Chemical Engineering Science, Vol. 53, No. 21, pp.

3711—3718, 1998
( 1998 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved
Printed in Great Britain
PII: S0009–2509(98)00150–X 0009—2509/98/$—See front matter

Almond oil extraction by supercritical CO2 :

experiments and modelling
C. Marrone,* M. Poletto,* E. Reverchon*- and A. Stassi‡
* Dipartimento di Ingegneria Chimica e Alimentare, Universita% di Salerno, Via Ponte Don
Melillo, I-84084 Fisciano (SA), Italy;
‡
Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie Alimentari e Microbiologiche, Universita% di Milano,
Via Celoria 2, I-20133 Milano, Italy

(Received 5 January 1998; in revised form 5 May 1998; accepted 18 May 1998)

Abstract—Oil from crushed almond seeds was extracted with supercritical CO at 350 bar and
2
40°C. Almond particles of three different mean sizes were tested. Extraction of the smaller
particles was performed at two different solvent flow rates. Oil yields were obtained with
asymptotic values at large extraction times that were close to the values obtained by Soxhlet
extraction. An extraction model based on the physical evidence of broken and intact oil cells
has been developed. It accounts for a former equilibrium regime and a latter finite mass transfer
regime. All model parameters except the internal mass transfer coefficient and the oil concentra-
tion at solvent saturation have been determined with independent experiments. The model
solution was calculated with a finite difference numerical technique. A good agreement was
obtained between model curves and the experimental data for an internal mass transfer
coefficient of 7.5]10~9m/s. Solute concentration profiles within the extractor were evaluated
with our model. ( 1998 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Supercritical extraction; almond oil; modelling.

INTRODUCTION
Supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) of seed oil has
been studied by several authors from the processing
point of view and a wide range of seed species has
been explored: wheat germ (Taniguki et al., 1985), oats
(Fors and Ericksson, 1990), corn germ (Christianson
et al., 1984), cottonseed (Stahl et al., 1980; List et al.,
1984; Snyder et al., 1994), soybean (Stahl et al., 1980;
Friedrich and List, 1982; Eggers et al., 1985; Eisen-
bach, 1988; Snyder et al., 1994), evening primrose
(Favati et al., 1991), jojoba (Stahl et al., 1984), rice
bran (Ramsay et al., 1991), rapeseed (Eggers et al.,
1985), peanut (Snyder et al., 1994) and grape seed
(Molero Gomez et al., 1994).
Despite the large number of species processed, only
some models of the SFE of seeds have been published.
They all agree with the fact that at least the first part
of the SFE process is governed by the solubility equi-
librium between the oil and the fluid phase. The equi-
librium relationship has been generally supposed to
be linear since more precise information is not avail-
able in such complex systems.
From the mathematical point of view, all models
proposed are based on differential mass balance integ-
-
Corresponding author. Tel.: #[39]089964116; fax:
#[39]089964057; e-mail: reverch@dica.unisa.it.
3711
ration. Bulley et al. (1984), Lee et al. (1986) and Fattori
et al. (1988) assumed that mass transfer resistance was
only in the solvent phase. King and Catchpole (1993)
used a shrinking core model to describe a variable
external resistance where the solute balance on the
solid phase determines the thickness of the mass
transfer layer in the external part of the particles.
Sovová (1994), Sovová et al. (1994a,b) and Goto et al.
(1993) considered the solid phase as divided between
broken and intact cells. Two separate mass balances
were written and different mass transfer resistances in
the solvent phase for the broken cells and in the solid
phase for the intact ones were considered. This model
was based on sound physical hypotheses and repre-
sented the first attempt to introduce a description of
the structure of the vegetable matter by a mathemat-
ical model. However, it required several parameters
related to physical properties of the seed which were
difficult to be measured or calculated and, therefore,
were adjusted by the authors to fit the experimental
results.
Many authors simplified the system of partial dif-
ferential equation coming from mass balances in or-
der to obtain an analytical solution. However, Poletto
and Reverchon (1996) proved that this procedure can
significantly modify the model results. The only ex-
ception are represented by Bulley et al. (1984) and
Perrut et al. (1997) that obtained a numerical solution
3712 C. Marrone et al.
of their model using the method of characteristics.
Therefore, further research activity is required to
develop models that can adequately describe and,
possibly, simulate the supercritical extraction of
vegetable oils.
The aim of this study was to perform the supercriti-
cal fluid extraction of almond oil at different mean
particle sizes and solvent flow rates. Then, the model of
broken and intact cells, firstly proposed by Sovová
(1994), was applied giving a particular emphasis on the
specification of macroscopic and microscopic charac-
teristics of almond particles, to obtain a closer repres-
entation of the vegetable matter and a significant re-
duction of the adjustable parameters within the model.
EXPERIMENTAL SET UP
A scheme of the extraction unit used in this work is
given in Fig. 1. The extractor had an internal volume
0.2 dm3 (length ¸"160 mm internal diameter
ID"40 mm). A fine aluminum net and a shallow bed
of rashig rings were placed at the extractor bottom as
a solvent distributor. Carbon dioxide, withdrawn
from the cylinder, was pressurized and driven by
a diaphragm compressor (Nova Swiss). The pressure
in the extractor was regulated by a Tescom valve
placed between the compressor and the extractor. The
solvent was brought to the extraction temperature by
using a heating coil immersed in a thermostated
liquid. Thermostated liquid jackets were also used to
control the extractor and the separators temperatures.
A micrometering valve between the extractor and the
separator regulated the solvent flow rate. The separ-
ator had an internal volume of 0.15 dm3 and was
provided with a tangential inlet to enhance the liquid
droplet separation. The pressure inside the separator
is controlled by a back pressure regulating valve
placed between the separator and the atmospheric
section of the plant. In this latter section a rotameter
and a dry test meter were, respectively, used to
measure the instantaneous flow rate and the quantity
of CO delivered. All lines were electrically heated and
2
insulated to keep the fluid temperature constant along
the different sections. Pressures were measured by
manometers and temperatures by thermocouples.
The extraction bed was made of crushed fresh
almond seeds. Different degrees of crushing were used
to change the average particle size. Particle size distri-
butions were measured with a Malvern laser analyser
for the two finer powders. Sieving was used for the
coarser sample. The solvent used was CO at 99.95%
2
purity. The extraction pressure and temperature were
350 bar and 40°C in all tests performed. Different
solvent flow rates were also used. A summary of the
tested experimental conditions is given in Table 1.
MATHEMATICAL MODELLING
General hypotheses
Some hypotheses were made to model the extrac-
tion system. Most of them are related to the solute
and the solvent involved in the extraction and are
common to most of SFE models.
(a) Several components are generally involved in
the extraction of a seed oil. However, we sup-
posed that their behavior with respect to the
mass transfer phenomena is similar and can be
described by a single pseudo-component which
will be called the ‘solute’.
(b) The commonly accepted continuous description
of the extraction bed has been assumed with the
implicit hypothesis that the relevant concentra-
tion gradients in the fluid phase develop at
larger scales than the particle size. The solute
concentration in the fluid phase depends only

Fig. 1. Experimental apparatus. AS, rotameters; B, CO cylinder; CdF, flow rate counter; DC, diaphragm
2
compressor; E, extractor; H1, solvent heater still; M1, M2 and M3, pressure indicators; P, pressure
dampener; RD, rupture disk; S1, separator; T1, pressure regulator; T2, back pressure regulator; Tc1 and
Tc2, thermocouples; VM, micrometering valve.
 Almond oil extraction by supercritical CO 3713
2
Table 1. Experimental conditions

Test condition A B C D

Particle mean Sauter diameter (mm) 0.30 0.70 0.30 1.9

Solvent flow rate (kg h~1) 0.72 1.43 1.43 1.43
Bed mass (kg) 0.160 0.072 0.084 0.072
Bed height (mm) 160 115 115 115
Symbol h v j m

Fig. 2. Scanning electron microscope image of the surface of an almond particle extracted with supercritical
CO . Broken vegetable structures (cells) that contained the free oil phase are clearly evident. Inside the cells
2
it is possible to see the presence of non-extractable starch grains. The mean cell diameter can be estimated
around 20 km.

on time, t, and on the axial coordinate, z. Its
value, C, is given in terms of solid mass per unit
of solvent mass.
(c) The solvent flow rate, with interstitial velocity u,
is uniformly distributed in every section of the
extractor. The pressure drop can be neglected as
well as temperature gradients within the col-
umn. The axial dispersion is negligible.
(d) The volume fraction of the fluid, e, is not affec-
ted by the reduction of the solid mass during the
extraction; in other words, the solids do not
change their volume during the extraction pro-
cess.
Further hypotheses regard the natural matrix. Such
kind of hypotheses are not easily exchangeable among
different kinds of matrix and have to be particularized
to the specific microscopic structure. Figure 2 shows
the surface of an extracted almond particle as it ap-
pears by scanning electron microscopy. It shows that
the surface is formed by a structure of broken cavities
that we call cells and contained the almond oil which
is freely available for extraction. These cells should
not be confused with the biological cells, which are
much smaller and, in fact, are the basis of the veg-
etable tissue forming the walls of the cavities that, in
the whole seed, contain oil and starch. Both the oil
and the starch constitute a nutrient reservoir for the
germinating plant. The starch is not extractable and,
in fact, in Fig. 2 it is possible to see its agglomerates
still present after the extraction. The mean size of
a cell, d , was measured from Fig. 2 and is approxim-
c
ately equal to 20 km. The biological cells on the cavity
walls can be observed in higher enlargement photos.
In the inner portion of the particles, the remaining
part of the oil is contained inside the closed cells.
Given the different oil condition on the particle sur-
face and inside, it is likely that the mass transfer
resistance to extract the oil available at the surface is
considerably lower than that to extract the remaining
part of it. This feature is summarized in the following
and schematically shown in Fig. 3.
3714 C. Marrone et al.
by the structure of the insoluble solids which is not
affected by the extraction. This can be verified by
Fig. 2, which shows that in the extracted particles the
structure of the insoluble solids is intact, and by the
experimental evidence that the extracted particles are
lighter but not apparently smaller than the untreated
ones. Furthermore, the small value of / (order of
f
magnitude of d /d ) makes negligible the effective e in-
c p
crease due to the reduction of the volume occupied by
the free oil phase during the extraction. Taking into
account that the inclusion of such e and / changes in
a mathematical model would make its resolution con-
Fig. 3. Scheme of the partition of the bed volume in the siderably harder we avoided it, according to hypothe-
different phases used in the model and the corresponding sis (d).
contributions to the solute balance during the extraction.
Mass balance equations
According to the above hypotheses the mass bal-
ance on the solute in the extractor is
(e) The solute in the solid is present in two separate
phases. LC LC
eo #eo u
(f ) One phase includes the oil contained inside the f Lt f Lz
particles (the ‘tied oil’ phase). Besides this oil, it
includes also the non-soluble solids contained LP Lt
#(1!e)/ o #(1!e)/ q "0 (2)
in the seeds and it fills a fraction / of the overall t s Lt f o Lt
t
volume occupied by the seed particles. This
where o is the fluid density, which is supposed to be
value, according to the above hypothesis (d), f
not affected by the presence of the solute, o is the bulk
does not change with time during the extraction s
density of the non-soluble solid that is the mass of
process and, therefore, / is considered to be
t non-soluble solids in the seeds per unit of particle
constant (see further discussion on this point
volume. This is somewhat an unusual definition but,
below). The average tied oil concentration, in
as it will be shown in the following, the corresponding
terms of mass of oil per mass unit of non-soluble
o value can be easily evaluated from experimental
solid, is called P. s
data.
(g) The other phase is made of the oil freely avail-
The mass balance on the phase of the tied oil alone
able on the almond particle surface. The oil
is
concentration here is always the same and, ac-
cording to our hypotheses, it is equal to the LP Ja
pure almond oil density q . "! t (3)
o Lt (1!e)/
(h) The initial fraction of the seed volume filled by t
the free oil is / "1!/ . The volume of each where a is the specific surface of the seed particles and
f t
particle occupied by the free oil is approxim- J is the mass transfer rate between the tied oil phase
t
ately equal to the particle surface multiplied by and the fluid phase. The mass balance on the free oil
the cell radius. Using a spherical geometry and phase alone is
averaging over all the particle sizes, it is:
Lt Ja
q "! f (4)
nd2(d /2) d o Lt (1!e)/
/ " p c "3 c (1) f
f nd3/6 d
p p where J is the mass transfer rate between the free oil
f
where d is the Sauter mean particle diameter phase and the fluid phase per surface unit. In both eqs
p
and d is the cell diameter. (3) and (4) the mass transfer area was put equal to a.
c
(i) The fraction of the seed occupied by the free oil This is not strictly true because fluxes J and J might
f t
during the extraction is t/ where, of course, affect different area partitions of the particle surface.
f
we always have t)1. Our model however is unable to make a distinction
between the effect of a mass transfer area change and
During the extraction both the free oil and the tied oil that of a mass flux J change. For this reason, the mass
move from the seed particles to the solvent. This oil transfer area was conventionally put to a.
flux might reduce the volume occupied by the seed The system of equations (2)—(4) has a unique solu-
particles and probably change the / and / values. In tion when the initial conditions (i.c.) on C, P and
f t t and the boundary condition (b.c.) on C are given:
particular, during the extraction, the volume occupied
by the free oil phase in the untreated particles is filled i.c. CD "C ; PD "P ; tD "t (5)
by the solvent. Nevertheless, we think that the ex- t/0 0 t/0 0 t/0 0
ternal volume of the particle is essentially determined b.c. CD "0. (6)
z/0
 Almond oil extraction by supercritical CO 3715
2
Moreover, we supposed that the loading time of the
solvent into the extractor was long enough to enable
the fluid to reach the equilibrium concentration be-
fore the extraction started. Therefore, we have
q "KtC (7)
o 0
where Kt is the equilibrium constant between the
solvent and the free oil phase. This means that before
the extraction starts a part of the solute present in the
seed saturates the fluid. In the absence of specific
experimental findings, we also suppose that there is no
solute flux between the two solid phases before the
extraction starts or, in other words, that the presence
of the solvent does not change the oil equilibrium
between the two solute phases in the solid. This condi-
tion, together with eq. (7), implies that the tied oil
phase and the solvent are at equilibrium at the extrac-
Fig. 4. Extraction yield as a function of time. Symbols are
tion start:
experimental data; continuous lines are model results. Refer
P "K C (8)
0 p 0 to Table 1 for symbol legend.
where K is the equilibrium constant between these
p
two phases. A consequence of this hypothesis is that
the free oil alone participates to the initial saturation
of the solvent. In turn this implies that the free oil
phase is large enough for it to outlast the oil transfer
to the solvent. This condition is necessary for eq. (7) to
apply. Therefore, the volume fraction t of the free oil
0
at the extraction start is different from unity that,
according to our definition, is the value of t in the
untreated seed. The free oil mass balance relates
C and t to the loading of the untreated solid:
0 0
q (1!e)/ "q (1!e)/ t #C o e. (9)
o f o f 0 0 f
Both eqs (7) and (8) are valid under the hypothesis
of a linear equilibrium relationships between the sol-
vent and any of the oil phases. This provides a simpli-
fied view of the system. However, we do not have
more accurate information regarding its thermodyn-
amic behavior to confidently assume more complex
equilibrium models. The main scope here is to cor- Fig. 5. Extraction yield as a function of the dimensionless
rectly express the oil mass balance at the extraction mass of solvent used, m /m . Symbols are experimental data;
s 0
start and during its course. The value of K and continuous lines are model results. Refer to Table 1 for
p symbol legend.
Kt will be calculated in the section ‘Model evaluation
and discussion’ below.
extraction. For extraction yields larger than 10%, the
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS extraction curves show a considerable spreading sug-
Results of the extraction tests are reported in Fig. 4 gesting the onset of a mass transfer resistance. Indeed,
where the yield, ½, i.e. the quantity of oil extracted in Fig. 4, an increase of particle size increases the
divided by the weight of the initial charge, is given as extraction time as it is expected from a corresponding
a function of the extraction time, t. The same results decrease of the mass transfer rate. For very large
are shown in Fig. 5 where the yield is given as a func- extraction times, we can identify an asymptotic value
tion of the specific mass of solvent used, i.e. the ratio of the yield of about 50% by weight. This value is in
between the mass of CO used and the mass of seeds good agreement with the oil content measured with
2
charged in the extractor. From the comparison be- a Soxhlet extraction with hexane, which gave about
tween the experimental data in Figs 4 and 5 it is 54% of weight fraction of oil and was assumed to be
possible to observe that, during the first part of the the maximum possible yield, ½ .
=
extraction process, the mass of oil extracted is inde-
pendent of both the particle size and the solvent flow
rate. These considerations strongly suggest that the MODEL EVALUATION AND DISCUSSION
thermodynamic equilibrium of the oil between the The initial part of the extraction curves with
solid and the fluid phases applies to this part of the their linear shape strongly suggests that equilibrium
3716 C. Marrone et al.
conditions are attained in the fluid coming out of the the mass transfer between the phases, because part of
extractor. Therefore, the initial oil concentration in it might be hindered by contacts with neighboring
the fluid C can be evaluated from the experimental particles. For this reason, in experimental conditions
0
plot of the oil yield as a function of the mass of solvent B, C and D, the specific particle surface was deter-
flowed, m : mined as if the particles were freely moving:
s

N
m m m m
C " e" e 0"½ s (10) 6(1!e)
0 m m m m a" . (13)
s 0 s 0 d
p
where m is the mass of the extracted oil and m the
e 0 For experimental condition A, a was evaluated with
initial mass of seed. The last term of eq. (10) is the
the hypothesis of a linear variation with bed voidage
slope of the linear section of the yield curve.
starting from the loosely packed configuration:
Our model also requires the values of the bulk
density of the non-soluble solids o and the initial 6(1!e ) e
s a" o . (14)
values P and t . The value of o can be obtained d e
0 0 s p o
from the particle effective density o with a mass
e In particular, e "0.47 was used which is the voidage
balance on the non-soluble solids: o
of the bed C, and was made of particles of the same
o / "o (1!½ ). (11)
s t e = size as those used in experimental condition A, but
Using the value of C obtained from eq. (10), eq. (9) was not compressed.
0
can be used to evaluate t . A mass balance on the free A definite transition between the initial equilibrium
0 regime and the final mass transfer regime can also be
oil allows to evaluate P :
0 observed from experimental results as a sharp vari-
q / #P o / "o ½ . (12)
o f 0 s t e = ation of the slope of the experimental extraction
The equilibrium constants K and K can be cal- curve. It has already been observed in the SFE of
p t flower concretes that this phenomenon is due to the
culated according to eqs (7) and (8).
The set of parameters obtained for the extraction exit of a solute concentration shock from the extractor
experiments is reported in Table 2. The strong de- outlet (Reverchon and Poletto, 1996). In that case, the
pendence of / on the particle diameter is due to eq. concentration shock wave inside the extractor was
f modelled applying a solute mass balance. In this work
(1) used to evaluate it. The consequence is that
/ ("1!/ ) also depends on the particle diameter as mass transfer rates J and J of oil from the two solid
t f
t f
well as the values of o calculated according to phases were modelled with constant mass transfer
s coefficients, k and k , respectively:
eq. (11). A justification for this dependency is to be t f
found in the increasingly larger weight on o of the
s J "k (P!K C)
t t p
(15)
mass of the external insoluble surface of the particle and
for the smaller particles. Changing the particle dia-
J "k (q !K C). (16)
meter, the relative mass of the tied oil with respect to f f o t
the insoluble solids also changes. Therefore, the oil In eq. (15), for the tied phase, the driving force is
mass balance on the particles, eq. (12), produces differ- expressed with the use of the average oil concentra-
ent values of P . tion, P, to account for the reduction of the mass
0
From Table 2 it appears that the bed voidage for transfer rate at longer extraction times. The initial
the test conditions A is much lower than in the other equilibrium regime was simulated by applying very
cases. This is due to a different loading procedure of large values to the mass transfer rates k . The correct-
f
the extractor that, in this case, determined a higher ness of this procedure was verified by changing these
compression of the powders with respect to the nat- values and observing that this was not significant to
urally loose configuration in experimental conditions the model results regarding the extraction kinetic. The
B, C and D. For such compressed conditions, it is set of differential equations (2)—(6) was solved using a
likely that not all the particle surface is available for finite difference method. An implicit Crank—Nicholson

Table 2. Parameter evaluation

Test condition A B C D

e 0.25 0.47 0.47 0.47

a (m~1) 5590 4506 10516 1660
/ 0.07 0.08 0.2 0.03
f
o (kg m~3) 536 540 620 510
s
C 0.011 0.011 0.011 0.011
0
t 0.94 0.87 0.94 0.65
0
P 1.04 1.02 0.81 1.11
0
K 94.7 93.5 73.1 101.7
p
K (kg m~3) 81.8 81.8 81.8 81.8
t
 Almond oil extraction by supercritical CO
numerical cell was adopted. The proved numerical
stability of this cell made the implemented algorithm
fairly robust. For some experimental conditions these
model results were compared with those obtained by
applying the method of characteristics coupled with
the simulation of the propagation of a concentration
shock as it was developed by Reverchon and Poletto
(1986). No significant differences were detected.
Since all the values of the other parameters were
evaluated directly from experimental measurements,
the model developed has only one adjustable para-
meter: the mass transfer coefficient for the tied oil k .
t
Furthermore, since the prevailing resistance for the
extraction of the oil from the inner cell of the particle
depends on the internal mass transfer, k should be
t
independent of the solvent flow rate. Therefore, we
looked for a k value that, independently of the par-
t
ticle diameter, provided the best fit between the model
curves and the experimental data. The best value
obtained is k "7.5]10~9 m s~1. Model curves ob-
t solvent exits the extractor saturated with the almond
tained using this value of k are shown by continuous
t oil. This period is longer for smaller particles. This
lines in Figs 4 and 5. The general agreement between
model and experimental data appears fairly good for
all the conditions tested. In spite of some simplifying
hypotheses adopted, the model is able to evaluate
satisfactorily the transition from equilibrium to mass
transfer regime and to carefully follow data points
during the mass transfer regime. An important source
of error that might justify the difference between
model curves and experimental data is the uniform
diameter hypothesis. Indeed, particle size distribution
might provide larger extraction yields in the first part
of extraction as indicated by experimental results.
An example of the concentration profiles in the
fluid phase predicted by the model is proposed in
Fig. 6 in the case of extraction test B. In this figure,
values of C are given as a function of the axial coordi-
nate along the bed axis and are parametric in the
extraction time. Curves at lower extraction times (25
and 50 min) show the equilibrium region on the outlet
Fig. 6. Concentration profiles in the gaseous phase accord-
ing to model evaluation relative to experimental condition B.
Curves are given at different extraction times.
3717
2
side and a finite mass transfer region near the inlet.
The sharp concentration change between these two
regions that propagates towards the outlet is evident
from the figure. This transition should be a shock
represented by a vertical line. The slight inclination in
the figure is due to the finite number of points of the
grid used for the finite difference analysis.
More complex extraction models have also been
tested: (1) a simplified shrinking core model with con-
stant driving force (P !K C ) and (2) a non-linear
0 p 0
equilibrium curve with a constant mass transfer rate.
In the former case, model results poorly fitted the
experimental data. In the latter case the improvement
did not justify the use of a more complex relationship
for thermodynamic equilibrium with the introduction
of a second adjustable parameter.
CONCLUSIONS
In the first part of the extraction experiments the
extraction feature can be explained by considering
two different phases in which the oil can be found
within the seeds: (1) a freely available oil phase con-
tained within broken cavities (cells) on the surface of
the crushed particles; and (2) a tied oil phase, either
contained within closed cells inside the particles or
somewhat tied to their internal structure.
An extraction model considering these two different
phases was proved to describe fairly well the whole
extraction process. It is significant that only the mass
transfer coefficient, among the many parameters in-
volved, was considered adjustable but was set at the
same value for all the conditions tested. Indeed, apart
from the solvent saturation that was evaluated from
the initial part of the extraction experiments in Fig. 4,
all the other model parameters were evaluated with
independent experiments. In particular, scanning elec-
tron microscopy was used to evaluate the volume of
the free oil phase. This reduction of the arbitrary
parameters involved in the model makes the valida-
tion of the model itself more significant. Reduction of
arbitrary parameters is important, particularly, if
modeling is aimed at determining the most relevant
physical phenomenon in a complex process, like the
extraction of natural matrices with supercritical fluids.
The concentration profiles within the extractor cal-
culated with our model confirm the existence of
a marked concentration shock wave during the first
extraction stages.
NOTATION
a specific surface of the solid, m~1
C solute concentration in the solvent in terms
of mass of solute per unit mass of solvent,
dimensionless
C solute concentration in the solvent at the
0
extraction start, dimensionless
d cell diameter, m
c
d particle diameter, m
p
3718 C. Marrone et al.
J volumetric mass transfer flux from the free Fors, S. M. and Ericksson, C. E. (1990) Characteriza-
f
oil phase to the solvent, kg m~2 s~1 tion of oils extracted from Oats by supercritical
J volumetric mass transfer flux from the tied carbon dioxide. ¸ebensmittel ¼iss. º. ¹echnol. 23,
t 390—395.
oil phase to the solvent, kg m~2 s~1
k mass transfer coefficient from the free oil Friedrich, J. P. and List, G. R. (1982) Characterization
f of soybean oil extracted by supercritical CO and
phase to the solvent, m s~1 2
hexane. J. Agric. Food Chem. 30, 192—193.
k mass transfer coefficient from the tied oil
t Goto, M., Sato, M. and Hirose, T. (1993) Extraction of
phase to the solvent, m s~1 peppermint oil by supercritical carbon dioxide. J.
K oil equilibrium constant between the tied oil Chem. Engng Japan 26, 401—407.
p
phase and the solvent, dimensionless Lee, A. K. K., Bulley, N. R., Fattori, M. and Meisen,
Kt oil equilibrium constant between the free oil A. (1986) Modelling of supercritical carbon dioxide
phase and the solvent, kg m~3 extraction of canola oilseed in fixed beds. JAOCS
m mass of the seed charge, kg 63, 921—925.
0 List, G. R., Friedrich, J. P. and Pominski, J. (1984)
m mass of the extracted oil, kg
e Characterization and processing of cottonseed oil
m mass of the flowed solvent, kg
s obtained by extraction with supercritical carbon
P solute concentration in the solid in terms of
dioxide. JAOCS 61, 1847—1849.
mass of solute per unit mass of non-soluble King, M. B. and Catchpole, J. R. (1993) Physico-
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