See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/223784647

Quaternary tephrochronology helps define conditioning factors and triggering

mechanisms of rock avalanches in NW Argentina

Article  in  Quaternary International · February 2008

DOI: 10.1016/j.quaint.2007.05.002

CITATIONS READS

49 144

2 authors, including:

Reginald L. Hermanns
Norwegian University of Science and Technology
215 PUBLICATIONS   3,287 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Rock slope failure deposits in Norway View project

Consequences assessment rock avalanches View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Reginald L. Hermanns on 18 October 2017.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 ARTICLE IN PRESS

Quaternary International 178 (2008) 261–275

Quaternary tephrochronology helps define conditioning factors and

triggering mechanisms of rock avalanches in NW Argentina
Reginald L. Hermannsa,, Andreas Schellenbergerb
a
Geological Survey of Canada, 101-605 Robson Street, Vancouver BC, Canada V6B 5J3
b
Institute of Geography, University of Berne, Hallerstrasse 12, 3012 Berne, Switzerland

Abstract

Ten previously defined Quaternary tephra layers from northwestern Argentina are described here in terms of electron microprobe
analyses of glass shards. In addition, XRF analyses of three tephras (Alemanı́a, Buey Muerto and El Paso ash) were performed. The
Alemanı́a Ash and Buey Muerto Ash occur within 1 m of each other stratigraphically in several outcrops and exhibit identical glass
chemistry. As well, XRF analyses show that both tephras have identical composition. Based on stratigraphic relations and age
determinations, these tephras can clearly be separated as two individual layers. Tephra ages were defined relatively by AMS 14C dates of
organic material, by 10Be surface exposure ages of landslides in stratigraphic association with these tephra layers, or directly by 40Ar/39Ar
ages of mineral separates or fission-track dating of zircons. Ages of these tephra layers constrain the temporal distribution of large
landslides (rock avalanche type) in northwestern Argentina. Temporal distribution shows that these large collapses concentrated in
deeply incised valleys during climate periods characterized by enhanced precipitation and run-off. In addition, in the Tonco valley,
tephra characteristics also suggest earthquake triggering of coeval landsliding. In this valley, four landslides, one with a 10Be age of
78207830 yr, lie in direct contact atop un-redeposited Paranilla ash, showing the coeval age of these landslides. The age of the dated
landslide deposit coincides with the age of soft sediment deformation structures in nearby lake deposits with an AMS 14C age of
7430–7570 cal yr BP.
Crown Copyright r 2007 Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction three different segments—(A) the Central Volcanic Zone

For almost four decades tephrochronology has been
used to establish a stratigraphic framework for Quaternary
deposits in North America (Wilcox, 1965; Westgate and
Dreimanis, 1967; Borchardt et al., 1972; Sarna-Wojcicki,
1976; Sarna-Wojcicki et al., 1987; Ortega-Guerreo and
Newton, 1998). This was possible because individual
tephra layers exhibit sufficiently distinctive geochemical
compositions of their glasses to allow differentiation from
others, and their ages could also be ascertained by any
method of direct dating (Westgate, 1989), indirect dating
(Benson et al., 2003), or a combination of both (Sarna-
Wojcicki et al., 1987).
Although the Andes of Argentina are more than
3200 km long and characterized by volcanic activity in
Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 604 666 4385; fax: +1 604 666 7507.
E-mail addresses: rhermann@nrcan.gc.ca (R.L. Hermanns),
schello@giub.unibe.ch (A. Schellenberger).
(CVZ) in northern Argentina, (B) the Southern Volcanic
Zone (SVZ) in central to southern Argentina, and (C) the
Austral Volcanic Zone (AVZ) in the extreme south and
Tierra del Fuego (Fig. 1, after Thorpe, 1984)—detailed
tephrochronological studies have been relatively rare.
Exceptions include the work by Stern (1990, 1992) in the
AVZ and by Stern et al. (1984) and Toms et al. (2004) in
the SVZ. Beside those systematic tephrochronological
studies, ages of tephra have been reported singularly (e.g.
Espizua and Bigazzi, 1998).
In the CVZ, individual tephra layers were used to date
Quaternary sequences by fission-track dating of zircons to
establish sedimentation rates (Malamud et al., 1996) or
have been dated indirectly by 14C dating (Wayne, 1999).
Hermanns et al. (2000) carried out a systematic tephro-
chronological study to establish a temporal framework for
rock avalanche deposits to determine the conditioning
factors of those large mass movements. Tephra associated
exclusively with deposits of those landslides were analyzed.

1040-6182/$ - see front matter Crown Copyright r 2007 Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2007.05.002
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
262 R.L. Hermanns, A. Schellenberger / Quaternary International 178 (2008) 261–275

-80° -60° -40°

Flat Slab
NVZ

0° 0°
Flat Slab
Volcanic Zone
Central

-20° -20°

study
area
Flat Slab

a
Volcanic Zone

ntin
Southern

-40° -40°
Arge
PVG
Volcanic Zone
Austral

km
0 500 1000

-80° -60° -40°

Fig. 1. Map of South America showing the location of the study area and
zones of Quaternary volcanism and volcanic gaps (flat slab) in the Andes
(after Thorpe, 1984); NVC ¼ Northern Volcanic Zone, PVG ¼ Patago-
nian volcanic gap.

However, a total of nine different rhyodacitic tephra layers
were defined by geochemical fingerprinting of glass with
electron microprobe analyses (EMA), morphology of
pumice, stratigraphic relationships, and mineralogy. The
age of three tephra layers could be determined either
directly by 40Ar/39Ar dating or relatively by 14C dating of
associated sediments (Hermanns et al., 2000).
Recently some of the landslide deposits could be more
precisely dated by surface exposure dating (SED) with 10Be
of deposits and breakaways (Hermanns et al., 2004), or by
AMS 14C dating of organic material found in stratigraphic
relation with these landslides and therefore in stratigraphic
relation with tephra (Hermanns et al., 2006). Furthermore,
new tephra samples were taken from five additional
stratigraphic sequences in the Tonco valley (Figs. 2 and
3) and from a well-dated profile in the Tafı́ valley at the
southern margin of the Cumbres Calchaquı́es (Figs. 2 and
4) and analyzed by EMA (Hermanns et al., 2006) using an
advanced analysis procedure that gives results closer to the
true composition of the glass shards to reduce the effects of
‘‘Na (and K) loss’’ and secondary ‘‘Si (and Al) grow-in’’
(Morgan and London, 1996).
Fig. 2. Topographic map showing distribution of mountain ranges,
intramontane basins, and narrow valleys in the southern central Andes
and indicating localities of tephra described. Lower case letters indicate
Quaternary tephra in stratigraphic relation with landslides (Fig. 3). Upper
case letters indicate Quaternary tephra that could be dated but are not in
stratigraphic relation with landslides (Fig. 4). Inset shows distribution of
tectonic provinces and active volcanoes in the central Andes (Jordan et al.,
1983 and de Silva and Francis, 1991, respectively).
For better comparison of data published in Hermanns
et al. (2000) and Hermanns et al. (2006), all Quaternary
tephra from northwestern Argentina that could be dated
or that are in stratigraphic relation with each other (Figs. 3
and 4)—including those tephra that are not in stratigraphic
contact with landslide deposits (Malamud et al., 1996)—were
re-analyzed by the procedure suggested by Morgan and
London (1996). In addition, an additional outcrop with three
different tephra layers could be dated precisely by AMS and
radiometric 14C dating. This extends the tephrochronological
record of northwestern Argentina to ten temporally well-
defined tephra layers. This paper summarizes these published
and unpublished new data and combines them with the
previously published tephrochronological record (Hermanns
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
R.L. Hermanns, A. Schellenberger / Quaternary International 178 (2008) 261–275 263

Fig. 3. Composite profiles of nine localities (indicated in Fig. 2), showing stratigraphic relations of different deposits and tephra (after Hermanns et al.,
2000, 2004, 2006; Hermanns and Villanueva Garcia, 2005). All sections are drawn at the same scale; dotted lines mark temporally related deposits.

3830-4830 yr
Ash C
5290-6410 yr

La Viña formation

S 39 0.1 ± 0.04 Ma, Tuff B

S 38
S 37 3930-4410 yr
S 36
10 4520-4960 yr
Tajamar formation
Cumbres Calchaquíes basin

g37
3470-3830 yr
g73
10580-11150 yr
m

Calvimonte formation
S 44
Campo Alegre
Tafí valley

11350-12380 yr ???
Tajamar

13870-14780 yr 1.3 ± 0.2 Ma, Tuff A 0.33 ± 0.1 Ma, Tuff D

Piquete formation
0
Silt sand deposit Ash layer
Sand deposit
Primary ash lens
Silt-clay deposit
Terrace deposit Dateable organic material

Fig. 4. Composite profiles of four localities (indicated in Fig. 2), showing stratigraphic relations of different deposits and tephra ((b) after Hermanns et al.,
2000; (c) and (d) after Malamud et al., 1996). All sections are drawn to the same scale.
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
264 R.L. Hermanns, A. Schellenberger / Quaternary International 178 (2008) 261–275

et al., 2000). In addition, these data also show that one sequences associated with landslide deposits (Figs. 3 and
tephra layer, the Quebrada del Tonco ash earlier defined 4). Tephra samples were disaggregated in water and wet
based on erroneous dating (Hermanns et al., 2000), does not sieved at intervals of 63, 200, and 500 mm. The 200–500 mm
exist, and confirm that the Alemanı́a Ash and the Buey size fraction was placed in an ultrasonic bath to remove
Muerto Ash (Hermanns et al., 2000), indeed are two separate adhering material and sieved again with water and acetone.
tephra layers, although of identical composition. Finally, this Mafic minerals were removed using a magnetic separator.
also allows better-defined time constraints for the record of Glass shards were picked from the felsic concentrate
rock avalanches in northwestern Argentina. avoiding samples with vesicles, crystalline intergrowth, or
alteration. EMA was carried out according to the
2. Geological setting principles outlined in Frogatt (1992) and Morgan and
London (1996), using a 15 kV excitation potential, a 20 nA
The CVZ of the central Andes (Figs. 1 and 2) experienced beam current, and a 10 mm beam diameter (Table 1). In
Cenozoic volcanism. It extends south to 281S (Thorpe, contrast to the procedures used in our earlier studies
1984), whereas the Andean sector between 281 and 331S is (Hermanns et al., 2000), measuring conditions throughout
amagmatic (Jordan et al., 1983). In its southern part, the the studies were identical (further details of measurement
CVZ has a transverse zonation with a calc-alkaline are summarized in Table 1). For example, in our previous
association in the west and shoshonitic volcanics in the east analyses we used different electron microprobes in different
(Déruelle, 1981). In both segments, rhyodacitic to rhyolitic laboratories, some with three and some with four spectro-
volcanics also occur (Francis and de Silva, 1989; de Silva, meters, which resulted in different levels of ‘‘Na (and K)
1991; Coira, 1993). Silicic eruptions were dominated by loss’’ and secondary ‘‘Si (and Al) grow-in’’. In addition, at
explosive ignimbrite volcanism, resulting in several major the beginning of each day of measurements a rhyolite
resurgent caldera complexes (de Silva, 1989). To the east of standard was measured to ensure that the microprobe was
the volcanic region are the intra-Andean Puna plateau, the working with the same conditions (Hunt and Hill, 1996).
fault-controlled valleys of the Cordillera Oriental, and the The variance of these measurements lies clearly within the
northern Sierras Pampeanas (Fig. 2). The ca. 4000 m high variance of other well-established tephrochronology la-
Puna plateau is characterized by intervening ranges of boratories. As many as 12–79 measurements on 3–21 glass
reverse-fault-bounded basement blocks that reach elevations shards from each of the 31 tephra beds were analyzed for
of about 6000 m (Fig. 2). The Cordillera Oriental is a fold Na, Si, Mg, Al, K, Ca, Ti, Mn, and Fe.
and thrust belt (Mon, 1976; Grier et al., 1991) involving Oxide concentrations for each sample generally ranged
Precambrian basement and overlying unmetamorphosed between 90% and 99%. In order to eliminate measure-
Cambrian to Tertiary sediments (Reyes and Salfity, 1973; ments of disproportionately strongly altered glass shards,
Omarini, 1983; Salfity and Marquillas, 1994); it is cut by CO2 and H2O contents were measured by infrared
deeply incised valleys. In contrast, the Sierras Pampeanas absorption. The resulting percentages of volatiles were
are late Cenozoic Laramide-type uplifts composed of late subtracted from the ideal volatile-free value of 100% of the
Proterozoic metamorphic basement rocks that contrast with EMA measurements. All totals below this value were not
highly erodible Tertiary clastic sediments in the adjacent included in further analysis. All EMA data were normal-
intramontane basins (Caminos, 1979; Mon, 1979; Jordan et ized to 100% to facilitate proper comparison (Table 2).
al., 1983). The basins are further characterized by alluvial Total element contents of five samples (Table 3) were
fan deposits and coarse gravel associated with multiple, determined by X-ray fluorescence (XRF, Phillips PW
gently inclined pediments that abut steep mountain fronts 2400). Ground (o100 mm) and oven-dried (110 1C) samples
(Strecker et al., 1989; Kleinert and Strecker, 2001; Sobel and were pretreated by heating (1050 1C for 2 h) to obtain loss
Strecker, 2002). Along tectonically active mountain fronts
and in areas where antecedent rivers cross the uplifting Table 1
ranges of the Cordillera Oriental, voluminous landslide Electron microprobe analytical conditions and standards
deposits often associated with lacustrine and terrace deposits
Element Spectrometer Counting time (s) Background (s) Standards
exist (Fig. 2) (Hermanns and Strecker, 1999; Hermanns et
al., 2006). Common to all Cenozoic sedimentary deposits in Si 1 (TAP) 15 7.5 Wollastonite
the intramontane basins is their association with intercalated Mg 1 (TAP) 10 5 MgO
volcanic ash layers related to multiple eruptions in the Na 2 (TAP) 10 5 Albite
CVZ (Marshall and Patterson, 1981; Strecker et al., 1989; Al 2 (TAP) 15 7.5 Anorthite
K 3 (PET) 10 5 Orthoclase
Grier and Dallmeyer, 1990; Malamud et al., 1996; Ca 3 (PET) 20 10 Anorthite
Hermanns et al., 2000). Ti 3 (PET) 15 7.5 MnTiO3
Fe 4 (LIF) 20 10 Fe2O3
3. Methodology Mn 4 (LIF) 15 7.5 MnTiO3

Note: all elements analyzed using Ka spectra.

For this study, 31 tephra samples were taken from 18 Acceleration voltage 15 kV, 20-nA beam current, and a 10-mm beam
different Quaternary sedimentary sequences, 12 of these diameter.
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
R.L. Hermanns, A. Schellenberger / Quaternary International 178 (2008) 261–275 265

Table 2
Electron microprobe data for glass shards within different tephras

Tephra SiO2 Al2O3 K2O Na2O CaO FeO TiO2 MgO MnO N Analytical total

Villa Vil Ash

g33 76.66 12.97 4.81 3.41 1.00 0.83 0.15 0.12 0.05 14/3 96.66
0.33 0.19 0.11 0.15 0.06 0.07 0.03 0.02 0.03 1.36
Alemanı´a Ash
g65 78.27 12.74 4.28 3.55 0.49 0.46 0.07 0.05 0.09 41/16 95.41
0.23 0.11 0.10 0.10 0.03 0.06 0.03 0.02 0.04 0.50
S37 78.22 12.64 4.40 3.59 0.48 0.45 0.08 0.04 0.10 29/8 95.17
0.19 0.10 0.10 0.11 0.03 0.05 0.03 0.02 0.04 0.79
S38 78.30 12.64 4.32 3.55 0.49 0.48 0.07 0.04 0.10 31/7 94.94
0.23 0.13 0.13 0.14 0.03 0.05 0.03 0.02 0.06 0.44
S39 78.34 12.63 4.33 3.57 0.48 0.46 0.08 0.05 0.08 33/7 95.47
0.22 0.14 0.11 0.11 0.03 0.07 0.03 0.02 0.05 0.50
g37 78.34 12.59 4.35 3.57 0.49 0.45 0.07 0.04 0.09 33/4 95.38
0.21 0.12 0.11 0.13 0.02 0.05 0.02 0.01 0.04 0.57
g47 77.86 12.80 4.32 3.84 0.50 0.47 0.07 0.05 0.09 30/11 96.80
0.18 0.07 0.11 0.10 0.03 0.05 0.03 0.01 0.04 0.53
Buey Muerto Ash
S36 78.15 12.79 4.23 3.66 0.51 0.46 0.06 0.04 0.09 26/7 95.17
0.19 0.09 0.11 0.12 0.03 0.06 0.02 0.02 0.05 0.74
g73 78.22 12.77 4.30 3.57 0.50 0.45 0.07 0.04 0.09 37/21 95.62
0.20 0.13 0.11 0.10 0.03 0.06 0.02 0.02 0.05 0.48
g27 78.48 12.48 4.23 3.67 0.49 0.45 0.07 0.04 0.09 19/3 95.15
0.29 0.11 0.17 0.13 0.02 0.06 0.02 0.04 0.09 0.95
Ash C 77.95 12.93 4.37 3.58 0.49 0.48 0.07 0.05 0.09 45/10 95.22
0.17 0.13 0.14 0.07 0.02 0.06 0.02 0.02 0.04 0.74
Either Alemania or Buey Muerto Ash
g39 78.09 12.74 4.33 3.63 0.51 0.50 0.08 0.04 0.09 18/8 94.77
0.23 0.12 0.10 0.20 0.03 0.04 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.49
g43 78.15 12.74 4.27 3.64 0.51 0.47 0.07 0.04 0.10 36/8 95.02
0.25 0.10 0.13 0.13 0.03 0.07 0.02 0.02 0.06 0.64
g15 78.18 12.55 4.39 3.71 0.49 0.47 0.08 0.04 0.10 78/9 96.51
0.26 0.16 0.11 0.11 0.03 0.07 0.02 0.01 0.04 1.23
g35 78.15 12.82 4.35 3.46 0.52 0.48 0.08 0.05 0.10 79/20 95.98
0.40 0.23 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.08 0.03 0.04 0.05 1.04
g29 78.48 12.48 4.23 3.67 0.49 0.45 0.07 0.04 0.09 19/3 95.15
0.29 0.11 0.17 0.13 0.02 0.06 0.02 0.04 0.09 0.95
g69 77.86 12.80 4.32 3.84 0.50 0.47 0.07 0.05 0.09 30/11 96.80
0.18 0.07 0.11 0.10 0.03 0.05 0.03 0.01 0.04 0.53
Cerro Paranilla Ash
g05 77.06 13.12 5.03 3.26 0.73 0.81 0.14 0.10 0.06 49/11 96.41
0.19 0.09 0.12 0.09 0.03 0.06 0.02 0.02 0.04 0.47
g07 76.70 12.93 5.19 3.42 0.71 0.80 0.13 0.10 0.07 23/10 94.97
0.28 0.15 0.18 0.12 0.03 0.10 0.03 0.02 0.03 0.37
g31 76.85 12.90 5.01 3.45 0.72 0.78 0.13 0.10 0.07 81/10 95.74
0.21 0.12 0.13 0.10 0.03 0.06 0.03 0.02 0.04 0.59
g75 76.60 13.01 5.22 3.33 0.72 0.80 0.15 0.09 0.05 16/10 93.71
0.42 0.28 0.11 0.14 0.05 0.10 0.03 0.02 0.04 0.64
g79 76.70 13.13 5.26 3.16 0.70 0.80 0.14 0.09 0.06 14/10 94.17
0.18 0.13 0.07 0.06 0.01 0.00 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.89
g81 76.90 12.89 5.10 3.35 0.71 0.80 0.14 0.09 0.05 26/10 93.62
0.18 0.11 0.15 0.09 0.03 0.10 0.03 0.02 0.03 0.78
El Paso Ash
S44 78.40 12.40 4.54 3.08 0.81 0.57 0.08 0.06 0.04 52/8 95.01
0.20 0.13 0.15 0.09 0.05 0.07 0.03 0.02 0.04 0.54
g04 78.34 12.52 4.40 3.21 0.80 0.56 0.08 0.06 0.05 12/4 94.96
0.25 0.08 0.29 0.13 0.03 0.05 0.02 0.01 0.03 0.67
Quebrada La Yesera Tuff
g09 77.23 13.15 4.09 4.14 0.49 0.61 0.11 0.10 0.08 68/10 96.31
0.18 0.10 0.18 0.13 0.03 0.06 0.03 0.02 0.04 0.61
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
266 R.L. Hermanns, A. Schellenberger / Quaternary International 178 (2008) 261–275

Table 2 (continued )

Tephra SiO2 Al2O3 K2O Na2O CaO FeO TiO2 MgO MnO N Analytical total

g67 77.06 13.28 4.12 4.12 0.48 0.59 0.11 0.10 0.07 12/6 96.01
0.19 0.12 0.21 0.13 0.03 0.05 0.05 0.03 0.05 0.67
La Viña Tuff
Tuff B 77.41 12.67 4.93 3.27 0.71 0.74 0.13 0.09 0.05 28/10 95.82
0.23 0.17 0.12 0.09 0.03 0.05 0.02 0.02 0.04 0.77
Campo Alegre Tuff
Tuff D 77.91 11.92 5.73 2.33 0.74 0.96 0.24 0.14 0.02 54/10 95.24
0.20 0.10 0.20 0.15 0.04 0.07 0.03 0.02 0.03 0.45
Piquete Tuff
Tuff A 78.54 11.93 4.84 2.78 0.85 0.75 0.15 0.12 0.04 32/11 95.63
0.24 0.12 0.15 0.11 0.04 0.07 0.02 0.02 0.03 1.13
El Peñon Tuff
g71 76.64 13.36 5.44 2.79 0.92 0.63 0.10 0.07 0.05 32/11 97.04
0.23 0.11 0.25 0.14 0.04 0.06 0.03 0.02 0.04 0.66

Note: All analyses are normalized to 100 wt%. Standard deviation for each analysis is given in italics. N ¼ first number is number of analyses, second
number is number of glass shards analyzed.

Table 3
Major and minor (%) and trace element (ppm) composition of selected samples of the Alemanı́a, Buey Muerto, and El Paso Ash as measured by XRF

Tephra SiO2 Al2O3 K2O Na2O CaO Fe2O3 TiO2 MgO MnO P2O5 LOI Total

Alemanı´a Ash
S37 73.75 13.28 4.65 3.86 0.66 0.68 0.09 0.20 0.08 0.04 2.39 99.74
S38 73.23 13.42 4.32 3.80 0.77 1.13 0.16 0.40 0.08 0.03 2.08 99.46
S39 73.71 13.14 4.55 3.95 0.61 0.67 0.08 0.20 0.08 0.02 2.23 99.30

Buey Muerto Ash

S36 72.91 13.36 4.55 3.85 0.69 0.96 0.12 0.31 0.08 0.03 2.48 99.43
El Paso Ash
S44 60.41 18.00 2.57 4.51 4.74 5.18 0.74 1.51 0.06 0.20 1.24 99.37

Tephra Ba Cr Cu Nb Ni Pb Rb Sr V Y Zn Zr

Alemanı´a Ash
S37 49 6 o2 52 5 32 396 14 o5 23 27 77
S38 88 11 o2 48 5 34 365 33 15 25 34 98
S39 48 o5 o2 52 5 36 400 9 9 24 24 71
Buey Muerto Ash
S36 64 7 6 55 5 36 403 21 18 24 33 84
El Paso Ash
S44 726 24 3 17 8 13 84 837 106 19 92 240

LOI, loss on ignition.

of ignition, and fused with LiF and Li2B4O7 at 1100 1C
(ratio to sample 0.5:1 and 9.5:1, respectively) to create glass
pellets for XRF.
In order to develop a chronostratigraphy for the tephra
layers and rock avalanche deposits, selected mineral
separates from one ash layer were dated by the incremen-
tal-heating 40Ar/39Ar method on multiple crystal analyses
(Hermanns et al., 2001a). Most tephra ages were determined
indirectly by AMS 14C dating of organic remnants in
associated sediments (Hermanns et al., 2000; Trauth et al.,
2000; Fauqué and Tchilinguirian, 2002; Hermanns et al.,
2006) and new unpublished data (Table 4; Figs. 3 and 4).
Two tephra ages were defined by 10Be SED of landslide
deposits associated with tephra (Hermanns et al., 2004).
Three ages were determined by fission-track dating of zircon
mineral separates (Malamud et al., 1996). All 14C ages cited
here were converted to calendar years using the Calib
calibration program (version 5.0.2) and a calibration curve
for the southern hemisphere (ShCal04, McCormac et al.,
2004) for ages younger than 11 ka and IntCal04 for ages
older than 11 ka (Reimer et al., 2004) to compare ages
obtained by different dating methods (Table 4).
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
R.L. Hermanns, A. Schellenberger / Quaternary International 178 (2008) 261–275 267

Table 4
Summary of ages obtained on the defined tephra deposits

Tephra Name Dating method Age (yr) Calibrated age (cal yr BP) Reference or lab no.
14
Villa Vil Ash Radiometric C of o.s. 14327132 4980–1540 Fauqué and Tchilinguirian (2002)
Alemanı́a Ash AMS 14C
of u.s. 3440770 o3470–3830 Hermanns et al. (2000)
AMS 14
C of u.s. 3840775 o3930–4410 Ua-17958
AMS 14
C of u.s. 3840740 o3990–4380 Trauth et al. (2000)
AMS 14
C of u.s. 4910740 o5480–5710 Trauth et al. (2000)
Buey Muerto Ash AMS 14C of o.s. 3440770 43470–3830 Hermanns et al. (2000)
AMS 14C of o.s. 3840775 43930–4410 Ua-17958
14
Radiometric C of o.s. 39207190 43830–4830 Malamud et al. (1996)
AMS 14C of u.s. 4270770 o4520–4960 Ua-17959
AMS 14C of u.s. 4540740 o4970–5300 Hermanns et al. (2000)
Radiometric 14
C of u.s. 51307250 o5290–6410 Malamud et al. (1996)
14
Radiometric C of u.s. 102207120 511350–12380 B-7923
AMS 14C of u.s. 123107115 513870–14780 Ua-17957
10
Cerro Paranilla Ash Be SED of o.s. 478207830 Hermanns et al. (2004)
14
El Paso Ash AMS C of o.s. 6640740 47430–7570 Hermanns et al. (2006)
AMS 14C of u.s. 9555790 o10580–11150 Hermanns et al. (2006)
10
Be SED of u.s. 51525071960 Hermanns et al. (2004)
10
Quebrada La Yesera Tuff Be SED of o.s. b1525071960 Hermanns et al. (2004)
La Viña Tuff Zircon fission track 0.170.04 Myr Malamud et al. (1996)
Campo Alegre Tuff Zircon fission track 0.3370.1 Myr Malamud et al. (1996)
Piquete Tuff Zircon fission track 1.370.2 Myr Malamud et al. (1996)
40
El Peñon Tuff Ar/39Ar biotite 2.4470.06 Myr Hermanns et al. (2001a)

u.s., underlying sediments; o.s., overlying sediments.

Ages are given with 72s standard deviation.

4. Tephra classification
Tephra in northwestern Argentina consists of pumic-
eous, fine- to coarse-grained glass particles with an
admixture of lapilli and lithic fragments. The thickness of
tephra layers described here varies between a few centi-
metres and 2 m; generally, tephra layers in the study area
thicken from north to south. The tephras contain
significant amounts of quartz, potassium feldspar, and
plagioclase; biotite is a minor or accessory constituent. In
some cases, accessory minerals such as zircon and apatite
were identified as intergrowths in biotite. Tephra classifica-
tion is based on chemical glass shard fingerprinting, age
determination, and stratigraphic relations (e.g. Sarna-
Wojcicki, 1976; Westgate and Gorton, 1981). Although
these glass shards generally have rhyolitic compositions,
precise EMA revealed significant differences (Table 2) used
to group several tephra layers visually (Fig. 5). Only two
tephra layers (Alemanı́a Ash and the Buey Muerto Ash)
have glass compositions too similar for any differentiation.
Also the major, minor, and trace element composition
of their whole rock samples is indistinguishable (Table 3;
Figs. 6a and b). Further discrimination in earlier studies
(Hermanns et al., 2000) was based on EMA compositions
of biotites; unimodal biotite compositions were taken as
evidence for primary air-fall deposition. Conversely,
redeposition of tephra layers is indicated by biotites with
polymodal compositions. Of the 31 tephra samples, five
related tephra groups and five individual tephras are
reported here (Table 2); more tephra outcrops were
reported and other tephras have been defined in Hermanns
et al. (2000) but these could not been dated and/or have no
relevance for the temporal distribution of landslides and
were therefore omitted here. Terminology used is after
Fisher and Schmincke (1984). The term ‘‘ash’’ is used for
unconsolidated tephra with a grain size o2 mm; ‘‘tuff’’ is
used for the consolidated equivalent of ash.
El Peñon Tuff: This tuff (g71) typically contains biotite-
bearing pumice lapilli up to 2–3 cm in diameter (Hermanns
et al., 2000). It is poorly lithified and appears to be
reworked as indicated by the large number of lithic
fragments. The tuff forms a continuous layer, 2–3 cm
thick, about 80 m below the top of an uplifted pediment
remnant on the western piedmont of Sierra Laguna Blanca
(Fig. 3d). The 241 east-dipping pediment remnant contains
a sequence of at least three rock avalanche deposits. Dating
by the 21Ne exposure method of the avalanche deposits
results in minimum ages of ca. 152–212 ka for these
deposits (Hermanns et al., 2000, 2001b). This tuff was able
to be dated later using the 40Ar/39Ar method with a multi-
crystal biotite plateau age to 2.4470.06 Ma (Hermanns
et al., 2001a).
Piquete Tuff: This tuff (Tuff A) is the youngest tuff
within the Piquete formation, which is strongly deformed
and has a maximum thickness of 1000 m (Malamud et al.,
1996). The tuff is 25 cm thick at the sampling locality and
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
268 R.L. Hermanns, A. Schellenberger / Quaternary International 178 (2008) 261–275

13.4 0.14
13.2
0.12
13.0
12.8 0.10 Villa Vil Ash
Al2O3

MgO
12.6 Alemania Ash
0.08 Buey Muerto Ash
12.4
Alemania or Buey Muerto Ash
12.2 0.06
Cerro Paranilla Ash
12.0 El Paso Ash
0.04
11.8 Quebrada La Yesera Tuff
76.5 77.0 77.5 78.0 78.5 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 La Viña Tuff
SiO2 CaO Campo Alegre Tuff
Piquete Tuff
4.0 0.16
El Peñon Tuff
3.8
0.14
3.6

3.4 0.12
Na2O

TiO2

3.2 0.10
3.0
0.08
2.8

2.6 0.06
4.2 4.4 4.6 4.8 5.0 5.2 5.4 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
K2O FeO

Fig. 5. Geochemical composition of glass shards. Note that not all oxides of the glass shards of tephra plot on these diagrams. Some oxides of glass shard
compositions plot outside these fields. The scale of these plots was selected so that the most important differences could be easily seen.

was dated by zircon fission-track dating to 1.370.2 Ma,
indicating that deposition of this formation continued into
the Pleistocene. This tuff is unconformably overlain by the
Tajamar formation, itself overlain by the La Viña
formation, which contains the La Viña Tuff (Fig. 4c).
Campo Alegre Tuff: This tuff (Tuff D) was found only in
a lens in 9 m thick alluvial deposits (Fig. 4d) that are
exposed for about 40 m. It has a thickness of 50–200 cm but
thins out within the outcrop (Malamud et al., 1996). The
tuff was dated by zircon fission-track dating to
0.3370.1 Ma.
La Viña Tuff: This tuff (Tuff B) was found at the base of
the 20 m thick La Viña formation, overlying the Tajamar
formation with an erosional unconformity (Fig. 4c;
Malamud et al., 1996). The tuff is white, occurring as a
2 m thick layer within a channel fill. It is of restricted
extension. The tuff was dated by zircon fission-track dating
to 0.170.04 Ma.
Quebrada La Yesera Tuff: This tuff (g09, 67) is a fine-
grained and slightly lithified tephra deposit; mafic minerals
occur only as accessories. The glass shards typically show
Y-shaped bubble wall junctions or double concave plates
(Hermanns et al., 2000). This tuff occurs as a continuous
layer about 20 m below the top of a terrace at the
confluence of the Calchaquı́es and Santa Marı́a rivers in
the Cordillera Oriental (Figs. 3f and g). In the Quebrada
La Yesera and in the Quebrada de Las Conchas (Cafayate
section, Casa de los Loros section; Figs. 3f and g), the
terrace is overlain by two generations of rock avalanche
deposits, which in turn are associated with lake deposits.
This ash has been previously dated with an AMS 14C age of
mollusk shells sampled from the lake sediments to a
minimum age of 32,4807150 yr (Trauth and Strecker,
1999). However, on the bottom of this paleolake there are
extensive Tertiary marl deposits producing a hardwater
effect leading to ages several tens of thousands of years too
old (Hermanns et al., 2004). The age of the rock avalanche
deposits could be directly dated by 10Be SED (Hermanns et
al., 2004), giving a minimum age of 15,25071960 yr to this
tuff. The high degree of consolidation and deformation
features suggests, however, that the terrace deposits and
the intercalated Quebrada La Yesera Tuff may be
significant older.
El Paso Ash: The ash (g04, S44) occurs at two localities
(Figs. 3f and 4a). It is unlithified and contains tubular
pumiceous shards with elongated vesicles and thick vesicle
walls. It overlies the older of the two landslide deposits in
the Cafayate section, which also overlies the Quebrada La
Yesera Tuff (Fig. 3f). Biotites provided a 40Ar/39Ar plateau
age of 547221 ka, which is not significantly different
from a zero age. In the Tafı́ valley section (Fig. 4a) it could
be dated by AMS 14C of soils directly underlying this ash
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
R.L. Hermanns, A. Schellenberger / Quaternary International 178 (2008) 261–275
Fig. 6. Geochemical composition measured by XRF of whole rock of selected samples of the Alemanı́a, Buey Muerto, and El Paso ash layers: (a) major
and minor element composition and (b) trace element composition.
to have a maximum age of 10,580–11,150 cal yr BP
(Hermanns et al., 2006). This age coincides with the
maximum age of 15,25071960 yr obtained by 10Be SED of
the older landslide (Hermanns et al., 2004), and with a
minimum age defined by organic material sampled from a
layer of deformed lake sediments higher up in the
stratigraphic column in the Cafayate section (Fig. 3f)
associated with organic material with an AMS 14C age of
7430–7570 cal yr BP (Hermanns et al., 2006).
Cerro Paranilla Ash: The ash (g05, g07, g31, g75, g79,
g81) is relatively coarse grained and contains abundant
biotite crystals up to 1 mm in diameter. The average TiO2
content of the biotites typically ranges from 4.8% to 4.9%,
compared with values between 2.8% and 4.2% in biotites
from other tephras (Hermanns et al., 2000). Glass shards
are pumiceous with elongated, tubular vesicles and thick
vesicle walls. The ash occurs in association with landslide
deposits at Cerro Paranilla (Fig. 3e) and at several sites in
269
the Quebrada del Tonco, 90 km to the south (Fig. 3i; see
also Hermanns et al., 2006). In the Quebrada del Tonco
(Fig. 3i), it covers eroded Cretaceous strata and is in turn
overlain in direct contact by two different rock avalanches
and two rockfall deposits (Hermanns et al., 2006).
Immediately west of Cerro Paranilla (Fig. 3e), the Cerro
Paranilla Ash occurs within terrace gravel overlain by
landslide debris. It is also found as a lens in reworked
landslide deposits, which in turn are overlain by two
younger landslide deposits (Hermanns et al., 2000).
Dating of this tephra is most ambiguous. Biotites yielded
a 40Ar/39Ar plateau age of 723789 ka (Hermanns et al.,
2000). A new sanidine multi-crystal 40Ar/39Ar age of
483716 ka indicates that the previously published age
probably does not give the age of tephra eruption and
deposition (Hermanns et al., 2006). However, that the
latter age is significantly too old is indicated by large
amounts of excess 40Ar trapped in the crystals. A much
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
270 R.L. Hermanns, A. Schellenberger / Quaternary International 178 (2008) 261–275
better fit with the surface morphology of the overlying
landslides is a 10Be age of 78207830 yr obtained by SED of
the breakaway scarp of one of the Tonco landslides
overlying the ash in direct contact (Hermanns et al.,
2004). This is probably close to the true age of the tephra as
it does not show any signs of redeposition; and it is unlikely
that a tephra would remain on the Earth’s surface for very
long without redeposition (Hermanns et al., 2000, 2006).
This is also supported by the stratigraphic relation with
either the Buey Muerto or Alemania ash (see below)
overlying one of the Tonco landslides within a 4 m thick
terrace deposit (Fig. 3i).
Buey Muerto Ash: The ash (g27, g73, S36, Ash C) cannot
geochemically be distinguished from the Alemanı́a Ash,
neither using major and minor element composition of the
glass shards, nor with major, minor, and trace element
composition of the whole rock (Tables 2 and 3; Figs. 5 and
6). The only non-geochronological possibility of defining it
as a unique tephra layer is stratigraphic (Figs. 3a, 4a
and b). Also the glass shard morphology is indistinguish-
able between the two layers (Hermanns et al., 2000).
Hence, this ash can only be unambiguously identified when
found in stratigraphic relation with the Alemanı́a Ash or
when it can be dated with accuracy. The Buey Muerto Ash
is characterized by tubular pumiceous glass with elongated,
tubular vesicles with thin walls. It was found in strati-
graphic relation with the Alemanı́a Ash in two different
outcrops in the southern part of the Cumbres Calchaquı́es
(Figs. 4a and b), and at one locality in association with
landslide deposits in the Aconquija section (g 27 in Fig. 3a).
At both sites at Cumbres Calchaquı́es the ash could be
dated by associated organic material with a minimum
AMS 14C age of 3470–3830 cal yr BP (Fig. 4b; Hermanns
et al., 2000), fitting well with the age determined in the Tafı́
valley section (Fig. 4a) where it can be bracketed by AMS
14
C ages of organic material to be younger than
4520–4960 cal yr BP (Ua-17959) and older than 3930–
4410 ca yr BP (Ua-17958). The older of both ages is likely
closer to the true age as the dated soil horizon was buried
by the ash. This age also correlates with the age of an ash
(Ash C) of the same geochemical composition sampled in
the Lerma basin south of Salta (Fig. 4c), dated at
3830–4830 to 5290–6410 cal yr BP by over- and underlying
organic horizons, respectively (Malamud et al., 1996).
Alemanı´a Ash: This ash (g37, g47, g65, S37, S38, S39) is
widespread in Holocene deposits (Figs. 3a, h, 4a and b). It
contains small amounts of tiny and thin biotite grains,
which are difficult to analyze by EMA. Similar to other
tephras, the pumiceous glass typically has elongated,
tubular vesicles and thick vesicle walls. The tephra was
defined at Alemanı́a (Fig. 3h; Hermanns et al., 2000),
where it occurs within 3 m thick terrace gravel 1 m below
the top of the unit overlying lacustrine sediments related to
a rockfall. Dating of the underlying lake sediments
indicates that this lake existed from 5480–5710 cal yr BP
to less than 3990–4380 cal yr BP (2.5 m below the top of the
lake; Trauth et al., 2000). Another maximum age of
3470–3830 cal yr BP could be defined by the dated under-
lying peat deposit in the Cumbres Calchaquı́es basin
(Fig. 4b; Hermanns et al., 2000) which is in agreement
with an AMS 14C age (Ua-17958) of 3930–4410 cal yr BP of
a buried A horizon sampled directly below the Alemanı́a
ash in the Tafı́ valley section (Fig. 4a).
Villa Vil Ash: This redeposited ash (g33) occurs within
sediments of a landslide-dammed lake at the southeastern
Puna border (Fig. 3b). The ash typically shows strong
intergrowths of tiny biotites with irregularly shaped
pumice (Hermanns et al., 2000). The pumiceous glass has
spherical to oval vesicles and thin vesicle walls. Radio-
metric 14C-dated organic material from lake deposits 5 m
above the Villa Vil Ash yielded a minimum age of
980–1540 cal yr BP for both the tephra and the landslide
(Table 4; Fauqué and Tchilinguirian, 2002).
5. Discussion
5.1. Characterization and age determination of tephras
Our new geochemical data on glass shards differ from
previous analyses of the same samples. In the case of Na2O
they are 5.4–43.0% higher compared with the composition
reported earlier (Hermanns et al., 2000). Changes in K2O,
SiO2, and Al2O3 vary depending on the sample, and for
K2O lie between 5.2% and 1.2%, and for SiO2 and Al2O3
between 0.7% and 2.8%. Elemental oxides MgO, CaO,
TiO2, MnO, and FeO do not seem to be affected, as
differences between results of both procedures lie within
analytical variance. In addition, our new data show a much
lower variance within each tephra layer. We relate these
changes to more stable measuring conditions, resulting also
in a reduction of the effects of ‘‘Na (and K) loss’’ and
secondary ‘‘Si (and Al) grow-in’’. However, most tephra
samples are grouped into the same tephra layers as in the
earlier study. The only exceptions are the samples of the
Alemanı́a Ash and Buey Muerto Ash, which cannot be
separated into two different tephra layers based upon their
glass shard composition, because with the new procedure
the geochemical compositions of both ash layers are
identical. We believe that earlier differentiation of these
samples based on different compositions was the combined
result of different measuring conditions for each sample
(see above) in the earlier analyses combined with a
statistical analysis that resulted in a tephra classification
fitting well with the stratigraphical distribution.
A further outcome of these less strict measuring
conditions, and also of an erroneous AMS 14C age of
32,4807150 yr BP of mollusks in the Cafayate section, was
the definition of an additional tephra layer (Quebrada del
Tonco Ash, samples g29, g39) with a similar geochemical
analysis to the Alemanı́a Ash or Buey Muerto Ash
(Hermanns et al., 2000). However, multiple new AMS
14
C ages as well as 10Be ages obtained by SED, coinciding
furthermore with varve counts, indicate that this ash date
was too old by about ten thousand years (Fig. 7; Hermanns
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
R.L. Hermanns, A. Schellenberger / Quaternary International 178 (2008) 261–275 271

Valley environments Piedmont environments

Age [kyr]
Villa Vil Paranilla Toro Tonco Brealito Alemanía Los Loros Cafayate Cerro Zorrito Aconquija Sierra Laguna Blanca

Titicaca
~1.4
<3.8
>3.8 ?
4.8 ?
6.7 +/- 0.7 kyr (varve counts)
7.5 ?
10.8 ?
Coipasa
Minchin Tauca

13,7
15,2 ? ?
29
?
33
?
152 +17/-24
175 +16/-18
212 +55/-12
199 +74/-65
255 +35/-36
270 +25/-27
317 +38/-45
431 +18/-26
0.6 - 1.2 Myr deduced from
soil development
(Fauqué and Strecker, 1988)
2440 +/- 60
Landslide deposit El Peñon Tuff El Paso Ash Alemanía Ash Villa Vil Ash
Lake deposit Quebrada La Yesera Tuff Cerro Paranilla Ash Buey Muerto Ash Alemanía or Buey Muerto Ash

Fig. 7. Volcanic ash, radiocarbon and cosmogenic-nuclide stratigraphy for the studied landslides (improved after Hermanns et al., 2000). Humid climate
periods of the central Andes indicated with grey bars (after Baker et al., 2001a, b; Grosjean et al., 2003; Ledru et al., 1996; Sylvestre et al., 1999; van der
Hammen and Absy, 1994; Wirrmann and Mourguiart, 1995). Varve counts after Trauth et al. (2003a).

et al., 2004, 2006). The erroneous age was attributed to a
hardwater effect that can frequently be observed in lakes
underlain by carbonate bearing rocks in this part of the
Andes (Müller, 2001). The dated mollusks were sampled
within lake sediments also containing redeposited lenses
of tephra of either the Alemanı́a or Buey Muerto ash
(Table 2; Fig. 3f); hence, based on earlier data a definition
of the Quebrada del Tonco ash was necessary, as no other
ash of a similar age had previously been defined. Today
both sections (where the tephra can be defined) consist of
Holocene deposits, the Cafayate section showing that the
tephra is younger than 15,25071960 yr (Fig. 3f), and the
Tonco section showing that the tephra is younger than
78207830 ka (Fig. 3i). Hence, those tephra samples
previously defined as a separate tephra layer (Quebrada
del Tonco Ash in Hermanns et al., 2000) (g29, g39) most
likely belong to either the Alemanı́a Ash or the Buey
Muerto Ash.
The Alemanı́a Ash and the Buey Muerto Ash occur in
three outcrops in stratigraphic relation with each other
(Figs. 3a, 4a and b), in two of them as persistent tephra
layers interbedded with fluvio-lacustrine deposits. In the
Tafı́ valley section both tephra layers are interbedded with
45 cm of fluvio-lacustrine sediments (Fig. 8). In addition, in
this profile it is visible that the Alemanı́a Ash was deposited
in three pulses, all of them showing a fining upward
gradation. In this section the average deposition rate is
1 m per 1000 yr, calculated on ages in various horizons of
the profile (Fig. 4a). Therefore, the age of the two tephras
should differ by 450 yr. This fits with our age determina-
tions (Table 4). Tephra redeposition is unlikely to occur
after that long time period, and in any case would show
contamination by other sediments. To rule out that the
Alemanı́a Ash is a redepositional product of the Buey
Muerto Ash we conducted XRF whole rock analyses
including major, minor, and trace elements (Table 3;
Fig. 6a and b). The results of these analyses indicate an
identical composition in all components, which is signifi-
cantly different from the El Paso Ash sampled from a lower
horizon of the same outcrop (Fig. 4a). As redeposition is
unlikely to produce an identical composition as it would
cause mixing of the tephra with detritic material, we
interpret that the Alemanı́a Ash and the Buey Muerto Ash
are indeed two separate tephra layers.
The combination of recently published ages of tephra or of
deposits stratigraphically related to the tephra, and new age
determinations published here helped to better define the
ages of the Alemanı́a, Buey Muerto, Cerro Paranilla, and El
Paso ashes as well as the Quebrada La Yesera and El Peñon
tuffs. Major problems with previous age determinations of
tephra arose from the erroneous AMS 14C age of
32,4807150 yr BP of mollusks in the Cafayate section, where
it lies in stratigraphic contact with the La Yesera Tuff, the El
Paso Ash, and redeposited tephra lenses of either the Buey
Muerto or Alemanı́a ash. The ages could now be more
precisely defined (see above). Another problem arose by
dating the Cerro Paranilla Ash with the 40Ar/39Ar method
using multi-crystal biotite samples. Apparently the biotite
grains contained excess trapped 40Ar. This ash can now be
defined as Holocene age older than 78207830 yr (Fig. 3i).
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
272 R.L. Hermanns, A. Schellenberger / Quaternary International 178 (2008) 261–275

Fig. 8. Buey Muerto and Alenanı́a ashes in the Tafı́ valley section (Fig. 4a). In this outcrop deposition rate is approximately 1 m per 1000 yr. Both tephras
are separated by fluvio-lacustrine material and both tephras as well as the intermediate layer are persistent for some tens of metres and do not indicate
repositioning. AMS 14C dating of the tephras coincides with the thickness of interlayered sediments and hence both tephras although indistinguishable in
geochemical composition, are interpreted to indeed represent two separate tephra layers.

5.2. Implication of new tephra ages on temporal distribution
of landslides
The combination of previously published data on the
temporal distribution of landslide deposits in northwestern
Argentina (Fauqué and Strecker, 1988; Trauth and
Strecker, 1999; Hermanns et al., 2000, 2001a, b, 2004,
2006; Trauth et al., 2000, 2003a; Fauqué and Tchilinguir-
ian, 2002) with our new data given here emphasizes
principal results of the earlier tephrochronological study
(Hermanns et al., 2000), indicating two different geo-
morphic settings with strongly different ages of landslides:
(A) piedmont settings with large landslide deposits several
tens of thousands to one hundred thousand years old; and
(B) narrow valleys with significantly younger ages of large
landslides in the range of several thousands to tens of
thousands of years old (Fig. 7). In the piedmont setting
these landslides occur only along tectonically active
mountain fronts (Hermanns and Strecker, 1999) and could
be temporally associated in Sierra Laguna Blanca with
oversteepening related to uplift along mountain-bounding
faults (Hermanns et al., 2001b). Description of the two
environments follows.
(A) Piedmont environments: The morphologies of land-
slide source areas and deposits indicate that in the
piedmont setting, rock avalanches are significantly older
than in the narrow valley setting. Typically, breakaway
scarps and sliding surfaces are eroded or poorly preserved.
The inference of an older age for these deposits is also
supported by the degree of soil development on the
avalanche deposits (Fauqué and Strecker, 1988) and by
cosmogenic nuclide dating of a series of eight superposed
rock avalanche deposits on the western Sierra Laguna
Blanca piedmont. Surfaces of these deposits yielded
exposure ages between 152+17/24 ka and 431+18/
26 ka, indicating an average recurrence interval of large
gravitational mountain-front failures of 28 ka for the
last seven landslides (Fig. 7; Hermanns et al., 2001a)
whereas the first one occurred at least 100 ka earlier. This is
also supported by age estimates of the large landslide
deposits in the southern Cumbres Calchaquı́es (Fernández,
2005).
(B) Valley environments: Rock avalanche breakaways
and deposits in narrow valleys are much better preserved,
coinciding with the late Pleistocene and Holocene ages of
the landslides (Trauth and Strecker, 1999; Hermanns et al.,
2000, 2004, 2006; Trauth et al., 2000). These ages indicate
clustering of events between 35 and 25 ka, 15.5 and 13.5 ka,
and after 5 ka. However, landslides in this setting also
occurred at 7.5 ka, a time characterized by more arid
climate conditions (Mourguiart et al., 1998). The least
altered morphology is observed for the deposit of the
youngest rock avalanche in the Tonco valley (Fig. 3i), a
rock avalanche that formed the still existing lake at
Brealito, and a rock avalanche composed of granitic debris
at Cerro Paranilla (Fig. 3e). Although most young rock
avalanches in the study area are overlain at least locally by
either the Buey Muerto or the Alemanı́a ash, this is not the
case for these three deposits (Fig. 7), indicating that they
are most likely younger than 3.6 ka. However, they are
obviously older than historic times. The best preserved
rock avalanche scar in the study area, as indicated by
preserved groove marks on the sliding plane, is that of the
Brealito rock avalanche; this rock face is partially covered
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
R.L. Hermanns, A. Schellenberger / Quaternary International 178 (2008) 261–275
by petroglyphs known to have been painted in this region
in prehispanic time.
The coincidence of multiple landslides in this setting with
climatic periods characterized by increased humidity and
runoff in this part of the Andes (van der Hammen and
Absy, 1994; Wirrmann and Mourguiart, 1995; Sylvestre
et al., 1999; Baker et al., 2001a, b; Bookhagen et al., 2001;
Schäbitz et al., 2001; Grosjean et al., 2003) and also
observed in these valleys (Bookhagen et al., 2001), indicates
a strong coupling between precipitation, run-off, river
incision, slope oversteepening, and related slope failures.
This not only took place in the Minchin and Titicaca wet
period as previously described (Trauth et al., 2000, 2003b),
but also in the Tauca and possibly in the Coipasa wet
periods (Fig. 7). In addition, the temporal coincidence of
multiple landslides in the Tonco valley (Fig. 3i) with fault
ruptures, as well as soft sediment deformation in lake
deposits at 7430–7570 cal yr BP in the Cafayate section
(Figs. 3f and 7) suggests that limit equilibrium of large
slope sectors can also be reached with seismic acceleration
during more arid climatic periods (Hermanns et al., 2004,
2006; Hermanns and Villanueva Garcia, 2005).
6. Conclusion
Ten tephra deposits with ages between 1 ka and
2.44 Ma from northwestern Argentina are described here
based on the geochemical composition of glass shards.
Except for two tephra examples, they exhibit sufficiently
distinctive major and minor oxide compositions to be
classified into different tephra layers. The exceptions are
the Alemanı́a Ash and the Buey Muerto Ash, which have
identical glass shard composition. As well, the major,
minor, and trace element compositions of these tephra are
not distinctive. However, because both ashes occur at
various sites in the same outcrop at different stratigraphic
positions and can be dated by AMS 14C of organic material
to be temporally individual, these ash layers are defined as
in previous publications (Hermanns et al., 2000) as two
separate tephra deposits.
All ten tephras could either be dated directly by the
40
Ar/39Ar and zircon fission-track methods, or indirectly
by 14C dating of associated organic material or 10Be SED
with stratigraphically associated landslide deposits.
The temporal distribution indicates that large landslides
occur in northwestern Argentina in two different geomor-
phologic settings: (A) in piedmont settings, where land-
slides are several tens to hundreds of thousands of years
old; and in (B) narrow valleys where landslides are several
thousand to tens of thousands of years old, concentrated
during periods characterized by more humid climate
conditions. However, tephra layers also occur in direct
contact below multiple landslides in the Tonco valley, one
of them with an age of 78207830 yr, and coincide in their
age with deformation structures in lake sediments 50 km to
the south, suggesting that strong earthquakes may have
triggered multiple slope failures at the same time.
273
Acknowledgements
This study was financed by the collaborative Research
Center 276 ‘‘Deformation Processes in the Andes’’ and by
the GeoForschungsZentrum Potsdam and the University
of Berne. The authors would like to thank B.D. Malamud
for providing rests of tephra samples used in his study.
A. Villanueva Garcia and A. Alonso helped with logistics
in Argentina. D. Rhede and O. Appelt supported electron
microprobe analyses at GeoForschungsZentrum (GFZ)
Potsdam. R.L. Hermanns acknowledges fruitful discussion
with M. Strecker and M. Trauth, and support by
C. Hickson (Geological Survey of Canada), and B. Merz
and G. Borm (GFZ). A. Schellenberger acknowledges
support during field work by K. Fink, and generous
support for XRF analysis by I. Mercolli and M. Engi
(Institute of Geological Sciences, Berne).
References
Baker, P.A., Rigsby, C.A., Seltzer, G.O., Fritz, S.C., Lowenstein, T.K.,
Bacher, N.P., Veliz, C., 2001a. Tropical climate changes at millennial
and orbital timescales on the Bolivian Altiplano. Nature 409, 698–701.
Baker, P.A., Seltzer, G.O., Fritz, S.C., Dunbar, R.B., Grove, M.J., Tapia,
P.M., Cross, S.L., Rowe, H.D., Broda, J.P., 2001b. The history of
South American tropical precipitation for the past 25,000 years.
Science 291, 640–643.
Benson, L., Liddicoat, J., Smoot, J., Sarna-Wojcicki, A., Negrini, R.,
Lund, S., 2003. Age of the Mono Lake excursion and associated
tephra. Quaternary Science Reviews 22, 135–140.
Bookhagen, B., Haselton, K., Trauth, M.H., 2001. Hydrological model-
ling of a Pleistocene landslide-dammed lake in the Santa Maria Basin,
NW Argentina. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology
169, 113–127.
Borchardt, G., Aruscavage, P., Millard Jr., H., 1972. Correlation of
Bishop Ash, a Pleistocene marker bed, using instrumental neutron
activation analysis. Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 42, 301–306.
Caminos, R., 1979. Sierras Pampeanas noroccidentales, Salta, Tucuman,
Catamarca, La Rioja y San Juan. In: II Simposium Geologico de la
Republica Argentina, Academia Nacional de Ciencias. Servicio
Geológico Nacional, Córdoba, pp. 225–291.
Coira, B., 1993. Implications of Quaternary volcanism at Cerro Tuzgle for
crustal and mantle evolution of the Puna Plateau, Central Andes,
Argentina. Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology 113, 40–58.
de Silva, S.L., 1989. Altiplano-Puna volcanic complex of the central
Andes. Geology 17, 1102–1106.
de Silva, S.L., 1991. Styles of zoning in central Andean ignimbrites;
Insights into magma chamber processes. Geological Society of
America Special Paper 265, 217–231.
de Silva, S.L., Francis, P.W., 1991. Volcanoes of the Central Andes.
Springer, Berlin, 216pp.
Déruelle, B., 1981. Calc-alkaline, shoshonitic and alkaline associations: a
zonation of the Plio-Quaternary volcanic belt of South America (south
of latitude 181S). Pacific Geology 15, 71–83.
Espizua, L., Bigazzi, G., 1998. Fission-track dating of the Punta de Vacas
glaciation in the Rı́o Mendoza valley, Argentina. Quaternary Science
Reviews 17, 760–775.
Fauqué, L., Strecker, M.R., 1988. Large rock avalanche deposits
(Sturzstrome, sturzstroms) at Sierra Aconquija, northern Sierras
Pampeanas, Argentina. Eclogae Geologicae Helvetiae 81, 579–592.
Fauqué, L., Tchilinguirian, P., 2002. Villavil rockslides, Catamarca
Province, Argentina. In: Evans, S.G., DeGraff, J.V. (Eds.), Cata-
strophic Landslides: Effects, Occurrence, and Mechanisms. Reviews in
Engineering Geology. GSA, Boulder, pp. 303–324.
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
274 R.L. Hermanns, A. Schellenberger / Quaternary International 178 (2008) 261–275
Fernández, D., 2005. The giant paleolandslide deposits of Tafı́ del Valle,
Tucumán Province, Argentina. Geomorphology 70, 97–111.
Fisher, R.V., Schmincke, H.-U., 1984. Pyroclastic Rocks. Springer, Berlin,
472pp.
Francis, P.W., de Silva, S.L., 1989. Application of the Landsat Thematic
Mapper to the identification of potentially active volcanoes in the
central Andes. Remote Sensing of Environment 28, 245–255.
Frogatt, P.C., 1992. Standardization of the chemical analysis of tephra
deposits. Report of the ICCT working group. Quaternary Interna-
tional 13/14, 93–96.
Grier, M.E., Dallmeyer, R.D., 1990. Age of the Payogastilla Group:
implications for foreland basin development, NW Argentina. Journal
of South American Earth Sciences 3, 269–278.
Grier, M.E., Salfity, J.A., Allmendinger, R.W., 1991. Andean reactivation
of the Cretaceous Salta rift, northwestern Argentina. Journal of South
American Earth Sciences 4, 351–372.
Grosjean, M., Cartajena, I., Geyh, M.A., Nunez, L., 2003. From proxy
data to paleoclimate interpretation; the mid-Holocene paradox of the
Atacama Desert, northern Chile. In: Late-Quaternary Paleoclimates of
the Southern Tropical Andes and Adjacent Regions. Elsevier,
Amsterdam, pp. 247–258.
Hermanns, R.L., Strecker, M.R., 1999. Structural and lithological
controls on large Quaternary rock avalanches (sturzstroms) in arid
northwestern Argentina. Geological Society of America Bulletin 111,
934–948.
Hermanns, R.L., Villanueva Garcia, A., 2005. Did large earthquakes
cause massive landsliding and near-surface deformation in the
Calchaquı́es valleys, NW Argentina? In: Llambı́as, E., de Barrio, R.,
González, P., Leal, P. (Eds.), XVI Congreso Geológico Argentino.
CD-Rom, Universidad de La Plata, La Plata, 8pp.
Hermanns, R.L., Trauth, M.H., Niedermann, S., McWilliams, M.,
Strecker, M.R., 2000. Tephrochronologic constraints on temporal
distribution of large landslides in northwest Argentina. Journal of
Geology 108, 35–52.
Hermanns, R., Sobel, E., Strecker, M., and Niedermann, S., 2001a. Large
basin-flank collapses as indicators of tectonic slope oversteepening in
the southern Puna plateau and along its eastern margin (NW
Argentina). In: Balestrieri, M., Bartolini, C., Piccini, L., Stoppioni, S.
(Eds.), Uplift and Erosion: Driving Processes and Resulting Land-
forms. Siena, pp. 46–47.
Hermanns, R.L., Niedermann, S., Villanueva Garcia, A., Sosa Gomez, J.,
Strecker, M.R., 2001b. Neotectonics and catastrophic failure of
mountain fronts in the southern intra-Andean Puna Plateau,
Argentina. Geology 29, 619–623.
Hermanns, R.L., Niedermann, S., Ivy-Ochs, S., Kubik, P.W., 2004.
Rock avalanching into a landslide-dammed lake causing multiple
dam failure in Las Conchas valley (NW Argentina)—evidence from
surface exposure dating and stratigraphic analyses. Landslides 1,
113–122.
Hermanns, R.L., Niedermann, S., Villanueva Garcia, A., Schellenberger, A.,
2006. Rock avalanching in the NW Argentine Andes as a result of
complex interactions of lithologic, structural and topographic bound-
ary conditions, climate change and active tectonics. In: Evans, S.G.,
Scarascia Mugnozza, G., Strom, A.L., Hermanns, R.L. (Eds.),
Landslides from massive rock slope failure. NATO Science Series:
IV: Earth and Environmental Sciences, 49. Springer, Berlin, pp.
497–520.
Hunt, J., Hill, P., 1996. An inter-laboratory comparison of the electron
probe microanalysis of glass geochemistry. Quaternary International
34–36, 229–241.
Jordan, T.E., Isacks, B.L., Allmendinger, R.W., Brewer, J.A., Ramos, V.A.,
Ando, C.J., 1983. Andean tectonics related to geometry of
subducted Nazca plate. Geological Society of American Bulletin 94,
341–361.
Kleinert, K., Strecker, M.R., 2001. Climate change in response to
orographic barrier uplift: paleosol and stable isotope evidence from
the late Neogene Santa Maria basin, northwestern Argentina.
Geological Society of America Bulletin 113, 728–742.
Ledru, M.-P., Soares Braga, P.I., Soubiès, F., Fournier, M., Martin, L.,
Suguio, K., Turcq, B., 1996. The last 50,000 years in Neotropics
(Southern Brazil): evolution of vegetation and climate. Palaeogeo-
graphy, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 123, 239–257.
Malamud, B.D., Jordan, T.E., Alonso, R.A., Gallardo, E.F., Gonzalez, R.E.,
Kelley, S.A., 1996. Pleistocene Lake Lerma, Salta Province, NW
Argentina. In: XIII Congreso Geológico Argentino y III Congreso de
Exploración de Hidrocarburos. Asociación Geológica Argentina,
Buenos Aires, pp. 103–114.
Marshall, L., Patterson, B., 1981. Geology and geochronology of the
mammal-bearing Tertiary of the Valle de Santa Maria and Rı́o Corral
Quemado, Catamarca Province, Argentina. Fieldiana Geology, New
Series 9, 80pp.
McCormac, F.G., Hogg, A.G., Blackwell, P.G., Buck, C.E., Higham, T.F.G.,
Reimer, P.J., 2004. ShCal04 Southern Hemisphere Calibration,
0–11.0 cal Kyr BP. Radiocarbon 46, 1087–1092.
Mon, R., 1976. The structure of the eastern border of the Andes in north-
western Argentina. Geologische Rundschau 65, 211–222.
Mon, R., 1979. Esquema tectonico de los Andes del norte Argentino.
Revista de la Asociación Geológica Argentina XXXIV, 53–60.
Morgan, G.B., London, D., 1996. Optimizing the electron microprobe
analysis of hydrous alkali aluminosilicate glass. American Mineralo-
gist 81, 1176–1185.
Mourguiart, P., Corrège, T., Wirrmann, D., Argollo, J., Montenegro, M.E.,
Pourchet, M., Carbonel, P., 1998. Holocene paleohydrology
of Lake Titicaca estimated from an ostracod-based transfer
function. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 143,
51–72.
Müller, A.B., 2001. Die Änderungen von Niederschlagsverteilungen und
deren EinfluX auf die Provenienz von Seesedimenten während der
letzten 30.000 Jahre in den nordwestargentinischen Anden. Unpub-
lished Diploma Thesis, Universität Potsdam.
Omarini, R.H., 1983. Caracterización litológica, diferenciación y génesis
de la Formación Puncoviscana entre el Valle de Lerma y la Faja
Eruptiva de la Puna. Unpublished PhD Thesis, Universidad de Salta.
Ortega-Guerreo, B., Newton, A., 1998. Geochemical characterization of
late Pleistocene and Holocene tephra layers from the basin of Mexico,
Central Mexico. Quaternary Research 50, 90–106.
Reimer, P.J., Baillie, M.G.L., Bard, E., Bayliss, A., Beck, J.W., Bertrand, C.,
Blackwell, P.G., Buck, C.E., Burr, G., Cutler, K.B., Damon, P.E.,
Edwards, R.L., Fairbanks, R.G., Friedrich, M., Guilderson, T.P.,
Hughen, K.A., Kromer, B., McCormac, F.G., Manning, S., Bronk
Ramsey, C., Reimer, R.W., Remmele, S., Southon, J.R., Stuiver, M.,
Talamo, S., Taylor, F.W., van der Pflicht, J., Weyhenmeyer, C.E.,
2004. IntCal04 terrestrial radiocarbon age calibration, 0–26 kyr BP.
Radiocarbon 46, 1029–1058.
Reyes, F.C., Salfity, J.A., 1973. Consideraciones sobre la estratigrafı́a del
Cretácico (Subgrupo Pirgua) del noroeste Argentino. In: V Congreso
Geológico Argentino, pp. 355–385.
Salfity, J.A., Marquillas, R.A., 1994. Tectonic and sedimentary evolution of
the Cretaceous-Eocene Salta Group Basin, Argentina. In: Salfity, J.A.
(Ed.), Cretaceous Tectonics of the Andes. Earth Evolution Sciences.
Friedrich Vieweg und Sohn, Braunschweig-Wiesbaden, pp. 266–315.
Sarna-Wojcicki, A., 1976. Correlation of late Cenozoic tuffs in the
central Coast Ranges of California by means of trace- and minor-
element geochemistry. US Geological Survey Professional Paper no.
972, 32pp.
Sarna-Wojcicki, A., Morrison, S., Meyer, C., Hillhouse, J., 1987.
Correlation of upper Cenozoic tephra layers between sediments of
the western United States and eastern Pacific Ocean and comparison
with biostratigraphic and magnetostratigraphic age data. Geological
Society of America Bulletin 98, 207–223.
Schäbitz, F., Lupo, L., Kulemeyer, J.A., Kulemeyer, J.J., 2001.
Variaciones en la vegetación, el clima y la presencia humana en los
últimos 15.000 años en el borde oriental de la Puna, provincias de
Jujuy y Salta, noroeste argentino. In: XI Simposio Argentino de
Paleobotánica y Palinologı́a. Publicación Especial. Asociación Paleon-
tológica Argentina, Buenos Aires, pp. 155–162.
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
R.L. Hermanns, A. Schellenberger / Quaternary International 178 (2008) 261–275
Sobel, E.R., Strecker, M.R., 2002. Contrasting histories from vertical
profiles in the Calchaquı́es and Aconquija ranges, northwest Argen-
tina. Geotemas 4, 139–142.
Stern, C., 1990. Tephrochronology of southernmost Patagonia. National
Geographic Research 6, 110–126.
Stern, C., 1992. Tefrochronologı́a de Magallanes: nuevos datos e
implicaciones. Anales Instituto de Patagonia 21, 129–141.
Stern, C., Amini, H., Charrier, R., Godoy, E., Hervé, F., Varela, J., 1984.
Petrochemistry and age of rhyolitic flows which occur along the
drainage valleys of the Rı́o Maipo and Rı́o Cahapoal (Chile) and the
Rı́o Papagayos (Argentina). Revista Geológica de Chile 23, 39–52.
Strecker, M.R., Cerveny, P., Bloom, A.L., Malizzia, D., 1989. Late
Cenozoic tectonism and landscape development in the foreland of the
Andes: Northern Sierras Pampeanas (261–281S), Argentina. Tectonics
8, 517–534.
Sylvestre, F., Servant, M., Servant-Vildary, S., Causse, C., Fournier, M.,
Ybert, J., 1999. Lake level chronology on the southern Bolivian
Altiplano (181–231 S) during Late Glacial time and early Holocene.
Quaternary Research 51, 54–66.
Thorpe, R.S., 1984. The tectonic setting of active Andean volcanism. In:
Harmon, RS., Barreiro, B.A. (Eds.), Andean Magmatism: Chemical
and Isotopic Constraints. Shiva Geology Series, Nantwich, pp. 4–8.
Toms, P., King, M., Zárate, M., Kemp, R., Foit Jr, F., 2004. Geochemical
characterization, correlation, and optical dating of tephra in alluvial
sequences of central western Argentina. Quaternary Research 62,
60–75.
Trauth, M.H., Strecker, M.R., 1999. Formation of landslide-dammed
lakes during a wet period between 40,000 and 25,000 yr BP in
northwestern Argentina. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Pa-
laeoecology 153, 277–287.
View publication stats
275
Trauth, M.H., Alonso, R.A., Haselton, K.R., Hermanns, R.L., Strecker, M.R.,
2000. Climate change and mass movements in the NW Argentine
Andes. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 179, 243–256.
Trauth, M.H., Bookhagen, B., Müller, A.B., Strecker, M.R., 2003a. Late
Pleistocene climate change and erosion in the Santa Maria basin, NW
Argentina. Journal of Sedimentary Research 73, 82–90.
Trauth, M.H., Bookhagen, B., Marwam, N., Strecker, M.R., 2003b.
Multiple landslide clusters record Quaternary climate changes in the
NW Argentine Andes. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoe-
cology 194, 109–121.
van der Hammen, T., Absy, M.L., 1994. Amazonia during the last glacial.
Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 109, 247–261.
Wayne, W.J., 1999. Alemanı́a rockfall dam: a record of a mid-Holocene
earthquake and catastrophic flood in northwestern Argentina.
Geomorphology 27, 295–306.
Westgate, J., Gorton, M., 1981. Correlation techniques in tephra studies.
In: Self, S., Sparks, R. (Eds.), Tephra Studies. Reidel, Dodrecht, pp.
73–94.
Westgate, J.A., 1989. Isothermal plateau fission-track ages of hydrated
glass shards from silicic tephra beds. Earth and Planetary Science
Letters 95, 226–234.
Westgate, J.A., Dreimanis, A., 1967. Volcanic ash layers of Recent age at
Banff National Park, Alberta, Canada. Canadian Journal of Earth
Sciences 4, 155–161.
Wilcox, R.E., 1965. Volcanic-ash chronology. In: Wright, H.E., Frey, D.G.
(Eds.), The Quaternary of the US. Princeton University Press,
Princeton, pp. 807–816.
Wirrmann, D., Mourguiart, P., 1995. Late Quaternary spatio-temporal
limnological variations in the Altiplano of Bolivia and Peru.
Quaternary Research 43, 344–354.