Refined scale
Cronbach Alpha 0.50

5. Achievement
Effective 1 .629 .752
Durable 2 .735 .776
Convenience 3 .570 .594
Productivity 12 .464 eliminated
Self-respect 27 .445 eliminated

Cronbach Alpha 0.51
6. Quality of life
Relax 13 .656
Enjoy 14 .585
Modest 18 .664
Plain 19 .630
Frail 20 .697
Cronbach Alpha 0.65
7. Risk-aversion
Safety 10 .603
Tamed 16 .643
Neat 35 .767
Cronbach Alpha 0.39
8. Risk-prone
Magic 11 .625
Youth 15 .531
Adventure 21 .707
Untamed 22 .664
Cronbach Alpha 0.50

Preferred Appeals As A Replection of Culture - Mobile Phones Advertising in Vietnam - Hau N. Le, 2007

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Preferred Appeals As A Replection of Culture - Mobile Phones Advertising in Vietnam - Hau N. Le, 2007

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

This article was downloaded by: [Anadolu University]

On: 24 December 2014, At: 01:09

Asia Pacific Business Review

Preferred Appeals as a Reflection of Culture: Mobile

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13602380600652987

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

Preferred Appeals as a Reflection of

NGUYEN THI THUY KHANH* & LE NGUYEN HAU**

1360-2381 Print/1743-792X Online/07/010021-19 q 2007 Taylor & Francis

campaign defunct (Payne, 2004).

Literature Review and Hypotheses

Hofstede’s Model of Culture and Advertising Appeals

Table 1. Advertising appeals and culture dimensions

Femininity Quality of life: relax, enjoy, frail, natural, modest, plain

Source: Albers (1994)

A Brief Review of Previous Studies

transformational message strategies.

appeals preferred by Vietnamese consumers reflect the culture values of Vietnam.

. Hypothesis 4. Although the value on Uncertainty avoidance of

approach to a rational approach (Emotional vs. Rational).

Health (r), Sex (e). appeals to Submission appeals

Mobile Phones Advertising in Vietnam

Test of Hypotheses for the Whole Sample

Table 4. Paired Sample Statistics

Risk-Prone 3.691 .610

Consumers’ Preference by Gender

Gender Age Price segment

components. Men are especially found to prefer a rational approach to an

Consumers’ Preference by Age

Consumers’ Preference by Price Segment

than do their western counterparts whereas in non-western cultures, advertising

Limitations and Suggestions for Further Study

Development, 18(7), pp. 578 –589.

Construct Items No. Original scale Refined scale

Construct Items No. Original scale Refined scale

Cronbach Alpha 0.50

Self-respect 27 .445 eliminated

You might also like