Molecular formula is actually n x empirical formula mass

Where n is a whole number multiple

n= molar mass/empirical mass

To find empirical fmla, divide compound’s mass by RMM, then divide all masses by the smallest answer
from the previous step to get the subscripts for each compound

Properties of carbon that allow it to form so many unique compounds

-Tetravalency

-Catenation-ability of atoms to form self-linking chains and ring structures (For carbon, these bonds are
abnormally stable)

-Hybridization: The orbitals of carbon hybridize when in a single bond, one s and three p orbitals
combine to form 4 sp3 hybrid orbitals.

For a C=C , it is An sp2 hybridization where one s and two p orbitals are combined to form an three sp 2
hybrids
Alkanes(CnH2n+2)

-No functional group

-least reactive organic compound

-undergo combustion easily alkane + O2    -->  CO2 + H2O + heat

Incomplete combustion alkane+O2---> CO or C + H2O

Catalytic converters are used to oxidise the CO to CO 2 which is less harmful than the poisonous CO 2

-Solid elemental carbon produces black engine deposits

Catalytic converters have their surfaces coated in transition metals to act as catalysts and reaction
centers for the reactions. Also has a honeycomb like structure to maximise surface area of catalyst
exposed to exhaust and minimizing amount of catalyst required

Ceramic structure coated in metal catalyst such as Pt.Has an oxid and red catlylyst

NO2 ---> N2 +O2

NO---> N2 + O2

Combusts CO and unburnt hydrocarbons to CO 2 and water

CO+O2 ----> CO2

CXHY+O2----> CO2 +H2O

Alkanes undergo substitution reactions, using free readical substitution reaction mechanism

In this level of chemistry, reactions which entail bond breaking and bond formation are expanded upon
by observing the motion of e- in those reacting species, reaction mechanisms

y y
Combustion CxHy+(x+ )O2---> xCO2+ H2O
4 2

Isomerism-compounds of same molecular formula but different structural formulae

Stereoisomers-Same mol.fmla but different arrangement in space

Structural- Same mol. Fmla but different arrangement of atoms

*Chain isomers have similar chemical properties but different b.p.

Cis- mirror images across double bond

Trans- molecules on opposite sides of C=C

Optical:

 Chiral center(4 different gps bonded to C)

 Enantiomers are non-superimposable

Alkane reactivity: 1o<2o<3o , thus free radical C is the one which is most reactive and will
also take the halogen predominantly in halogenation reactions(product in most abundance)

Halogenation rxn ends when all H’s are substituted for halides on molecule

Alkene: Electrophilic addition

If Br2(l) sub in Br, if aq, one Br, one OH as major product

Cold KMnO4- diol

Hot KMnO4- C=C breaks and on one half ketone, other half aldehyde

Alkene+H2------> alkane
Conditions Ni cat and 150oC

Markovnikov-Carbocation is the C with most C’s bonded to it

Reacts with halides at room temp
Alcohol: Iodoform

2o alcohols and ethanol pass iodoform, yellow ppt

Mod 3

Anode: 2Cl- ----> Cl2 +2e-

Cathode: H2O+ 2e- -----> H2(g) + 2OH-(aq)/2H+(aq) +2e-

Hydroxide and sodium ions remoded as NaOH--->Na +(aq)+OH-(aq)---> NaOH(aq)

Process: saturated brine enters anode and percolates through porous diaphragm to cathode

Percolation rate controlled by higher liquid level at anode

Diaphragm exists to separate anode and cathode

If absent, NaOH and chlorine react to form NaOCl AND H2 and Cl2 spontaneously ignite

NaOH+Cl2(g)----> NaOCl+H2O+NaCl
H2(g)+Cl2(g) ---> HCl

Advantages:

o Low operating Voltage, uses no Hg

o More energy efficient

Disadvantages:

>Diaphragm is asbestos, a carcinogen and lung irritant

Uses of Halogens

F: used to make uranium hexafluoride for nuclear fuel production

Cl: Make bleaches,PVC and anisthetics

Br: flame retardant polymers,pesticides,antiknock agents

Iodine:water disingection,added to table salt to prevent goitre

Environmental impact of Alkali Industry:

Mercury waste- toxic, used in Canster cell and can escape into environ

Asbestos

NaOH-can leak into ground,disrupting soil pH

CFCs deplete ozone layer

H2SO4 Manufacture

SO2(g)+O2(g) ⇌ SO3+heat

Even though low T and high P preferred, 410OC ,2 atm and V2O5 cat
As for why no high p , high energt cost
H2SO4+SO3---> H2S2O7(l) [oleum]
Oleum+H2O---->2H2SO4(l)

Safety considerations :
H2SO4 clouds are produced which are difficult to condense
SO3+H2O rxn highly exothermic
Uses of HSO4

-Vulcanization of rubber: Makes it less soluble in organic solvent and stronger

-Man. Of paper: Used as a reducing agent and bleaching agent, TEMPORARY AS OXIDATION(paper

yellows)

Sources of SO2:

Sulphide ores or decomp. Of CsSO4 in cement man.

Impacts of H2SO4 industry on environ. :

 -Acid rain
 -Acidification of soil
 Acidification of water sources

Benefits of H2SO4 INDUSTRY

Heat energy used to turn water to steam for electricity generation

Vanadium cat can be recycled

H2SO4 decomposes thermally and can be reused in process

Importance of water cycle:

-Regulates temp

-Provides fresh drinking water

-Replaces water lost by water bodies

Water purification methods: Desalination ,Chlorination AND Ozonolysis

Chlorination:

α Screening- remove large floaties

α Aeration-removes volatile substances eg H2S . Improves taste and colour

α Sedimentation/Flocculation- agitate water to clump small particles and remove

after settling

α Filtration-removes finer suspended particles

α Coagulation-FeSO4 added to clump very fine suspended particles

α Chlorination- kills bacteria which passed through filtered

α Absorption- activated charcoal absorbs organic cmpds that may give ill taste or

smell

α Oxidation Undesirable substances such as cyanide cmpds oxidised to less harmful

products

Advantage-continuous sterilization, algae growth control and kills bacteria

Con-HARMFUL ORGANIC HALIDES FORMED

 Desalination

 Distillation

Pros: Equipment is cheap

Cons: Slow and high energy cost

Reverse osmosis- H2O forced from a region of high solute conc to a region of lower solute

conc through a semi permeable membrane by applying pressure

Importance of dissolved oxygen:

- Fish and plant respiration

- Aerobic bacteria for decomp

Processes that add dissolved O2 from water

 Diffusion from atmospheric air

 Plant respiration

Processes that remove dissolved O2 from water

o Eutrophication-excess nutrients from NOx and POy ions enter waterways and
stimulates rapid algal growth that blocks light from aquatic plants. they die and
bacteria use dissolved O2 to decompose them
o Temperature- As T rises, O2 decreases. Global warming
o Aerobic Respiration
o Pollution- kills animals and gives bact more to decompose
*lack of dissolved O2 in water can also corrode boiler pipes from the CO2 forming acids

Sources of water pollution:

Industrial- Oil spills,lead leaching into groundwater from car batteries, Mercury from
chloroalkali industry
Human activities- illegal dumping,sewage
Nitrates-fertilizers
Phosphates-fertilizers and swage
Cyanides from iron and steel industry

Impact of water pollutants

 Microbes from waste water can result in viral and parasitic propagation
 Radioactive waste can cause cancer
 Lead poisoning
 Mercury-deformities and death
 Unsafe to drink
In high temp-Decreases solubility of O2 in water

Test Obs Inference

Conc HNO3 THEN small Yellow ppt Po43-

amounts of ammonia

molybdate

Small quantitu of FeSO4 Colourless soln formed CN-

(aq) AND BOILED. Add dil which produces blue ppt

HCl followed by FeCl3

Small quantity of sodium Brick red ppt CN-

thiosulphate followed by

Fe3+ ions

Mix sample in aq NaOH Pungent smell, red litmus NO3-

followed by Zn powder and blue

heat

Add Fe2+ soln followed by Brown ring formed at NO3-

conc H2SO4 junction of conc H2SO4 and

rest of soln

Add KI(aq) Yellow ppt soluble in XS Pb2+

HNO3

Pb2++2I- ----> PbI2

Add K2CrO4 Yellow ppt Pb2+