Marine Pollution Bulletin 72 (2013) 289–301

Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect

Marine Pollution Bulletin

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/marpolbul

The growth of coral reef science in the Gulf: A historical perspective

John A. Burt ⇑
Biology, New York University – Abu Dhabi, PO Box 129188, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Keywords: Coral reef science has grown exponentially in recent decades in the Gulf. Analysis of literature from 1950
Persian Gulf to 2012 identified 270 publications on coral reefs in the Gulf, half of which were published in just the past
Arabian Gulf decade. This paper summarizes the growth and evolution of coral reef science in the Gulf by examining
Coral when, where and how research has been conducted on Gulf reefs, who conducted that research, and what
Reef
themes and taxa have dominated scientific interest. The results demonstrate that there has been signif-
Management
History
icant growth in our understanding of the valuable coral reefs of the Gulf, but also highlight the fact that
we are documenting an increasingly degraded ecosystem. Reef scientists must make a concerted effort to
improve dialogue with regional reef management and decision-makers if we are to stem the tide of
decline in coral reefs in the Gulf.
Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Background and Mahmoud, 2013; Hume et al., 2013), environmental biology

It has been nearly a half century since Kinsman (1964) pub-
lished an article in Nature that described the unique coral reefs
of the southern Gulf and drew attention to the severe environmen-
tal conditions in which these reefs exist. With temperatures that
vary from the low teens in winter to the mid-1930s just 6 months
later in the summer, reefs in the Gulf are not only exposed to the
largest range of temperatures known to be experienced by coral
reef fauna but also the highest maxima on earth (Coles, 2003). As
a result, over the past several decades there has been rapid growth
in scientific interest on reefs of the Persian Gulf. Dramatic eco-
nomic expansion since the 1950s has made the region much more
accessible than it previously was and has provided the funds to
support researchers both within and outside of the Gulf. There
has also been increasing scientific awareness of the unique envi-
ronmental setting of the Gulf and the role that extremes may play
in structuring reef communities, particularly from the perspective
of global climate change. As a result, in just a matter of decades the
region has gone from being one which was virtually unknown
within the reef literature to one discussed during a 2012 keynote
address at the world’s largest coral reef symposium (Van Oppen,
2012).
This special issue of Marine Pollution Bulletin originated from
discussions at the ‘Coral Reefs of the Gulf’ conference, held in
Abu Dhabi in 2012, which was attended by over 160 reef scientists
from 19 countries, including each of the Gulf nations. Manuscripts
include topics from molecular and microbial ecology (Al-Dahash
(Bauman et al., 2011, 2013; Coles and Riegl, 2013; Pratchett
et al., 2013), urban reef habitats (Burt et al., 2013a,b; Jones and
Nithyanandan, 2013), and reef degradation, conservation, and
management (Burt et al., 2013a,b; Gladstone et al., 2013; Van Lavi-
eren and Klaus, 2013), and incorporates data from various regional
nations. The diversity of topics covered and the international nat-
ure of the community involved in this research demonstrates the
intense scientific interest that has developed for Gulf reefs over
the past few decades.
This Editorial explores the historic growth of reef science in the
Gulf and puts it into the context of current opportunities and chal-
lenges facing regional reefs. Publications on Gulf reefs since the
1950s have been examined for geographic scope of authorship
and study location, the design of studies performed and the nature
of the data they employed, what was studied and why they were
studied, and what type of publication resulted from the research.
These analyses document the growth and evolution of coral reef re-
search in the Gulf over the past half century and bring us to the
current state of research in the Gulf. These results compliment
the analysis by Feary et al. (2013) which closes this special issue
by suggesting key directions for future reef research in the region.
A full description of the methods for locating and categorizing pub-
lications for this literature survey are provided in Appendix A.
2. The history of reef science in the Gulf
2.1. Overall growth in reef associated research

Since Kinsman’s (1964) first descriptions of regional reefs in the

⇑ Tel.: +971 50 221 9269. early 1960s there has been exponential growth in coral reef re-
E-mail addresses: John.Burt@nyu.edu, John.Burt.UAE@gmail.com search in the Gulf (Fig. 1). Including the articles in this issue, there

0025-326X/$ - see front matter Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2013.05.016
290
have been 270 reef related publications in the Gulf since 1950,
with nearly half of all of this research published in the past decade
(2003–2012: 49.8%). The most recent year for which full records
are available, 2012, also had the largest number of publications
for a single year in the history of regional coral reef research (27
publications, 10% of all records). Given the growing international
and regional interest in using the Gulf as a model ecosystem to
understand the biology of reef fauna in extreme environments
and the potential impacts of future climate change (Feary et al.,
2013), it is likely that research on regional reefs will continue to
expand in the coming years.
2.2. The geography of regional reef research
Although there has been rapid growth in regional reef science
overall, there has been considerable variability in the geographic
spread of research activity (Fig. 2a). Over a quarter of all research
ever published has focused on reefs in multiple Gulf nations
(Fig. 2a), reflecting both the large-scale, trans-boundary nature of
high-impact stressors that have affected regional reefs in recent
years (e.g. oil spills, bleaching, and algal bloom events), but also
the increasing recognition that the Gulf is a single interconnected
ecosystem which often needs to be viewed as a whole (Sale
et al., 2011; Sheppard et al., 2010). In terms of individual countries,
the United Arab Emirates (UAE) reefs have been the most heavily
studied in the Gulf. The extent of coral reefs likely plays part of a
role in the UAEs prevalence in the reef literature, as it has reef hab-
itat along much of its extensive coast that straddles both the Per-
sian/Arabian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman. However, the prevalence
of UAE-based studies in the literature also stems from the rela-
tively high involvement of international scientists in reef research
in the Emirates (Fig. 2b); over two-thirds of all publications were
written by first authors based at institutions outside of the Gulf re-
gion. While the UAE has the lowest proportion of publications
written by Gulf-based scientists (Fig. 2b), the Emirates’ situation
is not unique; more than half of all publications ever written on
Gulf reefs (56%) have been by authors based outside the region.
The majority of foreign scientists publishing on Gulf reefs have
come from Europe or North America (28% and 23% of all publica-
tions, respectively), and in particular from the United Kingdom
and the United States of America which together accounted for
41% of all Gulf reef publications.
The significant role played by international experts in the his-
tory of Gulf research has important implications. The majority of
Gulf nations are young and, while developing rapidly, have had rel-
atively limited capacity to respond to the large-scale events which
have impacted reefs in the past several decades (van Lavieren et al.,
2011). Much of the reef science published in the wake of the 1991
Gulf War oil spill, for example, was led by scientists working with
30
)
25
Punlications per year (
20
15
10
5 50
0 0
Current
1964
1966
1968
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1974
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1980
1982
1984
1986
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1990
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Issue
Fig. 1. Temporal trends in coral reef related publications in the Persian/Arabian Gulf.
J.A. Burt / Marine Pollution Bulletin 72 (2013) 289–301
large international organizations such as the United Nations Envi-
ronment Programme (UNEP), the International Union for the Con-
servation of Nature (IUCN), and the World Wide Fund for Nature
(WWF), although they did have strong collaborative participation
with regional government and non-governmental organizations,
such as the Regional Organization for the Protection of the Marine
Environment (ROPME) (Price and Robinson, 1993). However, this
heavy reliance on international expertise continues today, and
external scientists contributed 48% of the average annual publica-
tions in the decade from 2003 to 2012. Because individuals based
outside the region often do not have a vested interest in building
local capacity, this culture of hiring international scientists and
consultants for short-term research or advising does little to pro-
mote the development of knowledge and skills of Gulf nationals
themselves and has little potential to improve the long-term re-
search capacity within the region (Sale et al., 2011; Feary et al.,
2013). Given that few regional universities offer the advanced edu-
cational degrees necessary to promote effective and sustainable
marine science and management (van Lavieren et al., 2011), this
reliance on international expertise is unlikely to change without
significant improvement in the number and quality of programs
in the marine sciences within the Gulf.
It is interesting to note that Iran currently has the second high-
est number of coral reef publications of any Gulf nation (Fig. 2a),
and that virtually all of this research is by scientists based within
Iranian institutions (Fig. 2b). This is surprising given that up until
recently Iran was considered a country ‘‘where almost no reef
investigations are known in the scientific literature’’ (Sheppard,
2007). However, over 90% of the historical publications on Iranian
reefs (mainly by Iranian scientists) have occurred between 2003
and 2012, and over three-quarters of these in just the past 5 years.
This rapid growth in Iranian reef science has resulted from the
expansion of high-quality tertiary educational opportunities in
the nation (Molavi, 2008); Iranian scientific output increased 11
times faster than the global average from 1995 to 2009, making
it the fastest rate of growth of any country in the world, and two
of the fastest growing areas were in marine biology and environ-
mental science (Archambault, 2010). The Iranian experience dem-
onstrates that investment in education and research can provide
rapid returns in scientific output. Similar support for citizen-fo-
cused capacity building will be essential for improving monitoring,
management, and regulation of reefs elsewhere in the Gulf, partic-
ularly if the goal is to reduce reliance on foreign expertise.
2.3. Study design and data sources for Gulf reef research
As our knowledge of coral reefs in the Gulf has grown in the
past 50 years there has been a shift in the source of data being used
to generate publications. While most publications on Gulf reefs
300
Cumulative publications (
250
200
150
100
)
 J.A. Burt / Marine Pollution Bulletin 72 (2013) 289–301 291

(a) Region of first author clear. Narrative reviews which summarize and synthesize the find-
ings of recent research can be important for integrating
Africa Europe
information from a variety of diverse and disparate sources, often
Asia N. America providing a more accessible overview of major issues for managers
Australia Gulf and policy makers (Petticrew, 2001). However, there is no evidence
100 that the glut of literature reviewing reef science has had any im-
pact in stemming the decline of regional reefs, suggesting that
we are having little if any impact on decision-makers despite the
tremendous growth in our scientific knowledge of reef systems.
80 Improving this situation will require critical attention to improving
dialogue between scientists and managers rather than assuming
Percentage of publications

that one-way transmission of information from scientists to deci-

sion makers will improve regional reef conservation and
60
management.
Despite reviews being a relatively large component of the liter-
ature, field and laboratory based empirical studies do make up the
40 majority of reef science published in the Gulf (62% overall; Fig. 3a).
Although some empirical research has employed qualitative and
semi-quantitative techniques (21% each), most empirical studies
in the Gulf have used quantitative techniques for data collection
20 (58% of all publications) and the relative importance of quantita-
tive techniques has increased markedly in recent years (1993–
2002: 49%, 2003–2012: 68%, annual average; Fig. 3b). The increas-
ing use of quantitative techniques in recent years is likely to pro-
0 vide important data against which future monitoring data can be
compared, allowing trends in recovery or decline to be identified
(b) 90
objectively. Sadly, the limited availability of information from
much of the Gulf prior to the 1990s leads many of today’s young
80
reef scientists and managers to consider the current degraded state
of reefs as the baseline against which to make comparisons
70
(Sheppard et al., 2010), despite the fact historical comparisons in
several Gulf countries have documented the transition from dense
Number of publications

60 Acropora thickets that had once covered extensive areas in the Gulf
to widespread degraded rubble-reefs where Acropora now makes
50 up less than 1% of coral (Burt et al., 2011a, 2013a,b; Kinsman,
1964; Shinn, 1976). The increasing use of quantitative data in pub-
40 lications should help stem this ‘shifting baseline’ phenomenon.

30 2.4. The evolution of Gulf publication media

20 As reef science in the Gulf has evolved over the past few dec-
ades the vehicle for publication of research has also shifted. In
10 the early years published conference proceedings played a rela-
tively large role in disseminating information on regional reefs
0 (61992: 29% per year, on average; Fig. 4), with a large proportion
Bahrain
Iran
KSA

Oman

UAE
Various
Kuwait

Qatar

of these early conference proceeding publications occurring in the

wake of major events impacting regional reefs (the 1988 coastal
development workshop, the 1991 Gulf War oil spill, or the 1998
Location of study bleaching events: Abuzinada et al., 2000; ROPME, 1993; UNEP-
Fig. 2. Geographic location of (a) first authors’ institution and (b) study site for
ROPME, 1988). However, as regional science has matured the pub-
coral reef publications in the Gulf. lication of results in conference proceedings has declined in favor
of other formats (1993–2002: 11%, 2003–2012: 6% per year, on
average). The recent decline of conference proceeding publications
have historically been based on empirical data from field and lab- in the Gulf mirrors their decline in use in science as a whole,
oratory studies (62% overall), over a third of the reef literature to reflecting a general perception that proceedings are low quality
date were reviews of previously published work, and reviews have and poorly cited relative to other formats of publication (Gon-
become increasingly common over time (1983–1992: 19%, 1993– zález-Albo and Bordons, 2011).
2002: 32%, 2003–2012: 40% of publications per year on average; In contrast to conference proceedings, books or book chapters
Fig. 3a). The content of these reviews has evolved over time, gen- have become increasingly common over time (Fig. 4). Prior to
erally shifting from a focus on the environmental biology of the re- 1993 books or book chapters focused on reefs made up just 10%
gion (e.g. Price et al., 1993), to impacts of human activities on of Gulf reef publications, but this has doubled to 20% of annual
coastal systems (e.g. Sheppard et al., 2010), through to the man- publications from 1993 to 2012, on average. The increasing reli-
agement implications of coastal changes (e.g. Sale et al., 2011), ance on books reflects the rapidly growing state of knowledge of
reflecting changes in both the type and quantity of research avail- Gulf reefs (Fig. 1), with books being used to collate, summarize,
able, as well as the interests of stakeholders involved. Whether or and synthesize science for wider readership both within and out-
not the sheer quantity of reviews is appropriate, however, is un- side the Gulf region.
292 J.A. Burt / Marine Pollution Bulletin 72 (2013) 289–301

(a) 30
Theoretical

Publications per year

25 Review
20 Empirical

15

10

Current
1964
1966
1968
1970
1972
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1976
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1980
1982
1984
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Issue
(b) 100
Percent of empirical studies

90 Qualitative
80 Semiquantitative
70 Quantitative
60
50
40
30
20
10
0

Current
1964
1966
1968
1970
1972
1974
1976
1978
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1990
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1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
2008
2010
2012
Issue
Fig. 3. Breakdown of temporal trends in (a) sources of data and (b) types of data (for empirical studies only) used in coral reef publications in the Gulf.

Despite shifts in the relative importance of conference proceed-
ings versus books in historic reef research in the Gulf, by far the
majority of coral reef research has been published in peer-re-
viewed journals (59% of all publications), and the proportion of re-
search published in journals has remained stable through time
(Fig. 4; annual average 1983–1992: 60%, 1993–2002: 56%, 2003–
2012: 62%). Although the peer-reviewed journal has a 350 year his-
tory as the ‘gold standard’ for scientific publication (Priem, 2013),
much of the research that has been published in the peer-reviewed
literature is not accessible to decision-makers, since most is pub-
lished within journals that are not widely available outside of aca-
demic institutions and are wholly aimed towards other scientists.
While this is appropriate for technical works that are meant to
be communicated as such, the reliance on peer-reviewed literature
does have important implications for messages that are meant to
have a broader impact, and important science may remain un-
known or underappreciated by other stakeholders. This is particu-
larly true for reef conservation and management, an area that is
repeatedly being promoted as a high priority for attention (Feary
et al., 2013; Sale et al., 2011; Sheppard et al., 2010). Although some
reef research is being disseminated as reports to government or
non-governmental organizations, these reports are often consid-
ered as internal documents and are not generally widely available.
The result is that publicly accessible reports in the gray literature
make up less than a tenth of all publications on Gulf reef (Fig. 4).
Overall, these results suggest that public communication of science
must be improved in the coming years if we are to hope to enact
change in regional reef management and conservation practices.
2.5. Shifts in research foci
In terms of the topic of publications, historically descriptive bio-
logical surveys of reef flora and fauna have been the most common
theme overall (26% of all publications; Fig. 5a) and surveys continue
to be a common focus of regional reef research, outpacing most other
topics in both number and rate of growth in the past decade (Fig. 5b).
The predominance of biological survey results in the historic litera-
ture is not surprising given that little was known about regional
reefs up until only recently (Fig. 1), and much of the science involved
surveys that described reef habitats for biodiversity or impact

30 Thesis
Report
25
Publications per year

Conference proceedings
Book/book chapter
20
Journal article
15

10

0
Current
1964
1966
1968
1970
1972
1974
1976
1978
1980
1982
1984
1986
1988
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
2008
2010
2012
Issue

Fig. 4. Temporal trends in types of publications used to disseminate coral reef research in the Gulf.
 J.A. Burt / Marine Pollution Bulletin 72 (2013) 289–301 293

assessment purposes. The accelerating growth of surveys in the past
few years is somewhat surprising, but mainly represents increasing
documentation of previously understudied reefs in Iran, where over
half of the survey literature was published in the past decade. This is
a reflection of both the rapid growth of marine science in the Islamic
Republic (where nearly three-quarters of all reef studies ever pub-
lished have occurred in just the past 5 years) as well as the large geo-
graphic footprint that the Iranian coastline represents compared
with other Gulf countries. Recent books consolidating historic
taxonomic survey literature and reef descriptions have also contrib-
uted to some of the growth in the biological survey literature in
recent years (e.g. Claereboudt, 2006; Grandcourt, 2008a; Riegl
et al., 2012b). It is also important to note that the majority of marine
scientists working on Gulf reefs still consider surveys and monitor-
ing of reef communities to be a high priority, with reef surveys con-
sidered to be the fourth most important area for future research in
the Gulf out of 12 major research themes (Feary et al., 2013). The
continued interest in ‘descriptive’ science is a reflection of the fact
that Gulf reef communities have continued to change so rapidly
and dramatically as a result of local and regional impacts and be-
cause surveys are essential for identifying high priority areas for
management or conservation (Burt et al., 2011a, 2013a,b; Burt
et al., 2008; Sheppard et al., 2010).
After biological surveys, management/conservation, distur-
bance/recovery, and environmental biology each vie for position
as the second most common theme in the historic reef literature
(13% each; Fig. 5a), but the relative importance of each has
shifted over time as Gulf science has matured (Fig. 5b). Manage-
ment and conservation oriented reef research was first published
in the 1980s and has become increasingly common in recent years,
with publications more than doubling between 2007 and 2012;
they are now the second most common publication theme overall
(Fig. 5a and b). The growth in coral reef conservation and manage-
ment literature is not a surprise given the rapid and large-scale de-
cline in coral reefs that has occurred in the Gulf recently, and reef
management is now considered to be one of the highest priorities
for action by reef scientists in the coming years (Feary et al., 2013).
The related prevalence of disturbance/recovery themed publica-
tions reflects this decline as well (Fig. 5a and b). Disturbance/
recovery themed publications showed dramatic growth in the
early 2000s in the wake of the region-wide mass bleaching events
in the late 1990s (Fig. 5b). The continued growth in subsequent
years primarily came from studies of long-term shifts in reef com-
munity structure (Burt et al., 2011a, 2013a,b; Burt et al., 2008) or
novel stressors that have impacted reefs in more recent years
(e.g. red tides: Bauman et al., 2010; Foster et al., 2011).
Environmental biology related studies have consistently been
among the top three themes published throughout the past half
century (Fig. 5b), demonstrating a sustained historical interest in
understanding how the extreme environment of the region affects
the structure and dynamics of reef biota. Interestingly, however,
very few Gulf reef scientists consider the influence of the environ-
ment on biota to be their primary research area, and it is seen to be
a relatively low priority area for future research despite the fact
that it was the second most important topic for generating re-
search questions (Feary et al., 2013).
Impact assessment studies made up a tenth of all publications
overall (Fig. 5a), but this was mainly due to a spate of publications
during the mid-1990s following the first Gulf War, when numerous
international and regional organizations (e.g. UNEP, IUCN, ROPME)
committed large collaborative teams of scientists to assess the im-
pacts of war-driven oil spills on reefs (Price and Robinson, 1993);
there has been relatively limited growth in impact assessment
since (Fig. 5b).
Publications on the remaining themes each make up a small
proportion of the total literature, but have generally shown rapid

(a) Publication theme (% of total)

Other
Molecular biology/physiology
Ecology/interactions Biological survey
Man-made structures

Impact assessment/pollution
Management/conservation

Disturbance/recovery
Environmental biology

(b) Cumulative publications by theme

80 Biological survey
Management/conservation
Cumulative publications

Environmental biology
60 Disturbance/recovery
Impact assessment/pollution
Man-made structures
40
Ecology/interaction
Molecular biology/physiology
20 Other

0
Current
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Issue

Fig. 5. (a) Summary of percent contribution of publications in various themes of total historic publications. (b) Cumulative publications in various themes through time.
294
growth in the past decade (Fig. 5b). Studies of man-made struc-
tures in the Gulf have shown rapid growth since 2005, reflecting
the scale and ubiquity of coastal development in the Gulf as well
as the increasing recognition that much of this infrastructure can
act as large scale unplanned artificial reef habitat (Burt et al.,
2009a, 2013, 2011b, 2009b, 2010; Feary et al., 2011). Recent stud-
ies have increased our understanding of patterns and processes
operating in both lagoonal and offshore urbanized habitats (Burt
et al., 2013a,b; Jones and Nithyanandan, 2013), and it is likely that
there will be continued interest in understanding how these artifi-
cial habitats compare to natural reefs as urbanization continues
along the Gulf’s coastlines.
Purely ecological reef-related studies were relatively uncom-
mon in the overall reef literature (6% of total; Fig. 5a) and have
shown only periodic pulses of growth (Fig. 5b). This is surprising,
given that the majority of reef scientists consider ‘biological and
ecological processes structuring reef communities’ to be their pri-
mary research area (Feary et al., 2013). However, the likely reason
for this is that while many reef scientists would label their broader
area of study as ‘ecology’, their research has often fallen into one of
the other sub-categories previously discussed (e.g. environmental
implications for reef biota, impacts of disturbance and the subse-
quent recovery). Purely ecological studies (demographics, interac-
tions, etc.) do, however, remain relatively uncommon relative to
other categories. Whether or not these studies become more com-
mon as reef science continues to mature is debatable. The develop-
ment of more detailed knowledge of the biological processes
structuring populations and communities is a logical extension of
the knowledge base we have developed in examining how reefs re-
spond to human and environmental stress. However, most reef sci-
entists working in the Gulf consider biological and ecological
processes structuring reefs to be of low priority (Feary et al.,
2013), suggesting that it may remain relatively understudied in
the immediate future.
Molecular biology/physiology studies have made up the small-
est proportion of total publications (Fig. 5a), but are likely to be-
come increasingly common in the near future. Field ecologists
have now gained considerable knowledge of the patterns of com-
munity variation with regional environmental conditions (e.g. Bau-
man et al., 2011, 2013; Burt et al., 2011c; Feary et al., 2010, 2012),
but such studies do nothing to explain how corals, fish, and other
reef fauna in the Gulf are able to cope with temperatures or salin-
ities that would be lethal to their counterparts in most other re-
gions. It will only be with the growth in use of molecular,
physiological, and related tools that we are to be able to explore
the mechanisms facilitating survivorship and to tease out whether
these result from adaptation or acclimation. Preliminary molecular
work is already showing very surprising and interesting results, as
140
Cumulative publications
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Current
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1966
1968
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Issue
Fig. 6. Cumulative publications by primary taxa/topic of study through time.
J.A. Burt / Marine Pollution Bulletin 72 (2013) 289–301
exemplified by the results of Hume et al. (2013) that show that
most coral species in the southern basin of the Gulf are dominated
by the ‘generalist’ Clade C3 zooxanthellae rather than the thermo-
tolerant Clade D1 that would be widely expected. Given the rapid
growth in the suite of tools available to ecology, it is likely that we
will see continued expansion of molecular and physiological stud-
ies in the coming years.
2.6. Changes in what is being studied
The coral reef literature in the Gulf has consistently been dom-
inated by research on corals, which altogether accounted for nearly
half of all Gulf reef publications since the 1960s (48% overall;
Fig. 6). The primacy of corals through the decades has been due
to continued international interest in the ability of corals in the
Gulf to tolerate extreme temperatures and salinities (e.g. Kinsman,
1964; Riegl and Purkis, 2012b; Sheppard et al., 1992), as well as re-
gional concern over the loss and degradation of coral communities
as a result of anthropogenic activities and region-wide bleaching
events (Sheppard et al., 2010; Vogt, 1995; Vousden and Price,
1985). Increasingly there is also an interest in examining the mech-
anisms used by the coral host and its symbiotic zooxanthellae to
tolerate thermal extremes (e.g. D’Angelo et al., 2012; Hartle-Mou-
giou et al., 2011; Hume et al., 2013; Mostafavi et al., 2007), and this
will likely maintain coral’s dominance into the future of Gulf reef
literature.
Studies of multiple taxa were the second most common topic of
study and accounted for a fifth of historic reef publications (21%
overall; Fig. 6). The majority of these were review-type publica-
tions which summarized results from multiple studies and across
various taxa (e.g. Price et al., 1993; Sheppard et al., 2010), although
a number were quantitative empirical studies of multiple taxa in
the same publication (e.g. corals and fish, Burt et al., 2009b; McC-
ain et al., 1984). After corals, coral reef fish were the second most
common taxonomic unit of study on reefs of the Gulf (Fig. 6), with
the vast majority of studies documenting the implications of envi-
ronmental extremes on reef fish community structure (e.g. Burt
et al., 2011c; Feary et al., 2010; Smith and Saleh, 1987) or how arti-
ficial structures serve as habitats for reef fish (e.g. Azhdari et al.,
2012; Burt et al., 2013a,b; Downing et al., 1985). Reef fish and reef
ecosystems made comparable contributions to the historic reef lit-
erature in the Gulf overall (10% each), but have shown different
growth trajectories (Fig. 6). While there has been slow and steady
growth in reef fish publications since the 1970s, the vast majority
of studies focusing on reef ecosystems have been published in just
the past decade (Fig. 6). The rapid rise in ecosystem focused studies
reflects an increasing use of remote sensing for coral reef monitor-
ing in the Gulf (e.g. Purkis, 2005; Riegl et al., 2002) as well as the
Coral
Fish
Non-coral invertebrates
Algae
Multiple taxa
Ecosystem
Physical environment
 J.A. Burt / Marine Pollution Bulletin 72 (2013) 289–301
rise of more holistic ecosystem management articles in recent
years (e.g. Al-Cibahy et al., 2012). Publications on non-coral inver-
tebrates on reefs account for 6.5% of all records (Fig. 6), with many
of these focused on the sea urchins Diadema setosum and Echinom-
etra matthai. Remaining taxa/topics were uncommon and together
made up less than 4% of Gulf reef publications (Fig. 6).
3. The future of reef science in the Gulf
The results of these analyses document the incredible growth of
knowledge of Gulf coral reefs in the past few decades. We have
learned a tremendous amount about the unique and important
coral reef systems in the Gulf, and it is likely that we will have con-
tinued expansion of regional and international attention on these
reefs in the coming years.
However, the larger question is whether we represent a collec-
tive equivalent of Nero, dancing around with our figurative fiddle
while Rome burns around us. Over the past two decades, while sci-
entists have been actively scouring reefs and publishing data, the
Gulf’s reefs have gone into precipitous decline. Over 70% of regio-
nal reefs are now considered effectively lost (Wilkinson, 2008),
and the prognosis for the future of Gulf reefs is bleak.
We have been gaining incredible insights into how reef commu-
nities are structured and how they function in this extreme envi-
ronment, and we have been increasingly using this information
to infer how climate change is likely to affect coral reefs in other
regions. This is certainly invaluable information, and there is much
yet to be learned. However, with the trajectory of reef decline as
sharp as it has been there are likely to be few ecologically mean-
ingful reefs left to study in the not too distant future.
It is clear that scientists recognize this. In this issue Feary et al.
(2013) showed that the impacts of anthropogenic activities and
reef restoration/management were considered to be the highest
priority areas for future coral reef research among Gulf reef scien-
tists. Recent many-author publications have also echoed this re-
frain, calling for critical strengthening of conservation and
management in the region (Sale et al., 2011; Sheppard et al., 2010).
So, we have documented the decline of reefs and we recognize
that it is an issue; what’s next?
In the immediate future, it is critical that regional science starts
to drive (and be driven by) reef management and marine policy.
This has been something discussed at length in the literature as
of late (Sale et al., 2011; Sheppard et al., 2010; van Lavieren
et al., 2011), but has yet to make any meaningful impact. The fact
that much of the science is being orchestrated by non-nationals,
whether resident in the Gulf or otherwise, is likely the most impor-
tant limiting factor, as is the insufficient communication of reef sci-
ence to regionally active non-governmental organizations who are
more well connected to the decision-making framework, particu-
larly at the trans-national level (e.g. ROPME, UNEP). While the for-
mer issue is something that will take years to improve, the latter is
something we can seek to improve now. Of particular merit would
be the strong promotion of establishing a large-scale international
network of marine protected areas as a first step towards reef con-
servation. As a conservation and management approach MPAs are
already of interest to regional decision-makers (Van Lavieren and
Klaus, 2013), suggesting that this would be a reasonably soft sell
for scientists interested in opening dialogue with other stakehold-
ers. And although MPAs shouldn’t be considered a panacea for reef
degradation, and there is room for debate on how best to design
and later regulate a network, the precautionary principle suggests
that we should take action preserve the limited reef habitat that
we do have remaining. Science can then be used to justify or opti-
mize MPA network design after the fact. By integrating science
with management, such collaboration with regional stakeholders
295
would provide opportunity to raise the profile of science in deci-
sion-making in the region and potentially affect greater change
down the road.
Without immediate and substantial efforts to better integrate
science into decision-making in the Gulf, it is likely that we will
witness the ecological collapse of these once extensive systems
in the very near future.
4. Historical references
This manuscript summarizes historical coral reef research in the
Persian/Arabian Gulf from 1950–2012. The following publications
were included in the analyses, in addition to those already cited
in text. Please see Appendix A for further details. References in-
cluded in these analyses: Abuzinada et al. (2008), Ahmed et al.
(1998), Al Hassan (1994), Al Kendi (2008), Al-Ansi (1999, 2010),
Al-Ansi et al. (2002), AlCibahy et al. (2008, 2009), Al-Hashmi
et al. (2012), Al-Jufaili et al. (1999), Alkhuzai et al. (2009), Al-Ku-
wari (2006), Al-Madani et al. (1988), Alsaffar and Lone (2000),
Anderson and Dyrssen (1994), Andréfouët et al. (2003), Aspinall
et al. (2003), Azhdari (2003), Azhdari and Azhdari (2008), Baker
et al. (2004 , 2008), Barber (2006), Bartholomew and Shine
(2008), Basson et al. (1977), Benzoni et al. (2006), Bishop (2003),
Böer (2001), Bu-Olayan et al. (2005), Burchard (1979), Burt
(2009), Carpenter (1997), Claereboudt and Al-Rashdi (2011), Coles
(1988, 1992, 1994, 1996, 1997), Coles and Brown (2003), Coles and
Fadlallah (1991), Coles and Jokiel (1992), Coles and Seapy (1998),
Coles and Tarr (1990), De Clerck and Coppejans (1996), DeVantier
and Pilcher (2000), Downing (1985, 1988), Downing and El-Zahr
(1987), Downing and Roberts (1993), Eghtesadi-Araghi (2011),
Eghtesadi-Araghi and Maghsoudloo (2003), El Khatib et al.
(2012), Elbaz (1992), Emara et al. (1985), Erftemeijer et al.
(2004), EWS-WWF (2006, 2008), Fadlallah (1996), Fadlallah et al.
(1993, 1995), Fatemi and Shokri (2001), Febbo et al. (2012), Foster
et al. (2008, 2012), George (1996, 2012), George and John (1998,
1999, 2000a, 2000b, 2000c), George and John (2000c), George
and John (2002), Ghorashi et al. (2008), Gill and Chikhi (1991), Gis-
chler et al. (2005), Glynn (1993), Gon (1993), Grandcourt (2006,
2008b), Grandcourt (2012), Hamza and Munawar (2009), Harrison
et al. (1997), Hodgson and Carpenter (1995), Hopkins (2007), IFRO
(2005), Jami et al. (2010), John (2012), John and George (1998,
1999a,b), John and George (2003), John and George (2004), Jones
(1982), Jones et al. (1978), Jones et al. (2002), Kavousi and Rezai
(2011), Kavousi et al. (2011), Khan et al. (2002), Khorasani
(1976), Kilbane et al. (2009), Kleypas et al. (1999), Korrûbel and
Riegl (1998), Krupp and Abuzinada (2008), Krupp and Al-Marri
(1996), Krupp and Jones (1993), Krupp and Khushaim (1996), Laf-
foley and Langley (2010), LeGore et al. (1983), Madani et al. (2012),
Maghsoudlou et al. (2008), McEwan (2008), Mendonça et al.
(2010), Mohammed and Al-Ssadh (1996), Moradi (2004), Moradi
et al. (2010), Nadim et al. (2008), Naser (2011), Nouri et al.
(2008), Pak and Farajzadeh (2007), Parvaneh (1979), Peebles
(1993), Pilcher et al. (2000), Pilcher et al. (2003), Pillai (1969), Price
(1981, 1982a, 1982b, 1983, 1990, 1993, 1998, 2002), Price and
Coles (1992), Price and Izsak (2004), Price et al. (1985), Purkis
and Riegl (2005, 2012), Purkis et al. (2005, 2006, 2010, 2011), Rah-
mani and Rahimian (2010), Rahmani et al. (2011), Rasser and Riegl
(2002), Readman et al. (1996), Rezai and Savari (2004), Rezai et al.
(2004, 2010), Richards (2008), Richlen et al. (2010), Richmond
(1996), Riegl (1998, 1999, 2001, 2002a, 2002b, 2003), Riegl
(2007), Riegl and Purkis (2005), Riegl and Purkis (2009), Riegl
and Purkis (2010), Riegl and Purkis (2012), Riegl et al. (2001), Riegl
et al. (2006), Riegl et al. (2011), Riegl et al. (2012), Riegl et al. (2012,
2012b), Roberts et al. (1993), Rosen (1971), Rutz (2012),
Sadatipour et al. (2009), Sadiq et al. (1995, 1996), Salm (1993),
296 J.A. Burt / Marine Pollution Bulletin 72 (2013) 289–301
Samimi-Namin and Ofwegen (2009), Samimi-Namin and Riegl
(2012), Samimi-Namin and Van Ofwegen (2009), Samimi-Namin
and van Ofwegen (2012), Samimi-Namin et al. (2009, 2010), Schils
and Wilson (2006), Seyfabadi et al. (2011), Shahhosseiny et al.
(2011), Sheppard (1987, 1988, 2001, 2003, 2004), Sheppard and
Loughland (2002), Sheppard and Rayner (2002), Sheppard and
Salm (1988), Sheppard and Sheppard (1991), Sheppard and Wells
(1988), Sheppard et al. (2000, 2012), Shojae et al. (2011a,b, 2012,
2000a,b), Shokri et al. (2005), Siddeek et al. (1999), Smith et al.
(1987), Sotka and Thacker (2005), Spalding et al. (2001), Stac-
howitsch et al. (2002), Stoddard (1972), Tupper et al. (2013), Uddin
et al. (2012), UNEP (1985), Uwate and Shams (1999), Uwate et al.
(2000), Vajed Samiei et al. (2012), Valavi et al. (2009), Vogt
(1996), Vosoghi et al. (2009, 2010), Vousden (1988, 1995), Wilson
et al. (2002, 2006) and Zainal et al. (1993, 2012).
Acknowledgements
Funding support for the ‘Coral Reefs of the Gulf’ conference
which led to the development of this and most other manuscripts
in this issue was provided by the New York University Abu Dhabi
Institute. Their assistance is greatly appreciated. David Feary and
Andrew Bauman are also thanked for co-organizing the conference
with the author. Grace Vaughan (NYUAD) is gratefully acknowl-
edged for her assistance in acquiring and collating historical publi-
cations from the Gulf which served the basis for this manuscript.
Appendix A. Supplementary material
Supplementary data associated with this article can be found, in
the online version, at http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2013.
05.016.
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