1 Landscape evolution and unusual geomorphological-pedological-chronological

2 relations in an alluvial plain associated with early Amerindian settlement in

3 southeastern Brazil
4 Pedro Michelutti Cheliza,*, Francisco Sergio Bernardes Ladeiraa, Juliana Alves Rodriguesb, Paulo César Fonseca
5 Gianninic, Fabiano do Nascimento Pupimd, Thays Desireec, Robson Antonio Rodriguesb
6
7 a
Departamento de Geografia, Instituto de Geociências Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Campinas, São
8 Paulo, Brazil
9 b
Fundação Araporã, Araraquara, São Paulo, Brasil
10 c
Instituto de Geociências, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
11 d
Departamento de Ciências Ambientais, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, Diadema, São Paulo, Brazil
12 * Corresponding author.
13 E-mail address: pedro.michelutti@gmail.com (P.M. Cheliz).
14
15 Abstract
16 This article deals with geomorphological, sedimentary, paleopedological, chronological (OSL and
17 14C) and archaeological records within a segment of the Jacaré-Guaçu River alluvial plain in
18 southeast Brazil, aiming to evaluate the influence of climatic and hydrological changes on the
19 landscape transformations over the past 115 ka. The results show alternations between humid and
20 drier climates since the Eemian that contribute to different drainage, accounting for seven
21 paleosurfaces and five paleosols amid the formation of sandy and gravel deposits along Late
22 Pleistocene and Early Holocene. The lithic artifacts records of Amerindian settlements since the
23 Pleistocene–Holocene transition contributed to the demarcation of paleosurfaces that formed
24 concurrently with landscape and river level changes, and. tThe density of human activities was
25 found to vary simultaneously with environmental transformations in the área. A phase of ephemeral
26 torrential channels under the influence of transition between drier and humid climates, and
27 predominance of grassland vegetation in the Pleistocene end (~12.4 ka) was followed by the set up
28 of perennial meandering channels of different dimensions, formed under increase of florestal
29 associations and rise in water table, with aggradation of up 7 m in the Early Holocene; from Middle
30 Holocene, the fluvial system experienced incision (<8.5 m), avulsion (<600 m), change of channel
31 size and uneven erosion of the deposits and paleosols previous formed in the area. Such changes in
32 the landscape contributed to the establishment of lower terraces with older (115–111 ka) deposits
33 and paleosols linked to good drainage conditions and higher terraces with newer (12.4–8 ka)
34 deposits and paleosols linked to poor drainage conditions. This pattern of connections between
35 terrace levels, soil types and ages of deposits is different from that previously registered in the
36 alluvial plains of southeast Brazil, and introduces uncertainties in extrapolations usually made
37 between landforms and associated materials in fluvial geomorphological studies.
38 Keywords
39 Fluvial geomorphology; Jacaré-Guaçu River; Paleosol; Late Pleistocene; Holocene
40
41 1. Introduction
42 Fluctuations in climate, environment, and base level at the local and regional scales can
43 change the patterns of geomorphological evolution, with specific responses in the paleopedological
44 and sedimentary records. In alluvial plains of tropical and subtropical areas (Vandenberghe, 2003;
45 Thomas, 2008), such fluctuations are often related to changes in hydrological discharges and
46 sediment load of river channels, and alternations between trends of fluvial incision and aggradation
47 (Macedo et al. 2014), which are registered in destructive and constructive terraces, erosional
48 hiatuses and different types of paleosols. Numerous studies have analyzed the landscape and the
49 sedimentary records in alluvial plains of southeastern Brazil to identify hydrological changes and
50 respective relations with climate and environmental changes; they found an association between the
51 formation of fluvial constructive terraces and alluvial plains with river level reductions throughout
 52 the Late Quaternary (Stevaux, 2000; Celarino et al., 2013; Dias, 2015; Carvalho et al., 2018;
53 Lupinacci and Souza, 2019). The evolution of such alluvial plains has also been linked to the
54 formation of deposits considered to be as old as the higher the terraces to which they are attached
55 (Oliveira et al., 2019).
56 Most fluvial geomorphological studies in southeast Brazil focused on the alluvial plains of
57 the largest rivers; meanwhile, those of smaller and affluent rivers distant from the course of the
58 main channels have received little attention (Barros and Reis, 2019). An example is the Jacaré-
59 Guaçu River, a tributary of the Tietê River in the Paraná hidrographic basin. A section of its alluvial
60 plain 90 km upstream from the confluence with Tietê River was previously submitted to initial
61 geomorphological characterization (Cheliz, 2011; Cheliz and Oliveira, 2019) aiming to
62 contextualize an archaeological research (Zanettini Arqueologia, 2003; Santos, 2011) on about 2
63 thousand flaked rock tools linked to the Paleoindian period (Moreno de Sousa, 2019) found amid
64 the sediments, with some hundreds of them linked to a sedimentary layer dated as being of the
65 Pleistocene–Holocene transition (Santos, 2011; Santos and Cheliz, 2017 and 2019). This area was
66 selected for the present study in view of the inconclusiveness of previous research (Cheliz and
67 Oliveira, 2011and 2019; Cheliz and Giannini, 2020) regarding the chronology of a part of the
68 sedimentary deposits and the influence of Quaternary climate changes on them and on the landscape.
69 In addition, archaeological artifacts associated to deposits prior to the Middle Holocene such as
70 those previous found in this area (Zanettini Arqueologia, 2003; Santos, 2011) are rare in alluvial
71 plains of similar size in Brazil (Araujo, 2013, 2015), which reinforces the importance of further
72 studies on the evolution of the local landscape
73 In response to this need for further research, we sought to characterize changes in the local
74 base level and the materialization of these changes on terraces and other relief forms, sedimentary
75 deposits and paleosols. The data of these environmental proxies were confronted with the most
76 accepted models of climatic and environmental variations in southeastern Brazil in the last 110 ky
77 (e.g. Cruz et al., 2005, 2006; Ledru et al., 2009; Novello et al., 2017). Accordingly, a time interval
78 broader than that of previous local studies was considered, and respective interpretations reviewed.
79 For this purpose, we integrated geomorphological, pedological, sedimentary, chronological and
80 archaeological data, emphasizing on paleopedological analysis.
81 We aimed to verify the hypothesis that the evolution of the local landscape resulted in the
82 simultaneous existence of fill and erosional terraces, so that older deposits and soils are associated
83 with lower terraces and good drainage conditions, whereas more recent deposits and soils are
84 associated with higher terraces and poor drainage conditions. Other associated changes, suggested
85 in previous works on this area (Cheliz et al. 2018), are intended to be highlighted and discussed
86 more deeply here They include: overlapping horizontal and vertical variations in the positioning of
87 the main river channels, fluctuations in the prevalence of good and poor drainage conditions,
88 alternations between ephemeral hydrological patterns and different types of perennial fluvial
89 systems, and changes in the prevalence of incision, avulsion and fluvial patterns concomitant to
90 oscillations (rises, reductions and periods of prolonged stability) of the base level and climate
91 changes over time.
92
93 2. Characteristics of the study area
94 The study area is located in the State of São Paulo (Brazil), close to the border between the
95 municipalities of Boa Esperança do Sul and Araraquara (Fig.1A, 2A and 2B).
96 The area lies on the western edge of the Paraná Sedimentary Basin (Mantesso-Neto et al.
97 2005), of which two mesozoical geological units (Fig.1b) outcrop: the Botucatu Formation,
98 essentially composed of well sorted quartzose sandstones, with well rounded grains, and the Serra
99 Geral Formation, formed by basic volcanic rocks, mainly basalts; also occur unconsolidated
100 Quaternary sediments, dominantly sandy and clayey, mostly linked to the alluvial plain itself, and
101 subordinately to colluviums (Almeida, 1964; Meaulo, 2007; Cheliz, 2016; Cheliz and Ladeira,
102 2017). Geomorphologically, the area is at the eastern edge of the "cuesta domain", or “western
103 plateau” (Almeida, 1964; IPT, 1981), supported by the lava flows of the Serra Geral Formation.
104 According to a previous characterization by Cheliz and Oliveira (2019), there are local small
105 variations in altitude (slightly more than 30 m) and gentle inclines (rarely greater than 10°) around
106 the study area. It is characterized by a combination of different relief features (figures 1c and 1d),
107 namely: (1) slopes at prevailing altitudes of 520–560 m with average inclinations between 4° and
108 10°, which are associated with sandstones of the Botucatu Formation, basic igneous rocks of the
109 Serra Geral Formation, and products of their alteration or remobilization; (2) segments at altitudes
110 of 490–520 m, indistinct between strath terraces (Bull, 1990) and smoothed slopes, which are
111 associated with sandstones of the Botucatu Formation and unconsolidated sandy deposits; (3) Low
112 Terraces b at altitudes of 490–495 m, with predominantly unconsolidated deposits; (4) Low
113 Terraces a at altitudes of 485–490 m, with predominantly unconsolidated sandy deposits; and (5)
114 floodplain at altitudes of 480–485 m, containing unconsolidated sand–clay sedimentary deposits
115 (Fig.2).
116

117
118 Fig.1. Map compilation showing (A) Location of the study area, highlighting the detail study area
119 (red square); (B) Lithological units; (C) Geomorphological compartmentalization; (D)
120 Morphological and geological profile.
121
122
123
124
125
126 Fig.2. Drone images showing: A: the Jacaré-Guaçu River alluvial plain surrounding the detail area
127 (highlighted in red), B: the Jacaré-Guaçu River channel and some of its abandoned meanders.
128 Source: adapted from images shared in 2019 by the drone operator Higor Vanessa.
129
130
131
132
133
134 Several abandoned meanders overlapping the floodplains and low terraces are divided into
135 two types: Type I, with paleochannel widths and symmetry axis significantly larger than the current
136 channels of the Jacaré-Guaçu River; and Type II, with widths and symmetry axis similar in size to
137 the current channels of the Jacaré-Guaçu River (Fig.3 and Table 1).The area is characterized by
138 asymmetries in the drainage and distribution of the relief units: the widths of the floodplains are up
139 to five times greater on the left bank (facing south) than on the right bank (facing north); the slopes
140 on the right bank of the main channel are significantly steeper than those on the left bank (Fig.1).

141
142 Fig.3. Composition emphasizing abandoned meanders showing (A) Word View image of the detail
143 study area and surroundings; (B) Highlight of the different types of abandoned meanders in the
144 same area of "A".
145
146 Table 1. Essential morphological and directional attributes of abandoned meanders
147
Meander type Predominant direction Average paleochannel plant Average plan length of the
of symmetry axis width (m) symmetry axis (m)

I N30W 80 300
II N20W/NW, N30W/NE, 20 70
W-E
148
149
150 The area has a subtropical climate and is characterized by hot and rainy springs and
151 summers (with average temperatures above 23 °C, and monthly rainfall above 200 mm), and drier
152 conditions during winter (with monthly rainfall with maximum of 30 mm; DAEE, 2020); the total
153 average annual rainfall is around 1,200 mm. Variations in rainfall throughout the year are not
154 enough to compromise the perennial characteristics of the rivers and do not compromise the
155 permanence of vegetation in the cerrado domain (Ab’Saber, 2003; Souza, 2010).
156
157 3. Materials and methods
158 3.1. Geomorphological and pedological analysis
159 For the geomorphological characterization, were used the analyses of: 1- five topographic
160 profiles, obtained using metric tapes and level gauges in field work; 2- topographical maps at a
161 scale of 1:10.000 (IGC, 2020); 3- the Word View composition provided by ArcGIS 9.0. Based on
162 the integration of these data, the area was divided into different relief units comprising river terraces
163 and a floodplain, resembling the fourth taxon of Ross' geomorphological analysis (Ross, 1991).
164 Through the combination of descriptive field points and analysis of aerial and orbital images, the
165 abandoned meanders were also characterized, with an emphasis on the width of the paleochannels
166 and the horizontal extension of the symmetry axes.
167 Five catenas, according to the definition of Lin (2012), were identified, by superimposing
168 horizontal topographic profiles and analyzing samples extracted with a Dutch auger from depths
169 between 0.3 and 6 m, with a minimum horizontal distance of 20 m between the sampling sites. The
170 soils were classified in terms of color (using the Munsell system), tackiness, texture, and plasticity
171 (Embrapa, 2006) of samples taken at depth intervals of 10 cm at each sampling site. In cases of
172 substantial lateral variations in the measured attributes, additional auger extractions and sampling
173 sites were applied.
174 In the vicinity of the catenas, excavation units were opened, with dimensions between 2 × 2
175 m and 1.25 × 1.25 m, and depths between 0.9 and 1.8 m. In these excavation units,
176 macromorphological characterizations of the soils were performed (Schoeneberger et al. 2012), and
177 the texture, composition, degree of roundness, lithology, and orientation of the deposit clasts were
178 described. Samples of sediments and soils from the excavation unit profiles were collected at the
179 center of each soil horizon for laboratory analysis, including chemical (Camargo et al. 2009),
180 granulometric (Camargo et al. 2009), petrographic, micromorphological (Castro and Cooper, 2019),
181 and chronological characterization. Grain size distribution was determined by the pipette method,
182 with dispersion in 0.1 mol L-1 sodium hexametaphosphate (Teixeira et al., 2017), followed by
183 sieving of material coarser than 62 μm. Total organic carbon was quantified by the potassium
184 dichromate (0.167 mol L-1) method. Exchangeable P were extracted with Mehlich-1 solution. Then,
185 P levels were determined by photocolorimetry (Teixeira et al. (2017).
186 For the identification of buried horizons (paleosols), were used a combination of
187 morphological, micromorphologic, OSL dating and chemical characteristics (phosphorus and total
188 organic carbon values). Phosphorus values are higher close to the surface and reduce their values in
189 depth (Runge et al. 1974), thus being able to help identify the presence of paleosol or buried soil,
190 according to the discontinuities in-depth values (Smeck, 1973; Runge et al. 1974). The same is valid
191 for the values of organic carbon, which are concentrated on the surface, allowing eventual increases
192 in their values in depth to help identify superficial horizons, as done by Zech et al. (2011) and
193 Adameková et al. (2021).
194
195 3.2. Geochronology
196 Chronological characterization was performed obtaining new ages from the analysis of four
197 sediment samples from the excavation units by the OSL method. These OSL ages were obtained at
198 the Luminescence Laboratory of the Institute of Geosciences of the University of São Paulo, Brazil,
199 following the single aliquot regeneration (SAR) protocol recommended by Murray and Wintle
200 (2000, 2003); the sequence of procedures was the same employed by Oliveira et al. (2019), as
201 detailed in supplementary material 1.
202
203 4. Results
204 4.1. Geomorphology and catenas
205 The geomorphology of the area of details is characterized by four relief units: two low
206 terraces (subdivisions of the Low Terrace a from Cheliz and Oliveira, 2019) at south, a transitional
207 unit between the two terraces and by a floodplain in the northern portion (Fig.4). The low terraces
208 are distinguished from each other by their different altitudes and inclines. Low Terraces 1a have
209 altitudes between 490 and 488 m, inclinations below 3°, a wide horizontal distribution, and account
210 for the largest part of the detail study area. Borders of Low Terrace 1a have altitudes between 488
211 and 485 m, and inclinations between 3 and 7°. Low terrace 2a have altitudes between 485 and 484
212 m, and inclines below 2°. The floodplain has an altitude of less than 484 m, and inclinations below
213 1° (Fig.4). There is an abandoned Type I meander on Low Terrace 1a, and two abandoned Type II
214 meanders in the floodplain (Fig.4). The Type I meander is characterized by paleochannels with
215 width in plan and symmetry axis four times greater than those of the current channel of the Jacaré-
216 Guaçu River, whereas the Type II meanders are characterized by planimetric dimensions similar to
217 those of the current Jacaré-Guaçu River.

218
219 Fig.4. Morphological mapping of the detail study area, with location of catenas and excavation units.
220 The location of the detail area is shown in Fig.1.
221
222
223 There are two main types of sedimentary deposits exposed on the surface of the low terraces:
224 1 – clayey sands, which are predominant; and 2 - gravel deposits, which emerge in some segments
225 of the limit between the Borders of Low Terrace 1a and Low Terrace 2a. Drillings done in the area
226 (Fig.5) shown that the clayey sands can reach thickness of up to 6 m in the Low Terraces 1a, and of
227 until 1,3 m in low terraces 2a. The soils linked to those deposits (Fig.5) contain organic clay
228 providing high tackiness in boreholes closest to the floodplain. Horizons A and C have the greatest
229 horizontal extension and thickness. Horizon A is characterized by colors alternating between 7.5 YR
230 4/2 and 7.5 YR 5/4; it has a clayey sand or sand granulation, with low plasticity and tackiness. The
231 colors of Horizon C alternate between 7.5 YR 5.5/6 and 7.5 YR 7/6, with low plasticity and
232 stickiness, and clayey sand or sand granulation. Horizon B was not evident in the auger extractions,
233 with Horizon A occurring directly above Horizon C. Two types of gravels were also recorded in the
234 drillings. The first, Type I, consists of thin layers of small pebbles (1–4 cm), and did not obstruct the
235 extraction process. However, the second, Type II, completely blocked the auger extraction process,
236 with the tip of the auger becoming stained by iron oxy-hydroxides. In some segments (Fig.5), the
237 Type II gravel had gentle inclinations, whereas in others there were greater lateral variations in its
238 depth.

239
240 Fig.5. Catenas and its relations to the local geomorphological units (Low Terraces 1a, Borders of
241 Low Terraces 1a, Low Terraces 2a), whose location is shown in Fig.4.
242
243 4.2. Macroscopic characterization of deposits and soils linked to excavation unit profiles
244 Fig.6 shown the profiles of the five sets of excavation units along the local Low terrace 1a,
245 Borders of Low terrace 1a and Low Terrace 2a (Fig.4).
246 Excavation units UE01-2010 and UE01-2019 shared some attributes, including the presence
247 of a basal clast-supported gravel deposit with gray sand matrix, in which the framework clasts has
248 average particle size from 8 to 20 cm (reaching a maximum of 75 cm in EU01-2010) and is
249 predominantly well-rounded and subspherical, with major compositions of silicified sandstone and
250 chert, and smaller amounts of quartzite, quartz, and granite. The most larger clasts have a
251 predominance of oblate format, but also are predominantly well-rounded. Ferricretes, both as
252 rudaceous clasts and cement coating and joining ferruginized clasts, were also registered in EU1-
253 2010. The gravel layer is covered by clayey sand deposits, characterized by intense gleization in
254 their basal portions, and a higher concentration of roots in their superficial horizons (between 10
255 and 20 cm).
256 Approximately 500 archaeological lithic artifacts were found both in the gravel and in the
257 overlying sands of EU1-2010 – as previous registered in Santos (2011) and; Santos and Cheliz,
258 (2019) - and UE1-2019. These artifacts mostly comprised flakes of chert and silified sandstone
259 (lengths of 2–7 cm), such as those previously described by Zanettini Arqueologia (2003), Santos
260 (2010), and Santos and Cheliz (2016), and have been linked to human groups of hunters and
261 gatherers. The highest concentrations and quantities (80% of the total) of artifacts were found in the
262 upper 20 cm of the gravel or in sandy sediments immediately above (Figures 6 and 7). This
263 distribution pattern is show both along the most numerous artifacts of UE1-2010 reported in the
264 previous archaeological work of Santos (2011) and along the less numerous rock tools found in the
265 UE1-2019 (figures 7 and 8B). An summary of the descriptions of artifacts found in the UEs are in
266 the supplementary material 2.

267
268 Fig.6. Excavation units profiles and their major sedimentological and pedological atributes. The
269 location of each EU is shown at Fig.4. UE1-2016 is linked to low terraces 1a; UE1-2010, UE2-2010
270 and UE1-2019 are linked to Borders of Low Terrace 1a, UE2-2017 to Low terrace 2a. Absolute
271 dates form UE1-2010 and UE2-2016 are linked to Santos (2011) and Santos and Cheliz (2019)
272 archaeological work, and the dates from UE2-2017 and UE1-2019 from Cheliz (2021)
273 geomorphological work.
274
275 Fig.7. EU1-2019 photo. The boundary between the conglomerate and its sandy cover under
276 gleization is highlighted by orange dots. Some of the archaeological artifacts arranged on the
277 conglomerate are highlighted by red circles. The original surface of the gravel deposit, reconstituted
278 by means of excavation with brushes, is seen in the left side of the photo.
279
280 Macromorphological characterization of the soils sections was also carried out in some of
281 the excavation units, and the results are show in Fig.8 and supplementary material 3. The presence
282 of multiple paleosols in the same cuts was observed, as well as horizons with higher degree of
283 pedogenesis in the deep segments of the profiles. The transition of most of the horizons are gradual,
284 but some show a abrupt pattern (as between the deeper horizons – 4Bt and 3C - of UE1-2017, or
285 between 2Cg and CR in UE1-2019). Along the profiles of UE1-2017 and UE1-2019 it has
286 registered also an abrupt change between the colors that predominate in the lowest horizons (G2 7/5
287 PB in 3Cg horizon of UE1-2019, and G2 5/5PB to G1 7/2 in 4Bt and 3C horizons of UE1-2017) to
288 the colors of the horizons above (10YR 7/2 in CR horizon of UE1-2019, and 10 YR 2/1 in C1
289 horizon in UE1-2017). Also, the colors that predominates in the deeper and intermediate horizons of
290 both UEs (3Cg and 2Cg in UE1-2019, 4Bt, 3C and 2C in UE1-2017) are reduction colors, that
291 caracterize gleization. The presence of well rounded clasts of sandstone, chert and quartz is found
292 among the deeper and intermediate horizons of UE1-2019 (3Cg and 2Cg) and UE1-2017 (4Bt, 3C,
293 2C, C). In UE1-2019 horizons (3Cg and 2Cg) those clasts are matrix-supported, and show a
294 gradational decrease in their medium size (from 4 cm to 1,2 cm) and frequency from the bottom of
295 3Cg to the top of the 2Cg horizon. In UE1-2017 2C horizon the clasts have medium dimensions of
296 3 cm in 2C horizon, and are there partially clast-supportted, and in 4CBt, 3C, and C horizons they
297 are matrix-supported, and with medium dimensions between 2,5 and 0,5 cm. Also in UE1-2017
298 those clasts show a gradational decrease from top to bottom of 3C horizon, and form bottom to top
299 of C horizon.
300
301
302 Fig.8. Summary macromorphological characterization of the excavation units, detailed in
303 supplementary material 3, showing (A) pedological profile of UE2-2017 and (B) pedological
304 profile of UE1-2019
305
306
307 4.3. OSL
308 The Equivalent doses from studied sediment samples (Fig.8) range from 61.3±2.8 to 7±0.4,
309 with moderate to low over-dispersion (Table 2), even in samples associated with soil horizon (4Bt)
310 linked to more advanced pedogenesis of UE2-2017 (that present the lower over-dispersion value of
311 all samples of this work, Table 2), indicating that quartz grains are likely to be well-bleached and
312 without evidence of intense post-depositional mixing. The dose rate varied from 0.412±0.025 to
313 0.801±0.054. The OSL ages from fluvial terrace sediment samples range from 114.9±7.5 to 8.7±0.7,
314 indicating that depositional periods occurred during the Late Pleistocene and Early Holocene. The age
315 distributions were also consistent with the local stratigraphy, with no apparent inversions. The UE1-
316 2019 samples (Fig.7 and table 2) ages, when considering the error margin, present an overlapping
317 range, but simultaneously other parameters obtained in the OSL analysis (such as the doses rates of
318 natural radiation) are significantly different from each other, which helps to characterize that each
319 of the aforementioned samples indicates different deposits.
320
321 Table 2. Data of sediment samples collected for optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dating
322 (Cheliz, 2021).
323
Total dose Number
Lab Sample Elev. Equivalent OD1 OSL age
rate of EU2
number ID (m) dose (Gy) (%) (years)
(Gy/ka) aliquots
L1376 JG7 485 0.801±0.054 21/24 7±0.4 27 8741±77 UE1-2019
2 (3Cg horizon)
L1377 JG8 485 0.658±0.045 21/24 8.1±0.6 37 12306±1 UE1-2019
245 (Gravel deposit)
L1410 JG9 482 0.549±0.036 20/22 61.3±2.8 19 111650± UE1-2017
8894 (3C horizon)
L1413 JG10 482 0.412±0.025 24/24 47.3±1.3 12 114934± UE1-2017
7589 (4Bt horizon)
324
325 1 - OD is related to over-dispersion of the equivalent dose, 2 – EU is related to the Excavation Unit
326 in which the sample was collected (figure 7), whose location is shown in figure 3.
327
328
329 Additionally, it is registered that the treatments prior to the processing of OSL analyzes
330 (supplementary material 1) characterized a presence of feldspar ten times greater in the sandy
331 fraction of sample JG8 than in sandy fraction of sample JG9, both samples from the EU1-2019. The
332 samples from the other profile (UE1-2017) did not present such high heterogeneities in the
333 concentration of feldspars along the analysed samples.
334
335 4.4. Petrography of rudaceous clasts
336 In the petrographic description, the sandstone lithic fragments collected in basal gravel of
337 EU1-2019 present modal class in the interval 0.25–0.5 mm, with rounded and well-rounded grains
338 (Fig.9). The grains of identifiable individual minerals appeared to be mostly (85%) quartz. Smaller
339 amounts of feldspars (<10%) and heavy minerals (<10%) were also recorded. Reddish
340 cryptocrystalline pellicles, possibly constituted by iron oxy-hydroxides, were observed coating most
341 of the grains (Fig.9A). The cements constitutes between 10% and 20% of the surface of the thin
342 sections, and have a relatively even distribution relative to the framework, being the distances
343 between the centers of adjacent coarser grains almost constant over the entire length of the thin
344 section.
345
346
347
348
349 Fig.9. Petrographic microscope images of a sandstone lithic fragment collected from the basal
350 gravel in EU1-2019 as view by (A) uncrossed polarizers and (B) crossed polarizers. In the center-
351 right part of the photomicrographs, note the presence of feldspar (with cleavage) just above a finer,
352 prismatic, heavy mineral grain.
353
354
355 4.5. Granulometry and chemistry
356 The variation of four granulometric fraction across the pedogenic horizons is provided in
357 Fig.10.
358

359
360 Fig.10. Granulometric characterization: (A) UE2-2017, (B) UE1-2019
361 Sand fractions (mass proportions of 64–88% in EU1-2019 and 39–64% in EU2-2017)
362 dominated the analyzed profiles. Coarse sand (ranging from 32% to 73%) prevails over fine sand
363 (14–39%), except in A2 horizon of UE1-2019 (Fig.9B). There were subtle variations of clay (10–
364 21%) and silt (1–11%) proportions along the vertical profiles, with a trend to upward increasing of
365 both above 3C horizon in UE2-2017 (Fig.9A).
366 In both excavation units, the coarse sand class exhibited an increasing trend, from the deeper
367 segments of the profiles to the intermediate ones (4Bt to 2C1, 110–46 cm, in EU2-2017, and
368 between 3Cg and the intermediate gravel, 110–28 cm, in EU1-2019), above which the profiles
369 exhibited different granulometric trends.
370 The chemical characterization of the soil horizons of UE2-2017 and UE1-2019 is presented
371 in supplementary material 4. The results indicated discontinuities in the vertical distribution of
372 phosphorus and total organic carbon. In particular, they presented a downward trend in both EU2-
373 2017 and EU1-2019, departing from the top of the profile and discontinuing in deeper horizons. The
374 4Bt horizon of EU2-2017 show phosphorus concentrations of three times (Mehlich extraction) or
375 more than twice (resin extraction) and total organic carbon more than 50% greater than that of the
376 overlying horizon, 3C. In EU1-2019, the 3Cg horizon shown phosphorus concentrations 50%
377 higher (Mehlich extraction) or twice as higher (resin extraction) that of the overlying horizon, 2Cg.
378 Also, the 2Cg horizon has total organic carbon concentration twicer higher than the above horizon,
379 CR (supplementary material 4).
380
381 4.6. Micromorphology
382 The coarse fraction (>0,064mm – Castro and Cooper, 2019) was predominant in the set of
383 microscope thin sections from UE2-2017 3Cg and 2Cg horizons and UE1-2019 4Bt/3C, 3C and C
384 samples, accounting for at least 60% of the total (Figures 11 and 12). In both excavation units, the
385 fine fraction was larger and best developed in deeper samples of the excavation units than in
386 intermediate segments, as is especially noted in EU1-2017. The fine fraction (<0,064 mm – Castro
387 and Cooper, 2019) occurs with higher concentration in average in 3C/4Bt (35%), 3C (25%) of EU2-
388 2017 than in 3Cg (20%) and 2Cg (15%) thin sections of EU1-2019. (Fig.11a and 11b, and figures
389 12a and 12b).
390 All thin sections exhibited a predominantly chitonic distribution pattern (Fig.11), with
391 punctuated occurrences of porphyrical distribution (e.g., EU2-2017 4Bt/3C sample , Fig.11A and
392 11B). Regarding the microstructure, two types of fine fractions were recognized: the first
393 corresponds to an opaque coating around the coarse fraction grains, whereas the second, more
394 transparent, fills or involves the first. The thickness of the coating was variable and asymmetric
395 (non-isopacous) in some of the horizons (e.g., 3Cg, in EU2-2017; Fig.11E and 11F). Clay coatings
396 encompassing several grains of the coarse fraction simultaneously (Fig.11A, 11B, 12A and 12B)
397 also occur in deeper samples of UE1-2017 (3C/4Bt, and 3C samples).
398 Grains from horizons 2Cg and 3Cg of EU1-2019 presented a bimodal granulometric
399 distribution pattern (Fig.12C, D E and F), characterized by the predominance of grains between
400 0,25 mm to 0,05 mm, with subordinate presence of grains greater than 0,5 mm. The rounding
401 degree varied with granulometry in UE1-2019, with the grains of the coarser sand modal classes
402 poorly rounded and those of the finer sand modal classes, predominantly sub-rounded to well-
403 rounded (Fig.11G and 11H).
404 The predominant mineralogical component of the coarse fractions (>0,064 mm – Castro and
405 Cooper, 2019) of all samples was quartz, which accounted for more than 85% of grains identified in
406 the set of thin sections described, and more than 95% when considering only the coarse sand class
407 (Fig.11A, 11B, 12A, 12B, 12C, 12D, 12E and 12F). Among the minerals with subordinate
408 occurrence, feldspars (plagioclases) and heavy minerals highlight, the last one especially in the fine
409 sand granulometric class; beside them, an isolated lithic fragment of chert was registered in the
410 3C/4Bt1 thin section of EU2-2017 and a possible phytolith, in the 3Cg thin section of EU1-2019.
411
412
413
414
415
416

417
418 Fig.11. Thin sections of soil horizons: (A) EU2-2017, 4Bt, uncrossed polarizer; (B) EU2-2017, 4Bt,
419 crossed polarizer
420
421
422
423
424
425
426
427
428
429
430
431
432
433
434
435 Fig.12. Thin sections of soil horizons: (A) EU2-2017, 3C/4Bt, uncrossed polarizer; (B) EU2-2017,
436 3C/4Bt, crossed polarizer; (C) UE1-2019, 3Cg, uncrossed polarizer; (D) UE1-2019, 3Cg, crossed
437 polarizer; (E) UE1-2019, 2Cg, uncrossed polarizer; (F) UE1-2019, 2Cg, crossed polarizer.
438
439
440
441
442
443 5. Discussion and data integration
444 5.1 Phases of landscape changes
445 From the data obtained in this study and review of previous ones, landscape changes
446 (Figures 13 and 14) between the Late Pleistocene and the Late Holocene can be divided into five
447 phases: A, from 114 ky to 111 ky ago; B, from 111 ky to 12.4 ky ago; C, from 12.4 ky to 8.7 ky ago;
448 D, between 8.7 and 8.0 ky ago; and E, over the last 8 ky.
449

450
451 Fig.13. Evolution of the local landscape over the last 120,000 years, divided into five phases (A to
452 E).
453

454
455 Fig.14. Synthesis of the main data presented and discussed in this work. Topographic profile of the
456 area, with location of the excavation units and dated samples. Absolute ages from UE1-2019 and
457 UE2-2017 were presented in this work, and UE1-2016 and UE1-2010 were presented in the Santos
458 and Cheliz (2019) archaeological work.
459
460
461 5.2. Phase A: sandy sedimentation and pedogenesis of a soil associated with good drainage
462 conditions during the Eemian
463 Phase A is characterized by: the (1) deposition of predominantly sandy sediments; and (2)
464 the formation of a paleosurface stable enough to allow the pedogenesis, leading to the formation of
465 a soil (Horizon 4Bt1 of EU2-2017 – figures 8B and 13), with similarities to a Luvisol, involving a
466 long time of pedogenesis under good drainage, humid and probably warn conditions (as denoted by
467 the clay simultaneously cladding multiple grains of the coarse fraction; Fig.11A and 11B). Clay
468 coatings similar to that of Fig.11a and 11b don´t being registered in the above horizons and the
469 assymetrical concentration of total organic carbon (50% greater than that of the above horizon -
470 supplementary material 4) and helps to characterize the 4Bt horizon as a paleosol. The good
471 drainage conditions related to the formation of this soil horizon also suggest that at the time of
472 formation of such soil the main rivers where more distant (horizontally and/or vertically) from the
473 UE1-2019 area than in today days.
474 The interpretation of a warn and humid climate for the area in the time of Phase A (114-111
475 ky) is consistent with the interglacial warmer conditions of the Eemian registered in vast portion of
476 the Earth (Markewich et al., 2011) and with a peak of humidity around 110 ky ago reported by Cruz
477 et al. (2005, 2006) in the south–southeast region of Brazil with basis on speleothems isotopic data.
478
479 5.3. Phase B: new episodes of deposition and pedogenesis followed by a sedimentary discontinuity
480 during the Late Pleistocene
481 Phase B is characterized as follows: (1) deposition of a new layer of predominantly sandy
482 sediments above the soil formed in Phase A; (2) exposition of a stable surface with soil genesis
483 (Horizon 3C of EU2-2017) of this sandy deposit, as interpreted by the macromorphological and
484 micromorphological assymetries of the 3C horizon in relation to those of 4Bt horizon; and by the
485 diference between the data of OSL of the sediments samples collected in 3C horizon in relation to
486 those collected in 4Bt horizon; (3) deposition of sandy sediments of until 0,3m thick with dispersed
487 gravels, and formation of a soil (2C horizon); as interpreted by the macromorphological
488 (supplementary material 2) and sedimentary characterization of the parental material of 2C horizon
489 and (4) deposition of predominantly sandy sediments, of at least 0.4 m (figures 8B, 13 and 14), that
490 latter would be altered in a new soil (C1 horizon), diverse from that of the 2C horizon, as denoted
491 by the abrupt changes in attributes of the macromorphological analyses of UE2-2017, such the great
492 difference of colors of C1 horizon in relation to 2C horizon.
493 It is also suggested that along Phase B, there would also have occurred a discontinuity in
494 sedimentation. This interpretation is based on the association of this evidences: (1) the large time
495 lapse between the ages of the Phase B basal sediments (111 ky ago) and of the gravel deposit (12.4
496 ky ago) linked to the beginning of Phase C, (2) the little thickness (until 1,5 m) of the sandy
497 deposits placed between the deposits linked to the two OSL samples previous cited (Fig.14), (3) the
498 major differences in the macromorphological caracterization (supplementary material 3) between
499 the intermediate horizons (2C and 3C) and those above it in UE1-2017 profile. An discontinuity in
500 the sedimentation at a similar time interval (deposits of around 130 ka recovered by deposits of the
501 Pleistocene-Holocene transition) was documented by Celarino et al. (2013) in the Mogi-Guaçu
502 River alluvial plain. The Late Pleistocene materials described by Celarino et al. (2013) are, however,
503 significantly different from those linked to UE2-2017 - mainly due to the absence of records of soils
504 associated with the sandy deposit linked to the Paleo Rio Mogi-Guaçu, in contrast to the
505 pedogenetic features present in the horizons linked to the ages of the Eemian of the EU2-2017.
506 Such differences may have a contribution from: (1) the significantly high margin of error associated
507 with those OSL datings, which allows one to consider the possibility that the deposit dated by
508 Celarino et al. (2013) would not have been formed simultaneously to the deepest soils of the EU2-
509 2017, (2) different distances of the rivers of each of the alluvial plains in relation to the dated
510 deposits in the time in which they were exposed.
511
512 5.4. Phase C: gravelly deposition in the Pleistocene–Holocene transition
513 Phase C includes the deposition of a wide gravel layer (horizontal extension of at least 600
514 m2), correspondent to the basal unit of UE1-2010 and UE1-2019; its horizontal distribution would
515 comprehend most of the area covered by pedosequences A, B, C, D and E. This correlation is based
516 on two evidences: (1) the presence of the Type II gravel both in the catenas and the gravelly basal
517 layer of the excavation units; (2) the presence of iron oxy-hydroxides staining the tip of the auger
518 both in the basal gravels of the excavation units and of the pedosequences.
519
520 5.5. Depositional processes and paleoclimates of Phase C
521 Those gravel clasts found in the basal layer of UE1-2019 and UE1-2010 would be linked
522 with fluvial deposition, but which greater transport energy than that of the current Jacaré-Guaçu
523 River. This interpretation is based on: (1) the imbrication and textural similarities between the UE1-
524 2019 and UE1-2010 with the pebbles transported by the current Jacaré-Guaçu River, (2) the average
525 size of UE1-2019 and UE1-2010 clasts being at least four times greater than the pebbles that the
526 bed of Jacaré-Guaçu River show nowdays. They can be considered, therefore, comparable to the
527 typical sedimentary products of confined ephemeral torrents described by Goudie (2013). Also, the
528 petrographic characterization of the gravel clasts (Fig.9A and 9B) is similar to that of sandstone
529 clasts associated with the Itaqueri Formation, as described by Ladeira (2001). The significant
530 difference in altitude (>200 m) between the location of the study area and the usual outcrop areas of
531 the Itaqueri Formation (Ladeira, 2001) reinforces the interpretation that the deposition of the gravel
532 in question would have required a transport energy much higher than that provided by the current
533 surface area outflow, as it would have involved the erosion of numerous large rock fragments (>20
534 cm) from the tops of the cuesta plateau to the bottom of the local valley.
535 Ephemeral torrential channels occur more frequently in climates dryer than that currently
536 prevailing in the study area (Goudie, 2013). The high concentration of feldspar grains found in the
537 very fine sand class of the gravel sandy matrix (more than ten times greater than that of the sandy
538 fraction of the overlying deposit) reinforces the hypothesis that the deposition in Phase C is linked
539 to preceding or concomitant drier climates, since feldspars are likely to be weathered and destroyed
540 fast when exposed to hot and humid conditions (Castro and Cooper, 2019).
541 The abovementioned interpretations are consistent with the palynological study by Aviles et
542 al. (2019) in a site of São Paulo State approximately 150 km away from the study area, in which
543 sparse vegetation and a drier climate than the present are interpreted to the Late Pleistocene
544 (between 25 ky and 13 ky ago). Likewise, the paleoclimatic characterization of a nearby location
545 (<50 km from the study area) by Turcq et al. (1997) describes the predominance of a climate drier
546 than the current, between 15 ky and 10 ky ago. This is also partly consistent with the transition from
547 drier conditions to a time of torrential rains, evocated by Ab’Saber (1998) to southeastern Brazil at
548 the end of the Late Pleistocene. Analogously, Cruz et al. (2005) describe the climate in South and
549 Southeast of Brazil between 18 ky and 14 ky ago as being less humid than that during the periods
550 immediately before and after. The transition of such a scenario of drier climate to an interval of
551 intense rainfall as that during the Younger Dryas Period (YDP, 12,700–11,900 years ago), as
552 described by Cruz et al. (2005), would have contributed to the formation of temporary surface water
553 flows of high energy and transport competence, satisfying the requirements for the formation of
554 ephemeral torrential channels.
555
556 5.6. Phase D: elevation of the Jacaré-Guaçu River level, sand-clay deposition and pedogenesis of
557 hydromorfical soils in the Initial Holocene
558 Phase D is characterized by: (1) rise of the river level by until 7 m in relation to the previous
559 one, and 8.5 m above the current level; and (2) deposition of clayey sand sediments, interspersed
560 with two stability and pedodenesis intervals, under conditions of poor drainage, recorded in two
561 paleosols, with ages that would include the interval of 8.8-8.0 years ago (dates from EU1-2016 –
562 Santos and Cheliz, 2019 - and EU1-2019, Fig.14). The abovementioned interpretations are based on
563 the following data: (1) the 7 m vertical gap between the surface of the gravel in the base of EU1-
564 2010 and that of the abandoned Type II meander recorded at the top of Low Terraces 1a (Fig.4, 5
565 and 13); (2) the association between extensive gleization characterized by the catenas and
566 excavation units in the sandy deposits that cover the gravel of Phase C (figures 5, 6, 7 and 8); (3)
567 the asymmetries of the micromorphological data, that points to the 3Cg horizon linked to thin
568 fractions linked to more abundant evidences (e.g. more common and large coatings involving the
569 grains of quartz - Fig.12C and 12D) of pedogenesis process than 2Cg horizon; and (4) the chemical
570 asymmetries registered in EU1-2019 linked to two distinct horizons (3Cg and 2Cg) of Gleysol that
571 cover the aforementioned gravel (supplementary material 4).
572 The changes of the river level of the Jacaré-Guaçu River in Phase D are different from those
573 suggested for the same time interval in previous studies on fluvial geomorphology in other alluvial
574 plains of the Paraná hydrographic basin (Penteado, 1976; Celarino, 2011, 2015; Dias, 2015;
575 Lupinacci and Souza, 2019; Oliveira et al., 2019). According to the interpretation adopted in this
576 study, the transformation processes of the local landscape would involve elevation of the Jacaré-
577 Guaçu River level in the Early Holocene. In contrast, the abovementioned works suggest the
578 predominance of river incision at least during part of the same time interval for their areas of study.
579
580 5.7. Hydrological and sedimentary transformations of Phase D, and their relationship with
581 environmental changes
582 Phase D would also be characterized by hydrological, climatic and sedimentary changes.
583 Hydrological changes include the passage of ephemeral torrential channels, responsible for the
584 deposition of the gravels of Phase C, to perennial channels, represented by the abandoned Type I
585 meander at the top of the low terraces. However, the fluvial system would still have distinct
586 characteristics from those of the current Jacaré-Guaçu River, such as greater channel width (as
587 evidenced by the planimetric dimensions of the paleochannel of the Type I abandoned meander,
588 four times greater than that of the current Jacaré-Guaçu River; Figures 1C, 3, and 4). Climate and
589 environmental changes include an increase humidity in relation to the exposure time of the deposits
590 of Phase C, as indicated by the ten times lower concentration of feldspars in the sandy sediments of
591 the EU3-2019 horizon in comparison with the sandy matrix of gravel linked to Phase C.
592 The interpretations presented agree with the paleoenvironmental characterization of central
593 São Paulo State (low terraces of the Mogi-Guaçu River) by Sousa (2010) and Celarino (2011), as
594 well as studies of Cheliz et al. (2020), Bissa and Toledo (2015) and Aviles et al. (2019) on São
595 Paulo and Paraná states which also point to an increase in humidity in the Initial Holocene more
596 than 10 ky ago. Also, the growing presence of forests after 10 ka, in contrast to previously dominant
597 grassland, as listed in palynological studies such as that by Souza (2010), could also have
598 contributed to the change from the ephemeral torrential channels of Phase C to the stabilization of
599 river margins and formation of the perennial and meandering river system attributed to Phase D.
600 Sedimentation changes would entail the establishment of a wide alluvial plain, which would have
601 deposited at least a portion of the clayey sands observed in the profiles of EU1-2019 and EU1-2016,
602 and in catenas A, B, C, D and E. This deposition would have contribued to the silting-up of the local
603 valley floor. Also, the transitional period of vegetation adaptation to new climatic conditions, where
604 it would not be as so grasslands dominated as in phase C, but equally would not be characterized
605 yet by the domain of forest associations (Sousa, 2010), may have contributed to the expressive
606 sandy sedimentation documented in phase D. Since the vegetation at that time would be better able
607 to mitigate the impact of raindrops on the soil than in phase C, mitigating the existence of torrential
608 flows, and reducing the capacity of transport of surface runoffs, but still favoring the occurrence of
609 a significant flow of material to the local valley floor, leading to the predominance of sandy
610 sedimentation to replace that of gravels.
611 As for the grain-size bimodality found in the quartz deposits of this phase (Fig.11G and
612 11H), petrographic characterization by Meaulo (2005) and Cheliz (2016) of the sandstones with
613 abundant quartz outcropping in the vicinity (<20 km) of the study area did not found such a pattern.
614 Additionally, we did not identify so conspicuous bimodality during the petrographic
615 characterization of samples taken from the EU2-2017 Pleistocene deposits (Phases A and B, Fig.11),
616 although the mineralogy of the sandy grains is similar to that of the EU1-2019 Holocene deposits
617 (figures 11A, 11B, 12A and 12B). This suggests that the accentuated bimodality of the EU1-2019
618 sediments is not a legacy of older units, and that the Phase D record must have involved a
619 combination of different transport processes, as reinforced by the fact that coarser grains are less
620 rounded than finer grains (textural inversion; Caetano-Chang and Wu, 2005).
621 It is also noteworthy that the sandy sediments covering the gravel in the base of EU1-2019
622 shown trends upward to increase in the coarse sand class proportion and decrease in the dimensions
623 and quantity of the gravels found dispersed in the sand (Supplementary Material 3, and Fig.10). A
624 possible interpretation of such features, which also takes into account the geomorphological context
625 of the area (existence of slopes with colluvium), is the coexistence of gravitational (e.g. cohesive
626 debris flows) and tractive processes at the beginning of Phase D, as well as an increase in the
627 importance of the tractive processes to the detriment of gravitational processes over time. The mud
628 matrix viscosity and strength impart a high transport capacity to cohesive flows, but with low
629 sorting power. On the other hand, traction can facilitate the separation of coarser fractions from
630 pelitics (Collinson et al. 2006), but with the coarser sediment not being effectively remobilized from
631 bedload, and the finer sediments being transported in suspension. In addition, tractive flow would
632 not have the same competence as dense flows to carry larger pebbles, which would explain the
633 decrease in the quantity and size of pebbles between 110 and 43 cm in the EU1-2019 profile. These
634 varying degrees of debris flow for traction can also be linked to the establishment of the meandering
635 alluvial plain. Therefore, at the beginning of Phase D, depositional processes could have included
636 colluviums, which at a later stage would have been covered by sediments from the alluvial plain
637 and exposed to hydromorphic conditions, thereby producing the Gleysol pattern recorded in the
638 profile.
639
640 5.8. Geomorphological significance of human occupation traces linked to phases C and D
641 The stratigraphic distribution of flaked rock artifacts within the deposits of phases C and D
642 assist in the characterization of paleosurfaces formed along the local landscape chages, on which
643 would be occurred human occupation. The artifacts found at top levels of the gravel linked to Phase
644 C—both the documented in this study (figures 7 and 8B, and supplementary material 2) and the
645 similar ones reported in previous investigations (Santos, 2011; Santos and Cheliz, 2017 and
646 2019)—reinforce the interpretation of the boundary between the gravel and the sandy deposits of
647 Phase D as a paleosurface that remained exposed during the Pleistocene–Holocene transition and a
648 part of Early Holocene. The similarity between the lithological types constituting the gravel and
649 those associated with flaked rock artifacts (supplementary material 2) allows suggesting that human
650 groups interacted with the gravel, and selected clasts considered the most suitable for making their
651 artifacts. Likewise, the presence of flaked rock artifacts amid the sandy deposits of Phase D
652 indicates the existence of paleosurfaces in addition to that previously identified between paleosols
653 3Cg and 2Cg. These paleosurfaces would have shorter durations than that one, and not sufficiently
654 long for the development of soils.
655 The heterogeneity recorded in the vertical distribution of the artifacts – including both the
656 registered in the present study involving some dozens of artifacts (figures 7 and 8B, and
657 supplementary material 2), and the similar ones of previous research (Santos, 2011) in a
658 archaeological excavation unit (UE1-2010) that include hundreds of human made lithics, and is
659 placed near the UE1-2019 (Fig.13)- also strengthens the interpretation of the formation of
660 paleosurfaces in the midst of landscape changes during Phases C and D. As the number of artifacts
661 discovered is higher in the upper portion of the gravel, or directly above it, the hypothesis that there
662 was an interval of gravel surface exposition is more likely. During this interval, a more intense use
663 of the gravel as raw material to the production of stone artifacts by early humans groups would be
664 favored, especially in an study area where in situ rocky outcrops are scarce. The smaller number of
665 lithic artifacts found in the sandy deposits linked to Phase D, in turn, reinforces the interpretation
666 that the gravel layer would have been capped by sediments during that time. Consequently, the
667 availability of lithic raw materials at the site would have been limited, contributing to less intense
668 artifact manufacturing activities.
669
670 5.9. Phase E: reduction of the Jacaré-Guaçu River level, lateral migration, and uneven erosion of
671 previous deposits
672 Phase E would involve the lateral migration of the river channel axis over about 100 m,
673 followed by a new horizontal avulsion of 500 m, concomitant with the lowering of the river level by
674 at least 8.5 m. Also, in the end of Phase E, the current floodplain of the Jacaré-Guaçu River would
675 have been established. The 100m of migration distance is inferred from the difference between the
676 position of the abandoned meanders of Type I, at the top of Lower Terraces 1a, and meanders of
677 Type II, on the current floodplain sectioning the low terraces (Figures 1c, 3 and 4). The avulsion of
678 500 m is inferred from the position difference between the previously cited Type II abandoned
679 meanders near to the low terraces and the current river channel (Fig.1c). The lowering of 8.5 m is
680 inferred from the difference between the altitudes of the top of the Type I abandoned meander
681 associated with Low Terraces 1a and those of the current channel. This incision of the Jacaré-Guaçu
682 river is of similar magnitude than those documented in Holocene in other alluvial plains of
683 Southeast Brazil (Celarino et al., 2013; Dias, 2015; Lupinacci and Souza, 2019; Oliveira et al.,
684 2019). This incision of the Jacaré-Guaçu River may have a contribution of changes in climate
685 during Phase E, in a similar way as reported at the Pantanal Basin by Pupim et al. (2017), who
686 linked them to a transition from drier to wetter conditions (increased rainfall). In fact, pendulum
687 effect observed in coatings at the 3Cg horizon of EU1-2019 (Fig.12C and 12D) suggests vadose
688 conditions and therefore water table lower than the present and than that at the time of the gleization
689 of this paleosol. This may be associated with an interval of drier substrate, implying that the
690 associated hydromorphic soil would be polygenetic, and that the river incision on the area would
691 have been affected by alternating dryer conditions than present over the last 8.8 ky, as already
692 indicated by paleonvironmental studies in the center and east São Paulo State (Souza, 2010; Aviles
693 et al. 2019).
694 During this incision of the river channel, part of the deposits related to phases A, B, C, and
695 D would have been eroded, contributing to the establishment of the steep inclinations that
696 characterize the Borders of Low Terrace 1a and the cuts present in Transect A of the catenas, where
697 areas less affected by this erosion are represented by Low Terraces 1a. The uneven erosion linked to
698 the river incision would have contributed to differentiated exposure of deposits formed in the
699 previous phases, as observed in UEs 1-2019 and 1-2017. Therefore, in Low terrace 2a, more
700 affected by erosion, Pleistocene deposits and soils (phases A and B) would have been [almost]
701 exhumed. Thus, in these terraces there would be a dissociation between relief forms and associated
702 sediments and soils: the forms would be linked to Holocene erosional events, and sediments and
703 soils to older processes, from the Late Pleistocene. In contrast, in Lower Terraces 1a, higher and
704 less affected by erosion, deposits and soils formed during the Pleistocene–Holocene transition and
705 Early Holocene (phases C and D) would be close to the surface (figures 13 and 14). The resulting
706 configuration is different from that documented in previous geomorphological studies on the
707 alluvial plains of southeast Brazil (Dias, 2015; Lupinacci and Souza, 2019; Oliveira et al., 2019),
708 which reported more recent deposits in the lower terraces, and older deposits in the higher.
709 The transformations reported in Phase E would also have occurred in the context of changes
710 in local hydrological patterns, from perennial channels up to four times wider than the current ones
711 (as evidenced by the abandoned Type I meanders) to channels with widths and axes of dimensions
712 similar to those of the current Jacaré-Guaçu River (as evidenced by the abandoned Type II
713 meanders distributed throughout the current floodplain). The decrease in the width of meandering
714 channels has also been recorded in other Holocene river plains in the lowlands of South America,
715 such as in the Pantanal sedimentary Basin in the midwest Brazil (Merino et al., 2013), which points
716 to changes in hydrological conditions controlled by climatic factors. Within this context, the
717 reduction in the dimensions of meandering channels in the study area could be linked to the
718 stabilization of climatic patterns in the central São Paulo State during the Late Holocene, as pointed
719 out in pedological (Celarino et al., 2013) and palynological (Souza, 2010; Aviles et al. 2019) studies.
720
721 6. Conclusions
722 In the current Jacaré-Guaçu River low terraces area the deposition of sandy and gravel
723 sediments as well as the pedogenesis and the ascension of the river level were not linear or uniform,
724 but with multiple pauses, leading to the formation of seven paleosurfaces, including those
725 associated to five paleosols, since the Eemian. The formation of 1.5 m thick deposits between the
726 Late Pleistocene and the Pleistocene–Holocene transition occurred under the influence of climatic
727 changes, from hot and humid around 115 ka to drier than current conditions around 12.4 ka. The
728 rise in the river level between the Pleistocene–Holocene transition and the end of Early Holocene
729 occurred simultaneously with an increase in the water table. The rise of river level between the
730 Pleistocene–Holocene transition and Early Holocene is also related with the change from torrential
731 ephemeral channels to meandering perennial channels with dimensions up to four times larger than
732 those of current river systems. Early Amerindian populations interacted with the landscape changes,
733 since the Pleistocene–Holocene transition. The distribution of material records (flaked rock artifacts)
734 of this period contribute to the demarcation of corresponding paleosurfaces in the context of
735 changes in the deposicional process and river level during the Early Holocene. The environmental
736 changes also contributed to the alternation between increased and decreased artifact making by
737 early human groups throughout the Early Holocene, as they adapted to the greater or lesser
738 availability of raw materials for rock artifacts controlled by the exposure and covering of the
739 gravels deposited by ephemeral torrential channels.
740 From the Middle Holocene, the decrease in the river level by 8 m was accompanied by
741 changes in perennial channels to hydrological regimes and dimensions similar to the current ones. It
742 involved erosion of a part of the previous deposits, and horizontal migration of the Jacaré-Guaçu
743 River 600 m to the north. The mechanism of terrace formation was such that parts of the soil
744 profiles formed previously in Early Holocene and Late Pleistocene were stripped off. Thus, terraces
745 at lower altitudes and closer to the current floodplain are associated with older (Pleistocene)
746 deposits and paleosols that formed under conditions of good drainage; in contrast, terraces located
747 at higher altitudes are associated with more recent (Holocene) deposits and paleosols that formed
748 under conditions of poor drainage and hydromorphism. This constructs a scenario of relationships
749 between forms and associated materials different from those usually characterized for alluvial plains
750 in southeast Brazil. In addition, it introduces uncertainties in the usual associations and
751 extrapolations between altimetry, landforms, and age of deposits and soils commonly considered in
752 fluvial landscape studies. Therefore, the findings reinforce the need for detailed geomorphological,
753 pedological and chronological landscape evolution research over small areas in addition to studies
754 aimed at listing predominant fluvial trends at large scales.
755
756 Author contributions
757 PMC conceived the research idea, coordinated and worked on the field activies; contributed to the
758 geomorphological, sedimentological and pedological data and analyses, contributed to the
759 archaeological data, worked in the micromorphological and petrographic data and analyses, support
760 the OSL data acquisition and analyses, and prepared the text and figures of the manuscript. FSBL
761 contributed to the geomorphological and pedological data and analyses, worked in the field actives,
762 worked in the micromophological data and analyses, and revised and improved the manuscript. JR
763 worked in the acquisition of data of the field actives, contributed to the preparation of the figures,
764 contributed to the archaeological data and revised and improved the manuscript. PCFS contributed
765 to the petrographic and micromorphological data and analyses; to the sedimentological, pedological
766 and geomorphological analyses; and revised and improved the manuscript text. FP contributed to
767 the OSL data and analyses, to the geomorphological and sedimentological analyses; and revised and
768 improved the manuscript text. TD contributed to the OSL data and analyses, and revised and
769 improved the manuscript. RR worked in the field activies, contributed to the archaeological data
770 and analyses, and revised and improved the manuscript.
771
772 Declaration of competing interests
773 The author declare no conflicts of interest.
774
775 Data availability
776 Data are avaliable in the main body of the article and in Supplementary Data.
777
778 Acknowledgments
779 We thank Astolfo Araujo, Araporã Foundation group Daniele Santos, Fabio Grossi dos
780 Santos, João Carlos Moreno de Sousa, Gabriela Sartori and Marcelo Delillo for the joint
781 development of part of the field activities. We thank Astolfo Araujo for integrating a portion of the
782 field activities in which the data discussed here were obtained from the thematic project " A
783 ocupação paleoíndia no estado de São Paulo" (FAPESP process number 13/13794-5). We thank
784 IPHAN for the authorizations for new excavation at the site, obtained on behalf of archaeologist
785 Robson Rodrigues. We thank Edison Freitas and family for the authorization for excavations on
786 their property. We thank Ricardo Bastos and Helena Bastos for the accommodation during part of
787 the field activities carried out. We also thank André Sawakuchi and Luciana Nogueira for the
788 opportunity of having the samples analyzed by the OSL method in LEGAL (IG/USP)
789
790 Funding
791 This research was supported by the Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e
792 Tecnológico (308772/2018-0 process number), by the Fundação Araporã and by the Departamento
793 de Geografia (“Departament of Geography”) of the Instituto de Geociências da Universidade
794 Estadual de Campinas (IG-UNICAMP).
795
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