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Ideas for Developing Critical Thinking at Primary School Level

Conference Paper · April 2014

DOI: 10.13140/2.1.4534.9921

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Abdur Rahman Asari

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 IDEAS FOR DEVELOPING CRITICAL THINKING
AT PRIMARY SCHOOL LEVEL
Abdur Rahman As’ari

Abstract: Teaching to develop critical thinking skills is very important

for preparing students to live in global era. There is a question whether
there is a room in the 2013 curriculum framework for teaching critical
thinking. Having analyzed the importance, the concept, and the
characteristics of 2013, it can be concluded that teaching critical
thinking in the 2013 curriculum can be done by various ideas: (1) keep
asking students to thinks reasons and implications, strengths and
weaknesses of any claim or argument, and (2) asking them to consider
alternative ideas, (3) use problem-based and/or project-based learning
in the fourth week of each theme, finally (4) modeling the critical
thinker behavior by the teacher.

Keywords: 2013 curriculum, arguments, claims, critical thinking,

problem-based learning, project-based learning.

In the global era, where information about everything is available very close to us,
through internet, As’ari (2014b) stated that easy access to internet has made the
information available in the internet is unstructured and unorganized. These
conditions require each individual to categorize and select it carefully. The mixture
of valid and reliable information with hoax demands each individual to critically
examine it.

Reflective, critical, and creative thinking abilities are required to do it. Critical
thinking ability is required to evaluate the quality of information. Creative thinking
ability is required to produce another and required information. Reflective thinking
ability is required to come up with a correct and appropriate decision.

Today, we are going to focus our discussion about critical thinking only. Therefore,
the author will start the discussion about the importance of critical thinking, the
concept of critical thinking, the characteristics of teaching and learning according to
2013 Curriculum, especially in the primary school level, the possibilities to develop
critical thinking at primary classroom, and several examples of activities to develop
critical thinking skills.

Paper presented at an International Seminar on Addressing Higher Order Thinking: Critical Thinking Issues in Primary
Education. Islamic University of Muhammadiyah Makasar, April 12—13, 2014 1
The Importance of Critical Thinking

Ownership of critical thinking skills is very important, whether for continuing study
at higher level, or in developing peaceful daily life. We need to be a critical thinker
for study at higher level. We need to be a critical thinker to ensure that we don’t
make wrong and misleading judgment in our community. Critical thinkers have so
many advantages that make the study in the higher level easier to accomplish and
living in a more peaceful situation in community. This is in-line with characteristics
of critical thinkers according to Ruggiero (2012), who identified critical thinkers as
being:

1. Honest with themselves. They acknowledge what they don’t know, recognizing
their limitations, and being watchful of their own errors,
2. Regard problems and controversial issues as exciting and challenging,
3. Strive for understanding, keep curiosity alive, remain patient with complexity,
and are ready to invest time to overcome confusion,
4. Base judgments on evidence rather than personal preferences, deferring
judgment whenever evidence is insufficient, and revise judgment when new
evidence reveals error,
5. Are interested in other people’s ideas and so are willing to read and listen
attentively, even when they tend to disagree with the other person,
6. Recognize that extreme views (whether conservative or liberal) are seldom
correct, so they avoid them, practice fair-mindedness, and seek a balanced view,
7. Practice restraint, controlling their feelings rather than being controlled by them,
and thinking before acting.

Ennis (2011) identified several abilities possessed by critical thinkers. These

abilities were classified into: (1) basic clarification, (2) inference, (3) advanced
clarification, (4) supposition and integration abilities, and (5) auxiliary abilities.

In the basic clarification, critical thinkers try to better understand to what is claimed
by others. It covers many abilities, including: identify conclusion, and assumptions,
premises, and logical structure and processes passed by to come up to the
conclusion. In the inference activity, the critical thinkers actively challenge the
claims and arguments by asking questions such as: why? What do you mean by?
What would be the example? What are the facts? Etc. In this stage, the critical
thinkers also judge the credibility of source used by the claimer. The critical thinker
see the expertise, reputation, objectiveness and other things related to the quality of
Paper presented at an International Seminar on Addressing Higher Order Thinking: Critical Thinking Issues in Primary
Education. Islamic University of Muhammadiyah Makasar, April 12—13, 2014 2
data provided to develop a claim or an argument. The critical thinkers also evaluate
the inferences made by the claimer using valid logical procedure and established
criteria. Finally, the critical thinker develop a supportive or an alternative point of
view, and using their knowledge about feeling involved in a discussion, presented
their point of view in an appropriate manner and in elegant rhetorical strategies.

Paul & Elder (2008) identified several 8 dimensions of universal intellectual

standards, namely: (1) clarity, (2) accuracy, (3) precision, (4) relevance, (5) depth,
(6) breadth, (7) logic, and (8) fairness. Critical thinkers are interested to see most of
all of these dimensions since many of human being uses their personal points of
view to present their ideas. Critical thinkers always request clear, accurate, precise,
relevance, logical, and fair information. The depth and breadth coverage of
information would be their second level consideration.

According to Paul & Elder (2008) critical thinkers always try to: (1) raise vital
questions and problems, and formulate them clearly precisely, (2) gather and assess
relevant information, (3) come up with a very well-reasoned conclusion, (4) open
minded to any ideas, and (5) communicate effectively.

So, becoming a critical thinker is very important. Every teacher and educator is
called to provide educational experiences which enable students to become critical
thinkers.

What is Critical Thinking?

Many experts have proposed definitions of critical thinking. Ennis (2011) suggested
that critical thinking is reasonable and reflective thinking focused on deciding what
to believe or do. This is similar to Ruggiero (2012) who suggested that the main
idea involved in critical thinking is evaluation. Ruggiero claimed that critical
thinking is a process by which we test claims and arguments and determine which
have merit and which do not. Therefore, to think critically means to evaluate the
correctness, the merit, and the validity of claims or arguments.

The Open University (2008) proposed that critical thinking skills entail: (1) actively
seeking all sides of an argument, (2) testing the soundness of the claims made, and
(3) testing the soundness of the evidence used to support the claims. A more
detailed proposition about critical thinking processes was suggested by Facione
(2011) and Cottrell (2005). Facione (2011) expressed that there are several cores of
critical thinking skills, namely: (1) interpretation, (2) analysis, (3) inference, (4)
Paper presented at an International Seminar on Addressing Higher Order Thinking: Critical Thinking Issues in Primary
Education. Islamic University of Muhammadiyah Makasar, April 12—13, 2014 3
evaluation, (5) explanation, and (6) self-regulation. Meanwhile, Cottrell (2005)
identified critical thinking is a complex process of deliberation which involves a
wide range of skills and attitudes, such as: (1) identifying other people’s positions,
arguments, and conclusions; (2) evaluating the evidence for alternative points of
view, (3) weighing up opposing arguments and evidence fairly; (4) being able to
read between the lines, seeing behind surfaces, and identifying false or unfair
assumptions; (5) recognizing techniques used to make certain positions more
appealing than others, and persuasive devices; (6) reflecting on issues in a
structured way, bringing logic and justifiable, based on good evidence and sensible
assumptions; (7) drawing conclusions about whether argument are valid and
justifiable, based on good evidence and sensible assumptions, (8) presenting a point
of view in a structured, clear, well-reasoned way that convinces others.

The above paragraphs express that critical thinking is a very complicated process
and comprises of several stages. Critical thinking is used to evaluate the merit and
correctness of any statements, claims, or arguments. Author identified there are at
least 7 stages involved in critical thinking.

Stage 1: Understanding other’ claims or arguments objectively.

Stage 2: Understanding the assumptions behind it.

Stage 3: Evaluating the validity relationships between claims and its assumptions.

Stage 4: Examining the appropriateness of the assumptions used for drawing

conclusion.

Stage 5: Deciding the validity of other claims or arguments,

Stage 6: Collecting evidences to support or to develop alternatives.

Stage 7: Presenting supports or alternatives that convince others elegantly.

Teaching Critical Thinking

Having discussed the importance of critical thinking and the definition of critical
thinking, let us now discuss about ways to teach students to become critical
thinkers.

Snyder & Snyder (2008) suggested that critical thinking is a learnable skill. They
suggested that critical skills should be developed, practiced, and continually
Paper presented at an International Seminar on Addressing Higher Order Thinking: Critical Thinking Issues in Primary
Education. Islamic University of Muhammadiyah Makasar, April 12—13, 2014 4
integrated into the curriculum. They also mentioned that developing critical
thinking required active learning situations. They also suggested that instruction
should focus on the application of content rather than the content itself.

However, Snyder & Snyder (2008) also stated that teaching critical thinking is not
an easy one. Simple engagement in learning is not necessarily helping students to
become critical thinkers. Based on several studies they reviewed, they consider the
use of Heuristic teaching methods in which students are encouraged to “learn,
discover, understand, or solve problem on [their] own, as by experimenting,
evaluating possible answers or solutions, or by trial and error” as one of an
alternative to teaching critical thinking. The use of problem-based learning is also
under their consideration. However, Snyder & Snyder (2008) also suggested that
students need a model (from their teacher) on how to think critically since students
typically don’t know how to do it. Students are not directly born as critical thinker,
and their previous experiences did not always request them to think critically.

In addition, Snyder & Snyder (2008) proposed the existence of four elements to
make the teaching critical thinking take place and successfully implemented. These
four elements are: (1) ill structured problems, (2) criteria for assessing thinking, (3)
student assessment of thinking, and (4) improvement of thinking.

Ill structured problem which do not have a definite right or wrong answers will
enable students to questioning others’ assumptions, information, and strategies
used to solve the problem. This will enable students to think critically. The existence
of criteria for assessing thinking will provide a chance for the students to observe,
experience, evaluate, judge, and reflect on their own thinking and also their
teammates. It will provide a framework for them to identify whether he/she and
their friends have applied a critical thinking or not. If this assessment is modeled
and encouraged in the teaching and learning activities, students will eventually
implement the critical thinking, and finally improve students thinking.

Brown & Kelley (1986) in a very old book entitled “Asking the right question: A guide
to think critically” proposed that type of questions will determine whether the
students will develop critical thinking or not. They provided several examples of,
according to them, right questions to promote critical thinking, namely: (1) why do
you think about this?, (2) why do you think that?, (3) what is your knowledge based
upon?, (4) what does it imply and presuppose?, (5) what explains it, connects to it,
leads from it?, (6) how are you viewing it, and (7) should it be viewed differently?.
Paper presented at an International Seminar on Addressing Higher Order Thinking: Critical Thinking Issues in Primary
Education. Islamic University of Muhammadiyah Makasar, April 12—13, 2014 5
They claimed that these types of questions require students to evaluate the clarity
and the accuracy of their thinking, including the depth and the breath of their
thinking.

Facione (2011) proposed what so called as IDEAS strategy to promote critical

thinking. The term IDEAS is an abbreviation of 5 steps: I = Identify the problem, set
priorities, D= Deepen understanding and gather relevant information, E =
Enumerate options and anticipate consequences, A = assess situation and make a
preliminary decision, and S = scrutinize the process and self-correct as needed. This
strategy is an improvement of previous strategy, called IDEALS (Facione, 2007)
which consists of: I = Identify the problem: what is the real question we are facing?,
D = Define the context: what are the facts that frame this problem?, E = Enumerate
the choices: what are the plausible options, A = Analyze options: what is the best
course of action?, L = List Reason Explicitly: why is this the best course of action, S =
Self Correct: Look at again …what did we miss?

All of those ideas need to be put into practical activities. Schneider (2002) suggested
several ideas, such as: (1) do not readily find solutions for the students, (2) always
seek opportunity for brainstorming, (3) compare and contrast everything and
anything, (4) categorize, (5) encourage creativity, (6) teach students to think
critically across the curriculum.

Whenever the students are facing with a problem (even a very simple one, for
example finding an empty chair to sit), rather than giving them a needed chair,
better for us to ask them to think on how to resolve the problem. Encourage
brainstorming to help students better realize the problem, and developing ideas to
find the solution. During the brainstorming activities, ask the students to compare
and contrast any emerged choices, categorize them, and encourage students to find
other alternatives creatively. The use of this strategy in every subject matter, enable
students to see the model and apply the critical thinking continuously and become a
good habit.

This is in line with the recommendations proposed by The Critical Thinking

Consortium (2013):

1. Help students feel safe to express opinions in class and at home,

2. Regularly ask students to express opinions (informally in individual and in small
group situations more than as part of whole class lessons),

Paper presented at an International Seminar on Addressing Higher Order Thinking: Critical Thinking Issues in Primary
Education. Islamic University of Muhammadiyah Makasar, April 12—13, 2014 6
3. Encourage students to offer a reason /explain their thinking, and
4. When appropriate, turn student request back to them (answer student question
with question – but what do you think? Do you think it would be better to do X or
Y?)

Expected Teaching and Learning at Primary School by Curriculum 2013

According to 2013 Curriculum (As’ari a., 2014; As’ari b, 2014), teaching and learning
at primary school level are characterized by the followings:

1. Students are positioned as active, not passive learner,

Teaching and learning in the curriculum 2013 is expected to be more student-
centered than teacher-centered. Students are not expected to have any
knowledge through lecturing models of teaching. Students are encouraged to
search, and explore knowledge by themselves.
2. Contents from several subjects are integrated using themes.
Contents from several subjects are tied together by themes. By studying the
themes for example occupation, students learn mathematics, social studies,
science, and other subjects. Students are not taught any subjects separately.
3. Students’ learning should follow a scientific approach (observing, questioning,
exploring, associating, and communicating)
Students’ learning is directed to use scientific approach. Students are encouraged
to observe, questioning, explore, associate, and communicate. They have to
observe phenomena accurately (based on the theme being used that day), raising
investigative questions which will lead to an exploration and investigation,
collecting and exploring additional information, using their thinking and
reasoning skills to come up with hypothesis/guess/conjecture, and sharing their
ideas to the class.
4. Developing creativity by encouraging teachers to use open-ended problems
Students are encouraged to be creative. They are given freedom to use their own
creativity to produce any ideas or products. The questions given to the students
are mostly open-ended which allow the students to give different correct
solutions. The students are also given a chance to present their product
according to their preferences.

Paper presented at an International Seminar on Addressing Higher Order Thinking: Critical Thinking Issues in Primary
Education. Islamic University of Muhammadiyah Makasar, April 12—13, 2014 7
5. Promoting the use of multiple learning resources,
Teacher is not considered as the only learning resource. Students may use other
resources to learn. They may use books, magazines, internets, environments,
newspaper, and other things as the source for learning.
6. Encouraging the development of more applicative rather than textual skills,
Knowledge developed through teaching and learning is expected to be more
applicative in nature. Students are not expected to memorize, and understand
the knowledge. Students have to know how the knowledge are implemented and
used in real life.

Possibility for Developing Critical Thinking

The characteristics of teaching and learning in 2013 curriculum above, gives us
insights that developing critical thinking is very possible. Snyder & Snyder (2008)
required the active learning as the prerequisite for developing critical thinking.
Since active learning is the first principle of teaching and learning in the 2013
curriculum, the development of critical thinking at primary school in the context of
2013 curriculum is very possible.

Snyder & Snyder (2008) also indicated the need to use ill structured problems to
develop critical thinking. In the 2013 curriculum, especially in the grade 4 and 5,
there is no definite students’ activity in fourth week of each theme. The primary
school teacher is, then, given a freedom to develop their own learning materials to
be learned by students. This week is intentionally aimed to give a chance to teacher
to implement problem-based learning and/or project-based learning model for their
students. Since ill structured problem is one of the characteristics of problems used
in problem-based learning, so 2013 curriculum actually has enabled the possibility
of teaching and learning to develop critical thinking.

The use of scientific approach also provides a chance for the teacher to develop
critical thinking. According to As’ari (2014 a, and 2014b), there are five activities
that students should do, i.e. observing, questioning, exploring, associating, and
communicating. Observing activity will lead students to have a perception that
everything should be based on objective data collected from careful observation.
Questioning activity will make the students tend to curious. They will not accept any
information that is unclear and not convincing.

Paper presented at an International Seminar on Addressing Higher Order Thinking: Critical Thinking Issues in Primary
Education. Islamic University of Muhammadiyah Makasar, April 12—13, 2014 8
Exploring activity is developed based on the need of additional data to make a more
powerful conclusion. Students who are customized to find additional information to
draw a conclusion, will believe that appropriate and adequate supporting data is
required to make a good conclusion. Once they doubt the truth of a claim,
automatically they will explore additional information.

Associating activity is another important experience for developing critical thinking.

Deciding whether a claim or an argument is valid and justifiable is based on
students’ ability to associate ideas.

Finally, communication activity provides a room for students to listen and express
ideas in a fair-minded form. They will learn to listen carefully, examine their
assumptions, assess their logic, identify the weaknesses, and propose a better
alternative politely.

So, the use of scientific approach is a very important tool to develop critical thinking
skills.

Open-ended problems that have multiple solutions enable students to see that the
truth is not singular. The truth is closely linked to its basic assumptions, and how
the information are processed. The truth is multidimensional. Therefore, if we train
our students using open-ended problems, they will be customized to think from
several perspectives. They will be easier to develop alternatives which in turn will
help them to become more critical thinker.

The use of multiple learning resources also enables students to have much more
insights. This will provide a chance for students to be more critical in examine the
correctness of a claim. They have a lot of resources that can be used to reason and
identify the correctness of the claims.

Finally, knowledge acquired in the 2013 curriculum context is not merely in textual
mode. It is already related to the context. So, students’ understanding about
something is much more meaningful. They know the concept and in addition they
also know its application.

Paper presented at an International Seminar on Addressing Higher Order Thinking: Critical Thinking Issues in Primary
Education. Islamic University of Muhammadiyah Makasar, April 12—13, 2014 9
Examples of Developing Critical Thinking Skills

Finally, here are examples on how to develop critical thinking skills.

Example 1. Project

Consider the sub theme ‘Energi bagi Kehidupan’ which is given in the fourth week
of theme ‘Selalu Berhemat Energi’. Authors of the book give us freedom to develop
teaching and learning activities they want. Authors just give a very broad guidance
that the students may observe wind, water, and electricity.

To promote critical thinking actually teachers can ask the students to work of the
following project:

The principal of elementary school A wants reduce the amount of money the school
spent each month to 50% off the regular spending. The students may consider the use
of water, winds, and electricity to reduce it. Develop a poster from which the principal
of school A may determine which alternative he/she may choose to fulfill his/her
expectation.

To solve this problem, students should work on what aspects of the school that
require school spending money. They should also recognize the function of each tool
in the school and its relation to the use of wind, water, and electricity.

Once they complete all of these activities, they have to plan the possible solutions,
compare the cost of each solution, and deciding the best solution.

However, since there will be some assumptions related to the solution, students’
choice for solution will be vary and this will enable students to compare and
contrast their solutions (assumptions, processes, and results). The development of
critical thinking is possible through this activity.

Example 2. Problem

Consider the sub theme ‘Makhluk Hidup di Sekitar Kita’ which is given in the
fourth week of theme ‘Peduli terhadap Mahkluk Hidup’.

To promote critical thinking, teacher may raise a following problem:

Paper presented at an International Seminar on Addressing Higher Order Thinking: Critical Thinking Issues in Primary
Education. Islamic University of Muhammadiyah Makasar, April 12—13, 2014 10
School B wants to buy animals and flowers to make the school look more beautiful. The
budget for the school to buy animals and flowers is limited to Rp5.000.000,- What
should we buy and where should we set them in the school yard?

The answer of one student (group of students) to this problem could be different
from the other students. This will enable students to discuss and review their points
of view, examine their solutions and develop their critical thinking.

Following the suggestions from the Critical Thinking Consortium (2013), once the
students completed the task, teacher may ask challenge question such as: “would a
peg … make a better school yard?”. To answer this question, students should do
several things required to develop critical thinking.

Final Remarks
Two examples given above are examples the use of project-based learning and
problem-based learning to promote critical thinking skills. However, it does not
mean that teachers should use problem-based learning and project-based learning.

Teachers can use daily situations to promote their students’ critical thinking skills.
Preventing from easily give the solutions, and ask the students to think of the
problem, teachers will develop critical thinking skills. Probing and asking students
to provide justification during observing, questioning, exploring, and associating
activities, enabling students to develop their critical thinking skills. So, in addition to
the use of project-based learning and problem-based learning, teachers should also
very sensitive to any situations in their daily teaching and learning activities.
Teachers should utilize any chance to help their students develop critical thinking
skills.

What about the teaching of mathematics?

In the context of 2013 curriculum, mathematics is not taught separately. Thematic

Integrative approach that is applied for teaching at primary school has made the
learning mathematics is developed through an agreed theme. However, there is
something in mathematics that has a potential to support the development of
critical thinking. Among 8 dimensions of universal intellectual standards (Paul &
Elder, 2008), 5 of them, namely: clarity, accuracy, precision, logic, and fairness are
some of important focus in mathematics learning. Therefore, when a primary school
teacher realizes that they are now teaching mathematics (although this is done in a

Paper presented at an International Seminar on Addressing Higher Order Thinking: Critical Thinking Issues in Primary
Education. Islamic University of Muhammadiyah Makasar, April 12—13, 2014 11
hidden thematic approach), the teacher should promptly use this opportunity to
teach critical thinking. The teacher should consistently encourage students to seek
clarity, accuracy, precision,, logic, and fairness every claims and statements.

Finally, it seems that the teacher must model the application of critical thinking
skills in their daily life. Keep asking the students to provide reasons on why the
decide to do or not to do something, what will happen with that decisions, what
other alternatives that may existence, what strengths and weaknesses of their
claims, will promote students to develop critical thinking skills. This will help
students to see the pattern they can follow. So, there are many ways for the teachers
to develop critical thinking skills.

References
As’ari, A.R. 2014a. Mewujudkan Pendekatan Saintifik dalam Kelas Matematika.
Makalah disampaikan dalam Seminar Jurusan Matematika, Fakultas Matematika
dan Ilmu Pengetahuan Alam, Universitas Negeri Malang, Rabu 5 Maret 2014.

As’ari, A.R. 2014b. Perspektif Global tentang Kurikulum 2013 Secara Umum dan
Pembelajaran Matematika secara Khusus. Makalah disampaikan dalam Seminar
Internasonal ‘Curiculum 2013 in Global Perspective’, Universitas Muhammadiyah
Ponorogo, Sabtu 8 Maret 2014.

Brown, M.N. & Kelley, S.M. 1986. Asking the right questions: A guide to critical
thinking, 7th ed. Englewood, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Cottrell, S. 2005. Critical Thinking Skills: Developing Effective Analysis and Argument.
New York, NY: Palgrave MacMillan.

Ennis, R.H. 2011. The Nature of Critical Thinking: An Outline of Critical Thinking
Dispositions and Abilities. The revised version of a presentation at the Sixth
International Conference on Thinking at MIT, Cambridge, MA, July 1994.

Facione, P.F. 2007. Ctitical Thinking: What it is and Why it Counts.

Facione, P.F. 2011. Ctitical Thinking: What it is and Why it Counts. Millbrae, CA:
Measured Reasons and The California Academic Press.

Paul, R. & Elder, L. 2008. The Miniature Guide to Critical Thinking: Concepts and
Tools. Fifth Edition. Dillon Beach, CA: Foundation for Critical Thinking Press.

Paper presented at an International Seminar on Addressing Higher Order Thinking: Critical Thinking Issues in Primary
Education. Islamic University of Muhammadiyah Makasar, April 12—13, 2014 12
 Ruggiero, V.P. 2012. Beyond Feelings: A Guide to Critical Thinking. New York, NY:
McGraw-Hill Companies Inc.

Schneider, V., 2002. Critical Thinking in the Elementary Classroom: Problems and
Solutions. EPS UPDATE Electronic Newsletter

Snyder, L.G. & Snyder, M.J. 2008. Teaching Critical Thinking and Problem Solving
Skills. The Delta Pi Epsilon Journal, Vol. 1 No 2. pp. 90 – 99.

The Critical Thinking Consortium. 2013. Critical Thinking With Early Primary Students: Tips
for Teachers. TC2: California

The Open University, 2008.Thinking Critically. Walton Hall, Milton Keynes MK7 6AA.

Paper presented at an International Seminar on Addressing Higher Order Thinking: Critical Thinking Issues in Primary
Education. Islamic University of Muhammadiyah Makasar, April 12—13, 2014 13

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