Others

1. Hazard warning labels 

  - KOH(aq) : corrosive
  - NH4NO3 : explosive and flammable
  - HCl(aq) : corrosive
  - O2(g) : oxidising

2. Given that ammonia is very soluble in water. State the advantage of using inverted funnel.
  - Using an inverted funnel increase the surface area for the water to dissolve the ammonia
gas produce, thus preventing sucking back of the solution.

3. Ways of collect SO2

  - SO2 is very soluble in water > cannot collected by displacement of water
  - Downward delivery / gas syringe

4. Why the drink / carbonated water (CO2 dissolve in water) become less fizzy after the can
has been opened for some time?
  - The drink is fizzy as CO2 is released from the carbonated water.
  - CO2 has low solubility in water under atmospheric pressure > CO2 dissolved in the
carbonated water under pressure is released from the opened can of drink continuously.
  - Thus, the amount of dissolved CO2 decrease and the drink become less dizzy.

Planet Earth
Composition of atmosphere / sea water
1. Flame test
  - Potassium-containing compound : lilac flame

Evaporation

(Fractional) distillation

Simple distillation
1. Underlying principle (sea water)
  - Water is the only volatile composition in sea water.
  - When sea water is heated, only water would vaporise while impurities would be left
behind so that water could be isolated as distillate upon cooling 

2. Set-up for determined the boiling point of most organic liquid

  - The thermometer measure the temperature of vapour above the liquid.
  - Since the vapour is in equilibrium with the boiling liquid, the temperature of vapour is
exactly the boiling point.
  - The thermometer should not be insert into the liquid : temp. of the liquid maybe higher
than the boiling point due to superheating or the presence of impurities.
3. Anti-bumping granule was added into the flask before heating
  - To ensure sea water is heated smoothly so as to avoid ‘bumping’

Crystallisation

Filtration

Different from of calcium carbonate(limestone,

chalk,marble)
In an experiment, carbon dioxide is passed into limewater until excess.
(a) State the expected observations and write the chemical equations for the reactions
involved.
  Limewater turns milky and then turns clear again.
  Ca(OH)2 + CO2 -> CaCO3 + H2O
  CaCO3 + H2O + CO2 -> Ca(HCO3)2

(b) Explain whether the similar observations in (a) would be made if sodium hydroxide
solution is
used instead of limewater.
  No. CaCO3 (limewater) is soluble in water.

(c) Explain whether the similar observations in (a) would be made if air is used instead of
carbon
dioxide.
  No . The percentage of CO2 in air is very low, similar observation would not be made in a
short period of time.

Microscopic world 1
Atomic structure

Relative isotopic, atomic, molecular masses

1. What is meant by the term ‘isotope’ ?
  - ‘Isotope’ are atoms with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.

2. What is meant by the term ‘relative atomic mass’ ?

  - The average weight of masses of isotopes of a particular element compared with the 12C
= 12.00000 scale.

Electronic arrangement of atoms and compounds

1. Daily application of Neon gas
  - Neon gas can be used for filling tubes in advertising signs

The periodic table

1. Group 1 metal : stored under paraffin oil
  - Very reactive 
  - Can react readily with moisture in air

2. Argon : fill a light bulb

  - Noble gas : chemically inert 
  - Would not react with the filament even under high temperature 

Ionic and Covalent bond / Giant ionic, Simple molecular,

Giant covalent, Giant metallic substances 
1. Explain why SiO2 has the highest boiling point among the covalent oxide.
  - SiO2 has a giant covalent structure, in which the Si and O atoms are bonded by network
of strong covalent bond. Much energy is required to separate the atoms apart so SiO2has a
high melting point.
  - On the other hand, other covalent oxides have simple molecular structure, in which the
molecules are held by weak van der Waals’ forces. Little energy is required to separate the
molecules so these covalent oxides have low melting point.

2. Why CsCl(s), solid ionic compounds, is brittle?

  - When a strong force is applied at a small region of solid CsCl, the regular arrangement of
ions is distorted such that ions of like chargers align and hence repel.
  - Hence, the solid collapse and the solid breaks at that region.

3. Graphite
(a) Why graphene can be peeled off easily?
  - The graphene layers in graphite are held by weak van der Waals’ forces only.
(b) Why graphene can conduct electricity?
  - The presence of delocalised electrons.
(c) The product formed by complete combustion of graphene.
  - CO2
(d) Did graphite has a low b.p.?
  - No.
  - Melting of graphene involves breaking a lot of strong covalent bonds holding the carbon
atoms within each graphene layer.
  - Hence, graphite has a high melting point.

4. C60
(a) Structure 
  - Simple molecular structure.
  - C60 molecules are spherical.
  - In a C60 molecules, each C atom is attached to three other C atoms by one double
covalent bond and two single covalent bonds.
(b) Why it is soluble in some organic solvent.
  - C60 is non-polar since its covalent bonds are all non-polar.
  - Hence, it is soluble in non-polar organic solvent.

5. Argon
  - Simple molecular structure 
  - Ar(g) : consist of discrete, monoatomic molecules held together by weak instantaneous
dipole-induced dipole attraction (van der Waals’ forces)

   

Metals
Occurrence and extraction of metals
1. The extraction of iron from its ores involved in reduction of iron oxide
(a) Why Al is NOT used as the reducing agent in iron extraction?
  - Al is a reactive metal > its extraction is expensive.
  - Coke, which is much cheaper, is prefer to aluminium as the reducing agent in iron
extraction 
(b) Suggest the reducing agent commonly used in iron extraction.
  -C
  - CO

Reactivity of metals

Use of metals / corrosion of metals / protection of metals

1. Cu
(a) Making electrical wiring
  - cheap
  - high electrical conductivity 
  - resistant to corrosion
  - very ductile

2. Al
(a) Making overhead high voltage cables
  - low density
  - good conductor of electricity 

3. Bronze (青銅)
(a) Making ship propellers
  - strong but malleable > can be pressed into shape easily.
  - cheap

** Corrosion : the gradual deterioration of metals due to reaction with air, water or other
substances in the surroundings.

4. Sacrificial protection 
  - A metal is connected to a more reactive metal, the more reactive one will lose electrons in
preference and corrode instead. 
  - Thus protecting the less reactive metal from corrosion by prevent the less reactive metal
to form ions.
  - The more reactive metal is said to be sacrificed to protect the less reactive metal.
  - E.g. (a) Galvanizing
  - Zn is coated on Fe.
  - Zn is sacrificed to save the underlying Fe
  (b) Mg blocks connected to underground tunnels protect Fe from rusting.
5. Anodisation
  - The protective layer of Al can be thickened by an electrolysis process
  - Al is connected to anode (positive electrode) > O2 is evolved to oxidised Al
  - Al oxide : tough / impermeable / resistant to corrosion > It seals the metal & protect it
from further corrosion 

6. Tin-plating
  - The metal is coated with a thin layer of tin.
  - Tin : corrosion resistant > Tin coat serve as a protective layer which keeps air and water
away from the surface of metal > Protect metal from corrosion 
  - If the coating is damaged, even partly, rusting occur faster since Fe is more reactive than
Tin.

Acid and bases

Acid
1. The expected 1M standard H2C2O4(aq) should have a pH of 1.0. However, the actual
result was found to be greater than 1, explain this observation.
  - Carboxylic acid are weak acid. Some of the H2C2O4(aq) may have only 1 -COOH group
ionised to give H+(aq)
  - HOOCCOOH(aq) -> H+(aq) + HOOCCOO-(aq)
  - Since pH=-log10[H+(aq)], the pH of the solution is greater than expected.

2. ‘All concentrated acid are strong acid’. Comment on this. 

  - No.
  - Concentration of an acid = The number of moles per unit volume of the acid
  - Strength of an acid = The degree of dissociation of the acid to give H+(aq) in aqueous
solution
  - Concentrated acid could be weak acid.

Alkali

Indicator and pH

Neutralisation

Preparation of salt
1. Factors that affect pH of acids.
  - The higher the concentration of hydrogen ion, the lower is the pH  - Concentration : The
more concentrated an acid is, normally the more concentrated is the hydrogen ions  -
Strength : A strong acid has a higher degree of ionisation in water to give hydrogen ion (e.g.
1M HCl and 1M CH3COOH)  - Basicity : An acid with a higher basicity normally gives a
higher concentration of hydrogen ions (e.g. 1M HCl and 1M H2SO4)

2. Outline the step in preparing solid lead(ll) sulphate from solid lead(ll) nitrate.
  - Dissolve the solid lead(ll) nitrate in water.
  - Mix the lead(ll) nitrate solution with excess dilute sulphuric acid.
  - Separate the lead(ll) sulphate precipitate from the mixture by filtration.
  - Wash the precipitate with cold deionised water and dry it in an oven.
  (** This method is based on the fact that lead(ll) nitrate is soluble but lead(ll) sulphate is
insoluble)
  ( Pb(NO3)2 (aq) + H2SO4 (aq) -> PbSO4 (s) + 2HNO3 (aq) )

Volumetric analysis
1. Procedure for cleaning the burette before experiment
  - Washed with deionised water
  - Rinse with (the solution is going to put into the burette)

2. Standard NaOH(aq) CANNOT be directly prepared by weighing NaOH(s) and then

dissolving it in water. Why?
  - NaOH is hygroscopic and absorb moisture from air.
  - It also react with CO2 in air slowly.
  - Hence, NaOH(s) cannot be weighed accurately.

3. Inappropriate practices > inaccurate titration result

(a) Rinsing the conucal flask with the standard acid before transferring 25.00 cm3 of acid
solution to it. 
  - Some acid would be left in the conical flask.
  - This would make the volume of acid reacted in titration more than 25.00 cm3.
(b) Carrying out the titration with the filter funnel remaining on top of the burette after using
it to fill the burette with the alkali.
  - The alkali left on the filter funnel would run into the burette as the experiment proceeds.
  - This would make the volume of alkali required to reach the titration end point
underestimated.

4. Step for prepare a burette contain the HCl(aq) for titration.

  - Rinse the burette with distilled water and then with HCl.
  - Clamp the burette vertically in a stand.
  - Close the stopcock of burette.
  - Pour HCl into the burette with a funnel.
  - The funnel is removed after used.
  - Open the stopcock for a few seconds to fill the jet completely with HCl without any gas
bubbles trapped inside the jet.

Fossil fuel and carbon compound

Separation and uses of fraction of petroleum
1. Describes the principle underlying the fractional distillation of crude oil
  - Crude oil is a mixture of hydrocarbons with different boiling point.
  - It is heated in a furnace in high temperature.
  - It vapourizes and then condense at different levels of the fractionating towers based on
the boiling points of different fractions.
  - Heavier fractions condense at a lower levels as they have higher boiling point, while
lighter fractions condense at higher levels as they have lower boiling point.
 
2. Why petrol can be obtained from petroleum by fractional distillation?
  - Petroleum is a mixture of hydrocarbons with various molecule sizes.
  - Hence, petrol has a boiling point difference from other fractions so it can be obtained
from petroleum by fractional distillation.

3. Explain the following statements 

(A) Naphtha instead of coal is use to manufacture town gas
  - Coal is too bulky to be transported. Naphtha is a liquid and can be more easily
transported and stored.
  - Burning naphtha cause less pollution than burning coal as coal contain sulphur which
would produced SO2 when burn.
(B) An additive of foul smell is add to town gas
  - The constituent of town gas are odourless. To warn consumers of gas leakage, an
additive with a foul smell is add.

4. Explain why global demand for petrol is greater than that of kerosene.
  - Petrol is mainly used as the fuel for cars while kerosene is mainly used as the fuel for
aeroplanes.
  - Hence, petrol has a greater demand as there are more cars

5. Briefly describe how polypropene can be produced from naphtha.

  - Propene, the monomer of polypropene, can be produced by cracking of naphtha.
  - This can be done by heating naphtha in the absence of air with a catalyst.
  - Propene can be isolated from the reaction mixture by fractional distillation.
  - Polypropene can be produced by addition polymerisation of propene at elevated
temperature or in the presence of a suitable catalyst.

6. Why it is hazardous to add cold water to a tray containing molten wax at a high
temperature?
  - Molten wax does not mix with water & Less dense than water.
  - The heat of the molten wax makes water evaporate to produce steam > Cause the molten
wax to splash out of the container.

7. State the origin of petroleum.

  - Petroleum originate from remains of marine organisms, small aquatic plants and animals,
which are buried by layers of mud and sand under the sea at high pressure and temperature
for millions of years.

Pollution and environmental protection of using fossil fuel

1. Measures for reduce the emission of air pollutants upon using fossil fuel.
  - Install catalytic converters in vehicles.
  - Use LPG in vehicles instead of diesel.
  - Use unleaded petrol instead of leaded petrol.
  - Use fuel with low sulphur content.
  - Install electrostatic precipitators in factories and power plants.
  - Install wet/dry scrubbers in factories and power plants.
2. In cold weather, a person trying to warm up a room with a cold fire soon gets dizzy. Why?
  - If the ventilation is not good enough, O2 is constantly being used up > Coal undergoes
incomplete combustion with the production of CO.
  - When CO is taken into the body > combines with haemoglobin in RBC to form
carboxyhaemoglobin (inconvertible).
  - The oxygen carrying capacity decrease > not enough oxygen supply to the brain > dizzy.

3. Why CO2 can cause the greenhouse effect.

  - Energy from the sun fall on the Earth.
  - The solar energy is absorbed by the earth or reflected back to the space.
  - CO2 absorbs some of the infrared energy and prevent it from escaping the earth’s
atmosphere.
  - This trapping of energy in the atmosphere is known as the greenhouse effect.

4. State the importance of greenhouse gas in the atmosphere to living things on earth.
  - The greenhouse gas trap heat in the atmosphere.
  - This keep the earth warm enough for life processes of the living things to carry out.

5. State the harmful effect of global warming.

  - Ice at the Poles melts. > Rise sea level > Flooding
  - Global warming may cause drought.

Homologous serious / alkane and alkene 

1. Substitution : how CH4 react with Br2 under sunlight to form CH3Br? 
  - Br2 molecules break up into Br。 free radicals under sunlight
  - Br。 free radicals react with CH4 molecules to form CH3。 free radicals.
  - CH3。 free radicals react with Br。 free radicals or Br2 molecules to form CH3Br
Cracking
1. Cracking of kerosene can produce petrol. Stance the condition required.
  - Heating kerosene to about 500 degree in the absence of air, with either a high pressure of
30 atm or the presence of catalyst (e.g. Al2O3)

2. Importance
  - Important source of smaller alkanes from large hydrocarbons to meet the demand for
fuels or useful fuels like petrol.
  - Important source of alkenes, which are raw materials of plastic.

3. Produce extra petrol

  - Cracking of fractions with larger molecular sizes like heavy oils.

Addition polymer
1. Why polypropene should be expanded before it is used to make disposable lunch boxes.
  - To enable heat to be trapped by the enlarged spaces.
Microscopic world 2
Electronegativity / polarity of bond and molecule
1. Non-polar
  - Symmetrical shape > The dipole moment completely cancel out one another
  - E.g. BF3

Intermolecular forces
1. Explain why the boiling point of neon is a lower than that of oxygen.
  - Neon is monoatmoic while oxygen is diatomic.
  - Hence, Neon has a smaller molecular size than oxygen.
  - With a smaller contact surface area, the van der Waals’ forces between neon molecules
are weaker than those between oxygen molecules.
  - As a result, the boiling point of neon is lower than that of oxygen.

2. Explain the formation of H-bond in hydrogen fluoride.

  - Fluorine is a highly electronegative element so the H-F in hydrogen fluoride bond is very
polar.
  - As a result, hydrogen bonds form between the partially positively charged hydrogen atom
and the lone pair electrons of fluorine.

3. Condition of soluble in water.

  - Froms H-bond with water readily (e.g. presence of -OH group)
  - Short C chain

Molecular crystal
1. Why density of ice is lower than that of water
  - In ice, water molecules form an open network structure to maximise the number of
hydrogen bonds formed.
  - When ice melts, some of the hydrogen bonds are broken and this open network structure
collapses.
  - As a result, water molecules are packed more closely.
  - Hence, the density of ice is lower than that of water.

Simple molecular substance with non-octet structure

Shapes of simple molecules 

Redox reaction, Chemical cell,

electrolysis
Common primary and secondary cell
Redox reaction
1. Reducing power
  - Positive electrode = Loss electrons less readily = Lower positions in ECS = Weaker
reducing power

2. How conc. H2SO4(aq), conc. HNO3(aq), conc. CH3COOH(aq) distinguished by using Cu

granules?
  - Add Cu granules to the three conc. acids separately.
  - Cu metal would be oxidised by both conc. H2SO4(aq) and conc. HNO3(aq).
  - For conc. H2SO4 : colourless gas would be given out.
  - Fir conc. HNO3 : a brown gas would be given out.
  - Cu does not react with conc. CH3COOH(aq).
  - For conc. CH3COOH : there would be no observation change.

Chemical cell / redox reaction chemical cell

Lead-acid accumulator
- Pb: toxic, H2SO4: highly corrosive 

Nickel metal hydride cell

- environmental friendly 
  (No Cd, Hg, Pb)

** A chemical cell is a device that converts the chemical energy stored in it into electrical
energy

** Electrons only flow in the external circuit ; ions flow in the electrolyte.

1. Function of lemon in lemon cell

  - The lemon provide mobile ions which act as electrolyte for the chemical cell to complete
the circuit.

2. Role of salt bridge

  - Allows the flow of ions between the two half cells to complete the circuit
  - Allows ions to flow into or out of the half cells to balance the charges in the half cells

3. Salt bridge soaked with saturated potassium nitrate solution.

  - K+(aq) and NO3- do not react with other ions in the solution or with the electrodes

2. ‘Cars powered by H-O fuel cells are more environmental friendly than those powered by
petrol’ 
Comment on this view from each of the following aspects.
(a) Source of fuel
  - The fuel of H-O fuel cell, H & O, are manufactured from electrolysis of water while
petrol is derived from fossil fuels.
  - The former is renewable but the latter is non-renewable.
  - Hence, this view is justify.
(b) The car emission
  - The only by-product when a H-O fuel cell operate is water while burning petrol produce
many air pollutants like CO, SO2, nitrogen oxides.
  - Hence, this view is justify.
Electrolysis

1. Expected observation
(a) The solution near electrode A
  - Turn from colourless to brown
  - This is because colourless iodide ion are preferentially discharged at high concentration
and hence oxidised to brown iodine at carbon electrode A.
  - 2I-(aq) -> I2(aq) + 2e-
(b) The solution near electrode B
  - Gradually turned blue
  - This is because hydrogen ions are reduced to hydrogen gas and hence the concentration
of hydrogen ions decrease.
  - As a result, the solution become alkaline intern the universal indicator blue.
  - 2H+(aq) + 2e- -> H2(g)

2. What if C electrode B replaced by a Cu electrode?

  - There would not be any change in observation.
  - This is because Cu metal cannot be reduced.

Chemical reaction and energy

Endothermic reaction

Exothermic reaction
1. Dilute a concentrated acid 
- acid should be added slowly into the water : to control the amount of heat developed at a
time
- vice versa : the heat generated would be too large that splashing of acid would occur

Standard enthalpy change of reaction

1. Standard enthalpy change of combustion 
  - The enthalpy change when one mole of substance undergoes complete combustion in
oxygen under standard condition.

Hess’s law
Rate of reaction
Method of following the progress of chemical reaction
1. By measuring the change in volume of a gaseous product
  - e.g. CaCO3 (s) + 2HCl (aq) -> CaCl2 (aq) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g)
  - measure the volume of CO2 released at regular time intervals 
  - Step: Mix the reactants and start the stopwatch at the same time. Record the volume of
gas release at regular time interval until the reaction finished.

2. By measu ring the change in mass of the reaction mixture

  - Step: Reaction between CaCO3 and dilute HCl
  (i) Place dilute HCl in a conical flask. Stopper the flask with cotton wool.
  (ii) Place the flask on an electronic balance.
  (iii) Remove the cotton wool, drop the CaCO3 into the flask. Start a stopwatch at the
same time. Replace the cotton wool.
  (iv) Record the balance reading at regular time intervals until the reaction finished.
  - Cotton wool : Prevent the acid from spraying out of the flask but allow gas formed to
escape into the air

3. By measuring the change in pressure

  - Reaction occurs in a close container > pressure inside as the reaction proceeds
  - Measure the pressure change by using a pressure sensor connected to a data-logger
interface and a computer 
  - The use of data-logger : allow continuous pressure reading > The curve of the variation of
pressure with time can be plotted automatically.

4. By measuring the change in colour intensity with colorimetry 

  - E.g. CH3COCH3 + I2 -> CH3COCH2I + H+ + I- 
  (Colourless) (Brown) (Colourless)
  - As the reaction proceeds, the brown colour of reaction mixture become less intense
as the concentration of iodine decrease.
  - Change of color intensity is measure by : Colorimeter
  - Colorimeter 
  - consist of a light source with filters to select a suitable colour of light which is
absorbed most by the coloured chemical species in the sample.
  - The light pass through the sample onto a detector.
  - The transmitted light is detected and the absorbance is shown on the meter.
  - The darker the colour of the sample, the higher is the absorbance.
  - Absorbance(A) is determined by comparing the intensity of the incident light (lo) to the
intensity of light after it has passed through the sample (ls) : A = log(lo/ls)
  - Absorbance reading converted to iodine concentration by using a Calibration graph.

5. By measuring the time taken for the reaction to reach this turbid stage
  - E.g. Na2S2O3 (aq) + 2HCl (aq) -> 2NaCl (aq) + SO2 (aq) + S (s) + H2O (l)
  - Procedure: 
  (i) Place the Na2S2O3 (aq) in a conical flask and put the flask on across drawn on a
piece of white paper.
  (ii) Quickly add HCl (aq) to the flask. Start the stop watch at the same time.
  (iii) Look at the cross from above. The cross grows fainter as the precipitate formed.
  (iv) Stop the stopwatch when the cross becomes invisible. Note the time.
  - When enough precipitate is formed > reaction mixture would become so turbid that the
cross is obscured.
  - Average rate of reaction from the start to this turbid stage = (amount of precipitate needed
to obscure the cross / time to reach this turbid stage)
  - The shorter the time taken to reach this turbid stage, the faster is the reaction.

6. By titrimetric analysis 
  (a) How the progress of the reaction can be followed by titrimetric analysis?
  - Take samples of known volume at regular time intervals.
  - Quench the reaction.
  - Titrate each sample with a standard (acid/alkali).
  - Determine the concentration of (OH-/H+) (aq) ions in each sample.

Instantaneous and average rate

1. How is the initial rate of ( ) calculated from the graph?
  - Determine the slope of the tangent to the curve at time = 0

2. Why ‘initial rate’ is commonly used in the study of the kinetic of a reaction?

  - Initial rate is related to the initial concentration of reactants, which are known.

2. How the instantaneous rate of (y-axis) at the (time) can be determined from the graph?
  - It can be determined by finding the slope of the tangent to the graph at (time).
  - It is the negative of the slope.

Factors affecting the rate of reaction

1. How the rate of reaction change with time?
  - The rate of reaction is the highest at the start.
  - The rate of reaction decrease with time.

2. Explain, in terms of collision between particles, why rate changes with time.
  - The concentration of the (reactant) decrease gradually as the (reactant) particles are
consumed.
  - The chance of collision decrease, so there would be less effective collision in a unit
volume per unit time.
  - Hence, the rate of reaction decrease.
  - 

1. Basicity
  - HCl is a monobasic acid while H2SO4 is a dibasic acid so that the concentration of H+
(aq) in 1M H2SO4 (aq) is higher than that in 1M HCl (aq).
  - After replacing the 1M HCl (aq) with 1M H2SO4 (aq), the frequency of effective
collision increase and hence the initial rate increase.

2. Catalyst
  - A catalyst alters the rate of a chemical reaction by providing an alternative pathway with
different activation energy
  (a) Why are catalyst used in chemical reaction?
  - To speed up the reaction.
  (b) Why a thin layer of catalyst is used?
  - It minimise the amount of catalyst used.
  - It maximise the surface area on which reactions can take place.
  (c) Why the catalyst is not need to replace?
  - A catalyst remain chemically unchanged at the end of a reaction.
3. Total S.A.
  - E.g. fine powder / broken 
  - To speed up The reaction by increasing the total surface area of solid reactants

4. Pressure
  (a) How would increase of pressure change the rate of the reaction?
  - Increase pressure increase the rate of the reaction.
  - When the pressure is increase, there are more gas particles per unit volume, so they
collide more often.
  - There are more effective collision in a unit volume per unit time.

Chemical equilibrium
Dynamic equilibrium

Equilibrium constant

Change in equilibrium position

Chemistry of carbon compound 

Structural formula and systemic name

Structural isomerism 

Cis-trans isomerism

Enantiomerism

Alkane

Alkene
1. Test the presence of alkene (due to the presence of C=C double bond)
  - Turn Bromine from brown to colourless immediately.
  - Turn acidified potassium permanganate solution from purple to colourless.
  - Treat with potassium permanganate solution in alkaline medium, brown precipitate is
given out.

2. Hydrogenation > Alkane

  - Exothermic : heat energy is released during the process
  - By law of conservation of energy, the energy content of product the starting material

Haloalkane

Alcohol
1. Why is methanol an important compound in the chemical industry?
  - Methanol can be used to make organic compounds with larger number of carbon atoms.
  - Methanol can be used as solvent with a great variety of uses.

Aldehyde / ketone

Carboxylic acid

Ester
1. Why is ester used in the drink?
  - Ester has a characteristic of sweet fruity smell.
  - Ester is added as artificial flavouring in the drink.

2. How ester can be prepared in the laboratory?

  - A mixture of carboxylic acid and alcohol and a few drops of conc. H2SO4 is heated
gently in a test tube.
  - Then the mixture is poured into water.
  - A thin and immiscible layer floats on the water.
  - A fruity smell is detected.
  **conc. H2SO4 : catalyst / dehydrating agent to remove water produced

Amide 

Interconversion / preparation

Aspirin

Soaps and soapless detergent 

1. Suggest why soapy detergent can destroy the virus.
  - Dissolve the oil in coating

2. Explain the cleansing property of C17H35COO-.

  - It consist of a hydrophilic ionic head (COO-) and a hydrophobic hydrocarbon tail
(C17H35).
  - When shaken with the grease, the ionic head dissolves in water while the hydrocarbon tail
dissolves in the grease.
  - The grease is broken down into smaller negatively charged grease droplets, surrounded
by likely-charged ionic heads.
  - As a result, the grease droplets repel one another and cannot get together again.
  - Oily droplets become suspended in the aqueous solution in the lather.
  - Thus the grease can be removed easily by gentle washing.

3. Detergents can be used to clean up oil spillage in the sea. Why?

  - A detergent contain a hydrophobic hydrocarbon tail and a hydrophilic ionic head.
  - The hydrophobic tails of the detergent mix with oil.
  - The hydrophilic heads mix with water molecules.
  - This makes oil and water interlock together.
  - An emulsion is formed.
  - Oil droplets can then be dispersed by water current.

4. Why soap does not function well in hard water?

  - Hard water contain appreciable concentration of Ca / Mg ions.
  - Soap anions are removed by reacting with Ca / Mg ions present in hard water > Form
scum.
  - Thus, soap loses its cleansing ability.

5. Why washing soda can help reduce the hardness of water?

  - Washing soda contain carbonate ions.
  - It reduce the hardness of water by precipitating Ca & Mg ions as insoluble carbonate so
that these ions cannot react with soap.
  - Ca2+(aq) + CO3-(aq) -> CacO3(s)

6. Suggest an environmental consequence associated with the discharge of waste water

containing detergent into rivers and lakes.
  - Foaming occur in river and lakes.
  - The detergent contain branched hydrocarbon chains which are non-biodegradable 
 

Nylon and polyesters 

Carbohydrates, lipid, protein

Pattern in the chemical world

Periodic variation in physical property of the element from
Li to Ar
1. Arrange Li, Be, C(graphite), N2 in increasing order of melting point, and explained the
order in terms of structure and bonding.
  - Increasing order of melting point : N2 Li Be C(graphite)
(a) - N2 has a simple molecular structure in which molecules are held by weak van der
Waals’ forces. 
  - Li has giant metallic structure in which the sea of delocalised electrons and ions are held
by strong metallic bond.
  - Hence, it needs less energy to separate the N2 molecules apart than the Li atoms.
(b) - Li & Be both have giant metallic structure.
  - Each Li atom contributes 1 delocalised electron by forming an ion with +1 charge.
  - Each Be atom contributes 2 delocalised electrons by forming an ion with +2 charge.
  - As a result, the metallic bond in Li are weaker than that in Be.
(c) - Graphite consist of layers made of six-membered carbon rings.
  - Melting of graphite involves breaking a lot of strong covalent bond within the layers.
  - Thus, the m.p. of Be is lower than that of graphite.
 
Bonding, stoichiometric composition and acid-base properties of the oxides of elements from
Na to Cl

Transition metals